32

3.0. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1. Fish diseases

Fish diseases are mostly spread in to two major ways, they are

horizontal spread and vertical spread. Horizontal spreading is mainly

divided into direct and indirect contact by water, food, living vectors and

contaminated objectives. Vertical spread is transfer from parents to young

fish (Fig 1.).

Fig.1 Methods of spread diseases

Marine fisheries and aquaculture contribute to national productivity,

socio-economic development and renewable aquatic living resources. Fish

and fisheries are pivotal in food security, meeting social objectivities,

providing employment and contribution to large export earnings. However,

 

 

33

diseases cause the largest economic losses in aquaculture. Fishes are infected

by bacteria, fungus, virus and protozoan etc. Diseases at time assume the

magnitudes of epidemics. Infections are more liable to occur in ponds which

are heavily stocked since congestion provides a favourable situation for

rapid spread of infection among the fish. Large scale mortality of fish often

occurs in pond and tanks due to parasitic infection like fungal, bacteria,

protozoan, worms, crustaceans and algal bloom etc. Water is mainly

responsible for much kind of fish diseases and the vital function of fish

movement, feeding, digestion, assimilation, growth, responses to stimuli and

reproduction depend on water. Parasitic infection and diseases are some of

the factors hindering high productivity in fish farming (Doglel et al., 1961;

Kayis et al., 2009). Infectious disease is one of the most important diseases in

fish and cause economic loss in many aspects. It is caused by bacteria, fungi

and virus and parasites (Plumb, 1999). These pathogens are generally found

on fish skin, gill, water and surrounding environment.

3.1.1. Parasitic diseases

Parasites are the most diverse and common pathogens the aqua

culturist may likely encounter and parasitic diseases are very common in fish

all over the world and are of particular importance in the tropics (Roberts

and Janovy, 2000) and Protozoan among other parasites cause immeasurable

 

 

34

damage to the fishing industry (Doglel et al., 1961). Fish parasites are

numerous and many phyla in the animal kingdom have representative that

are parasitic to fish. There are by far more parasite species that infect fish

than any other group of infectious disease (Blazer, 1996). Fish parasites result

in huge economic losses as they increase mortality; increase farm inputs via

increased treatment expenses and cause reduction in growth rate and

possibly weight loss during and after the period of parasitic disease

outbreak. All these militate against expansion of aquaculture (Kayis et al.,

2009).

Mariculture also largely affected by parasites such as protozoans

(Flagelletes and ciliates), trematodes and crustaceans, mainly copepods,

branchiurans and isopods. Various fish species reared in this culture salmon,

rainbow and brook trout, eel, sole, Mugil cephalus and Tilapia sp. etc.

Many researchers indentified that, the Menhaden and other fish

develop ulcerous skin lesions that have previously been attributed to recent

activity by the toxic dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscicida (Burkholder et al., 1992;

1995; 2001). The characteristic skin lesions in Menhaden are often located

near the anus, and appear as deeply penetrating circular lesions with

extensive dermatitis, necrosis, myositis and granulomatous inflammation

associated with myonecrosis.

 

 

35

Gopalan et al. (1980) reported that, the Lagenidium marina and

Siropidium parasitica infection in P.monodon larvae at nauplii, zoea and mysis

stages. Fusariosis and black gill disease caused by Fusarium sp. may affect all

development stages of penaeid shrimp. Fusarium sp. is opportunistic

pathogens that may lead to high mortalities (90%). Omeji et al. (2010)

reported that, one hundred and twenty fish were collected from cultured

environment and wild. Of these, 46% parasite from pond and 44% parasite

isolated from gill. Moreover, live fishes from both sources had more

protozoan parasites than the dead fishes. Many researchers have reported

the infection of the skin, fin and gills of fish by protozoan parasites (Emere

and Egbe, 2006; Richard, 2003; Hines and Spira, 1974).

Nyaku et al. (2007) reported highest load of protozoan parasites in the

gill of Synodontis clarias. Investigation by Roger and Gainer (1975) and

Chakroff (1976) had shown the gills to be infected by different protozoan

parasites. According to Robert and Somerville (1984), the sieving ability of

the gill rakers may help to trap some organisms and this could be

contributed to the presence of the protozoan parasites there. The heavy load

of parasites on the gills relative to other parts of the body impaired the gills

from functioning well as an organ of respiration, hence death could result.

This agrees with the reported works of Borg (1960), Omoniyi et al. (2002),

 

 

36

Rahman et al. (2002) and Aksit and Falakali (2007) who reported mortality in

fishes with heavy parasite load on the gills.

The most commonly encountered fish parasites are protozoa (Klinger

and Francis - Floyd, 2000) and protozoan parasites cause serious losses in

fishpond and wild, their lesions could render the fish unmarketable. In

addition, fish carrying protozoan parasites are capable of passing on the

infective disease to man after its consumption. Protozoan parasites, typically,

do not required intermediate hosts to reproduce (direct life cycle) and are

thus capable of building up to very high numbers when fish are crowded

causing loss, debilitation and mortality (Klinger and Francis - Floyd, 2000).

Most fish in the wild are likely to be infested with parasites, but in the great

majority of cases, no significant harm to the host may be ensued or

identified, thus, there are only few reports of parasites causing mortality or

serious damage to the fish populations (Roberts, 2001). Fishermen or

consumers often observe parasites in wild fish only when they are so

obvious as to lead to rejection of fish (Roberts, 1995). In culture fish

population on the other hand, parasites often cause serious outbreak of

diseases (Kayis et al., 2009). The presence of dense populations of fish kept in

particular environmental conditions may favour certain parasites so that the

 

 

37

parasite population increases to a very high level (Rintamaki and Valtonen,

1997).

3.1.2. Fungal diseases

Fish fungus is commonly known as water mold or oomycete which

is found in soil, fresh water and estuarine water. Water mold is in family:

Saprolegniaceae and there are three important genera, Saprolegnia,

Aphanomyces and Achyla causing fungal infection in fish (Udomkusonsri

et al., 2007). Any kind and age of fish could be infected with water mold,

including fresh water and estuarine fish (Noga, 1993). Microbial diseases

have been reported to be a major limiting factor in production both in wild

and cultured shrimp (Lightener et al., 1983). Overstreet (1983) estimated that,

the loss of cultured shrimp due to parasites and diseases varies from 20 to

50% in larval stage and 20% post larval stage. Fungal hypae can grow in the

muscular tissues adjacent to the gill, filamentous, kidney, pancreas, liver and

muscular layer of intestinal wall and the kidney in particular showed

granulomatous responses to the fungal elements (Hanjavanit et al., 1997).

Fungus not only infected in cultured fish and also caused enormous effect on

ornamental fish. Fungal infections are generally restricted to chronic, steady

loss (Bruno and Wood, 1994). Hatai and Hoshiai (1994) indicated that,

annual mortality rate of 50% in salmon due to the fungus, Saprolegnis

 

 

38

parasitica and 50% annual losses have also been reported in eel fish, Anguilla

anguilla cultured in Japan.

Lilley et al. (1992) noticed that, the severe periodic outbreaks in

freshwater fishes, as well as wild estuarine fishes, in many countries of South

and South East Asia. Typically affected fish have one or more large dermal

ulcers with varying degrees of destruction of underlying tissues and

mortality rates are often high. In the Philippines, periodic outbreaks of

epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) have occurred since 1985; many fish

genera, including Mugil, Anus and Scatophagus are affected (Llobrera and

Gacutan, 1987; Bondad Reantaso et al., 1992). Roberts et al. (1993) reported

that, the spread of both EUS and RSD suggest involvement of one or more

primary infectious agents to fishes. Moreover, fungi cause many of the

diseases in fish and shows the variety of clinical signs such as Saprolegniasis

(George et al., 1999), icthyosporidium (Gustafson and Rucker, 1956),

branchiomycesis (Rehulka, 1991).

3.1.3. Viral diseases

Fishes are affected by many viral infection namely lymphocystis,

herpesvirus salmonis, channel catfish virus, epithelioma papillosum

(fish pox diseases), infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN), viral

hemorrhagic septicaemia, spring viremia of carp (SVC) and swim bladder

 

 

39

infection virus (SBI), infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN). Lymphocystis is a

viral disease caused by Iridovirus. Clinically, fish are presented with variably

sized white to yellow cauliflower like growths on the skin, fins and gills. The

virus infects dermal fibroblasts. Herpesvirus salmonis, channel catfish virus,

epithelioma papillosum diseases are caused by Herpesvirus. Lymphocystis is

observed in rainbow trout fish expose the symptoms are lethargic with

prominent gill pallor. Mucoid feacl casts are commonly observed from vent

and Hemorrhage in eyes and base of fins. Channel catfish virus is seriously

affected the fry or fingerling channel catfish during the summer, fish pox

disease is caused by H. cyprini (Robert, 1989).

3.1.4. Bacterial diseases

Bacteria are important pathogens for both cultivated and wild fish

and are responsible for serious economic losses. Some bacteria cause only

surface diseases as skin or gill infections, especially flexibacteria, but some

inflict systemic disease (Inglis et al., 2001). The prevalent fish diseases in fish

farms are usually initiated by bacteria. There are basically two types of

bacteria producing disease obligate pathogens and facultative pathogens.

Facultative pathogens can survive indefinitely in water and, when

environmental conditions are conducive, infectious fish diseases may spread.

Many potentially pathogenic bacteria of fish normally exist in a commensal

 

 

40

association with the host or live free in the environment. Both these types of

bacteria become pathogenic when the fish is immuno compromised by some

form of stressor (Kirjusina et al., 2007). Fish bacterial infections can occur as

a bacteremia, which implies the presence of bacterial organisms in the

bloodstream without clinical signs. Others occur as a septi-cemia, which

indicates that, bacteria and toxins are actually present in the circulatory

system and usually precipitate disease and clinical signs. Inflammation,

hemorrhage and necrosis are clinical signs associated with septi-cemia.

Gram-negative bacteria can produce either exotoxins or endotoxins, which

consist of proteolytic enzymes that kill host cells and cause necrosis or can,

make blood vessels more porous and cause hemorrhage (Kirjusina et al.,

2007).

Many of the fish bacterial diseases are furunculosis and

myxobacteriosis of salmonids and aeromonosis of carp (Kirjusina et al., 2007),

enteric red mouth diseases (Del cerro et al., 2002), tail rot disease (Briede and

Medne, 2004; Cipriano and Bullock, 2001; Kirjusina et al., 2007),

Haemorrhagic septi-caemia, infectious dropsy, tropical ulcerative disease

and fin rot caused by Aeromonas hydrophila (Vasudeva Rao and Chakrabarthi,

2004; Yu et al., 2007). Pathogenic bacteria can spread disease throughout the

fish body if they are absorbed through the gills, gut and skin. This is known

 

 

41

as a systemic infection. Other bacterial infections cause localised surface

disease such as fin rot and ulcers. In general, there are four types of bacterial

infections such as fin rot (usually resulting from environmental stress),

bacterial body ulcers (open, shallow to deep, lesions on the fish’s body),

bacterial gill disease (in which the gills are the primary target), systemic

bacterial disease (in which bacteria invade the fish’s body and damage

internal organs).

Bacterial Gill Disease (BGD) is a common external infection of

hatchery reared salmonids and occasionally of warm water species reared

under intensive conditions. As defined by Wood (1974), the name of the

disease describes the clinical signs of bacterial infections on the gills. The

etiological agent of the disease is considered to be one or more species of

filamentous bacteria including Flavobactwium sp. as described by

Wakabayashi et al. (1980). BGD is characterized by the presence of large

numbers of filamentous bacteria on the gills accompanied by fusing and

clubbing of the gill filaments.

Bacterial Kidney Disease (BKD) is one of the major bacterial diseases

in fresh water fishes. Diplobacilli and lactobacilli are the major etiological

agent for fishes. It was first described in the early 1930’s in wild Atlantic

salmon, Salmo salar L., caught in two Scottish rivers. The disease, initially

 

 

42

recorded in freshwater situations, is now recognised as a costly problem in

the seawater farming of salmonids. To date, natural outbreaks of BKD have

been reported only in salmonids. Although BKD occurs mainly in

freshwater, significant mortality also occurs in saltwater (Banner et al., 1983).

As a consequence of infection, juvenile anadromous salmonids are unable to

acclimatise to seawater and die. The mortality of infected smolts of Coho

salmon was respectively of 17.2% in freshwater and 4% in saltwater (Fryer

and Sanders, 1981). Even if salmon are lightly infected when they enter

saltwater, the disease continues to progress and deaths occur (Banner et al.,

1983).

Meyer and Bullock (1973) described that, the edwardsiellosis is an

important disease in various fish species; clinical manifestation of

Edwardsiella tarda infections in channel catfish, in tilapia (Kubota et al., 1981),

in turbot, Scophthalmus maximus (L.) (Padros et al., 2006), Korean catfish (Yu et

al., 2009 and 2010), Mullets (Mugil cephalus) (Kusuda et al., 1976). Among the

most important strategies for control of aquaculture infectious diseases is to

alleviate the predisposing causes of the disease (Noga, 2000). In groupers,

gram negative bacteria, especially Vibrio parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus,

cause hemorrhagic septicemia, particularly in nursery and grow-out cage

systems. Bacterial species such as Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus

 

 

43

aureus, Serratia salinaria, Alcaligen faecalis and Vibrio parahaemolyticus

isolates are forming many of the diseases in the group of grouper fish

(Palavesam et al., 2006).

The present study is mooted out to find out the most potential

microbial strains from sponges for the treatment of fish diseases.

Antibacterial activity of bacteria and fungi against fish pathogenic (Table. 1)

diseases other than the sponges have been well documented. Recently,

sponges and their associated microbes have been recognised as a source of

bioactive secondary metabolites (Table 2) showing potential bioactivity

against several pathogenic organisms. But, studies concerned with the

antibacterial potential of sponge associated microorganisms are still lacking

and hence the present study has been undertaken.

Table 1. Works concerned with the fish diseases and control

Year Author(s) Aspect(s) studied

1967 Ajmal and Hobbs Species of Corynebacterium and Pasteurella isolated from diseased salmon

1968 Akazaka Bacterial disease of marine fishes

1970 Bullock and Snieszko Fin rot, coldwater disease, and peduncle disease of salmonid fish

1971 Bullock et al. Bacterial diseases of fishes

 

 

44

1978 Ahne Uptake and multiplication of Spring Viremia of Carp

1978 Lim and Lovell Pathology of vitamin C deficiency syndrome in channel catfish

1978 Bucke Bacterial kidney disease (BKD) of fish

1978 Ashburner Management and diseases of hatchery fish

1982 Farkas et al. Antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria isolated from water and fish

1982 Durve and Lovell Vitamin C and disease resistance in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus

1982 Cone A Lactobacillus sp. from diseased female rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

1982 Austin Taxonomy of bacteria isolated from a coastal, marine fish rearing unit

1983 Banner et al. Renibacterium salmoninarum as a cause of mortality of salmon in salt water

1984 Robert and Somerville Disease and health control of farmed fish, shellfish and crustacean in Europe

1984 Austin The control of bacterial fish diseases by antimicrobial compounds

1984 Hiu et al. Lactobacillus piscicola, a new species from Salmonid fish

1985 Austin Antimicrobial compounds for the control of bacterial kidney disease in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri

1985 Herman et al. Post spawning mortalities of rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri associated with Lactobacillus

1985 Pradeep and Lakshmanaperumalsamy

Antibiotic sensitivity in Vibrio parahaemolyticus

 

 

45

1986 Bruno and Munro Observations on Renibacterium salmoninarum on the salmonid egg

1986 Bullock et al. Columnaris disease of fishes

1986 Noga and Dykstra Oomycete fungi associated with ulcerative mycosis in menhaden

1986 Banner et al. Occurrence of salmonid fish infected with Renibacterium salmoninarum in the Pacific ocean

1987 Austin and Austin Diseases in farmed and wild fish

1988 Bullock and Herman

Bacterial kidney disease of salmonid fishes caused by Renibacterium salmoninarum

1988 Wolf Fish Viruses and Fish Viral Diseases

1989 Tsoumas et al. Aeromonas salmonicida, development of resistance of 4 quinolone antimicrobials

1989 Frerichs Bacterial kidney disease of marine fish

1989 Maeda and Nogami Some aspects of the biocontrolling method in aquaculture

1990 Baticados et al. Studies on the chemical control of luminous bacteria Vibrio harveyi and Vibrio splendidus isolated from diseased Penaeus monodon larvae and rearing water

1990 Rajandra Prevention and control of fish diseases by herbal medicine

1990 Shangliang et al. The antibacterial and antiviral activity of herbal extracts for fish pathogens

1990 Rodgers Immersion vaccination for control of fish furunculosis

 

 

46

1990 Song and Sung Enhancement of growth in tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon by bacterin prepared from Vibrio vulnificus

1991 Dixon Antibiotic resistance of bacterial fish pathogens

1991 McPhearson et al. Antibiotic resistance in gram negative bacteria from culture cat fish and aquaculture ponds

1991 Noga et al. Dermatological diseases affecting the fishes

1991 Nadia Mahfouz Round worms and cestodes of some fresh water fish

1992 Austin et al. Inhibition of bacterial fish pathogens by Tetraselmis suecica

1992 Abd El - Wahed Epizootiological studies on some gastrointestinal helminthes infestation in fresh water fish

1992 Beacham and Evelyn Genetic variation in resistance of chinook salmon to vibriosis, furunculosis and bacterial kidney disease

1992a Baya et al. Bacillus cereus, a pathogen for striped bass

1992b Baya et al. Phenotypic and pathobiological properties of Corynebacterium aquaticum isolated from diseased striped bass

1994 Goodwin et al. Bacillus mycoides - a bacterial pathogen of channel catfish

1994 Karunasagar et al. Mass mortality of P. monodon larvae due to antibiotic resistant Vibrio harveyi infection

 

 

47

1994 Nomura Bacterial disease of freshwater fishes in Hokkaido

1994 Smith et al. Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agent used in fish farming

1995 Burkholder et al. Fish killed by toxic dinoflagellate

1995 Angka et al. Some virulence characteristics of Aeromonas hydrophila in catfish Clarias gariepinus

1996 Bertone et al. Vibrio carchariae associated with a chronic skin ulcer on a shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus

1996 Yoshimizu Disease problems of salmonid fish in Japan

1997 Direkbusarakom et al. Efficacy of guava Psidium guajava extract against some fish and shrimp pathogenic agents

1997 Abraham et al.

Pathogenicity and antibiotic sensitivity of luminous Vibrio harveyi isolated from diseased penaeid shrimp

1997 Herwing et al. Antibiotic resistant bacteria in surfacial sediments near salmon net cage farms

1998 Direkbusarakom et al. Efficacy of Thai traditional herb extracts against fish and shrimp pathogenic bacteria

1998 Mora et al. Biological control of Vibrio alginolyticus

1998 Balagurunathan and Subramanian

In vitro inhibition of fish pathogens by an antibiotic from Streptomyces griseobrunneus

1998 Abd El Hady Some parasitic infection of fishes in fresh and polluted water sources

 

 

48

1998 Ford et al. Control of furunculosis and enteric redmouth disease in sea run salmon broodstock in the Connecticut and Merrimack rivers

1998 Wiklund and Dalsgaard Occurence and significance of a typical Aeromonas salmonicida in non-salmonid and salmonid fish species

1998 Alderman and Hastings Antibiotic use in aquaculture

1999 Naviner et al. Antibacterial activity of the marine diatom Skeletonema costatum against aquaculture pathogens

1999 Uma et al. Effect of a probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum on disease resistance of Penaeus indicus larvae

1999 Gram et al. Inhibition of Vibrio anguillarum by Pseudomonas fluorescens

1999 Blazer et al. Aphanomyces as a cause of ulcerative skin lesions of menhaden

1999 Stevenson Bacteria diseases in cold water aquaculture

1999 Bromage et al. Streptococcus iniae, a bacterial infection in barramundi Lates calcarifer

2000 Verschuere et al. Probiotic bacteria as biological control agent in aquaculture

2000 Lim et al. Interaction between dietary levels of iron and vitamin C on growth, haematology, immune response and resistance of channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus to Edwardsiella ictaluri challenge

2000 Darwish et al. Histopathology and pathogenesis of experimental infection with Edwardsiella tarda in channel catfish

 

 

49

2000 Noga Fish disease diagnosis and treatment

2000 Dykstra and Kane Pfiesteria piscicida and ulcerative mycosis of Atlantic Menhaden

2000 Park et al. Isolation of bacteriophages specific to a fish pathogen, Pseudomonas plecoglossicida, as a candidate for disease control

2000 Madsen et al. Treatment of trichodiniasis in eel Anguilla anguilla reared in recirculation systems in Denmark

2000 Ackerman et al. Physiological and immunological effects of adjuvanted Aeromonas salmonicida vaccines on juvenile rainbow trout

2001 Jones et al. Clinical infection in cod Gadus morhua L. in Scotland by Vibrio anguillarum

2001 Patil et al. Control of bacterial pathogens, associated with fish diseases, by antagonistic marine actinomycetes isolated from marine sediments

2001 Altinok et al. Detection of Yersinia ruckerim rainbow trout blood by the polymerase chain reaction

2001 Jung et al. Formaldehyde residues in formalin treated olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus and black rockfish Sebastes schlegeli

2001 Anbarasu and Chandran Effect of ascorbic acid on the immune response of the catfish, Mystus gulio

2001 Spanggaard et al. The probiotic potential against vibriosis of the indigenous microflora of rainbow trout

 

 

50

2001 Buchmann et al. Host responses against the fish parasitizing ciliate Ichthyophthirius multifilii

2001 Cipriano and Bullock Furunculosis and other diseases caused by Aeromonas salmonicida

2002 Jayanth et al. Isolation of marine bacteria inhibitory to shrimp bacterial pathogens

2002 Kent and Poppe Infectious diseases of coldwater fish in marine and brackish Water

2002 Citarasu et al. Developing Artemia enriched herbal diet for producing quality larvae in Penaeus monodon, Fabricius

2002 Kelehom Secondary metabolites from marine microorganisms for effective disease control

2002 Cipriano et al. A brook trout fishery selected for resistance to furunculosis

2003 Antychowicz et al. Infection of African catfish Clarias gariepinus in an intensive culture

2003 Citarasu et al.

Influence of the antibacterial herbs, Solanum trilobatum, Andrographis paniculata and Psoralea corylifolia on the survival, growth and bacterial load of Penaeus monodon post larvae

2003 Pinkate et al. Effect of different culture systems on some water parameters and parasitic prevalence in tilapia Oreochromis niloticus

2003 Darwish Amoxicillin for the control of Streptococccus iniae infection in sunshine bass

 

 

51

2003 Bakopoulos et al. Vaccination of sea bass, Dicentrachus labrax (L.), against Photobacterium damsel subsp. piscicida using novel vaccine mixtures

2003 Richard Other Ectoparasites Infecting Fish: Copepods, Branchiurans, isopods, Mites and bivalves

2003 Lampel et al. Characterization of Vibrio fluvialis like strains Aeromonas salmonicida isolates from diseased limp lobster

2003 McGinnis et al. Etiological agent of enteric septicaemia in channel catfish

2003a Nakai and Park Bacteriophage therapy of infectious diseases in aquaculture

2003b Nakai and Park Bacteriophage control of Pseudomonas plecoglossicida infection in ayu Plecoglossus altivelis

2003 Dugenci et al. Some medicinal plants as immuno stimulant for fish

2003 Lillehaug et al. Epidemiology of bacterial diseases in Norwegian aquaculture

2004 Abraham Antibacterial marine bacterium deter luminous vibriosis in shrimp larvae

2004 Esteve Gassent et al. Efficacy of a bivalent vaccine against eel diseases caused by Vibrio vulnificus

2004 Buller Bacteria from fish and other aquatic animals

2004 Joseph selvin and Lipton Dendrilla nigra, a marine sponge, as potential source of antibacterial substances for managing shrimp diseases

2004 Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury

Sensitivity of fish pathogenic bacteria to various medicinal herbs

 

 

52

2004 Johnson et al. Infection experiments with Aphanomyces invadans in four species of estuarine fish

2004 Abutbul et al. Use of Rosmarinus officinalis as a treatment against Streptococcus iniae in tilapia Oreochromis sp.

2004 Ibtsam Prevailing parasitic diseases among cultured tilapia fish

2004 Direkbusarakom Application of medicinal herbs to aquaculture in Asia

2005 Afonso et al. Side effects in sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax L. due to intraperitoneal vaccination against vibriosis and pasteurellosis

2005 Turan and Akyurt Effects of red clover extract on the growth performance and body composition of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus

2005 Sasmal et al. Effect of garlic (Allium sativum) extract on the growth and disease resistance of gold fish Carassius auratus

2005 Borisutpeth et al. Antibacterial activity of Thai medicinal plant extracts on Aeromonas hydrophila and Streptococcus agalactiaee isolated from diseased tilapia

2005 Chitmanat et al. The use of crude extracts from traditional medicinal plants to eliminate Trichodina sp. in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings

2005 Owais et al. Antibacterial efficacy of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) an indigenous medicinal plant against experimental Murine salmonellosis

2005 Abutbul et al. Screening of desert plants against bacterial pathogens in fish

 

 

53

2005 Brunt and Austin Use of a probiotic to control lactococcosis and streptococcosis in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss

2006 Alcaide et al.

Occurrence of Edwardsiella tarda in wild European eels Anguilla anguilla from Mediterranean Spain

2006 Bansemir et al. Screening of seaweeds for antibacterial activity against fish pathogenic bacteria

2006 Coyne et al. Winter ulcer disease of Atlantic salmon

2006 Bhuvaneswari and Balasundaram

Traditional Indian herbal extracts used in vitro against growth of the pathogenic bacteria Aeromonas hydrophila

2006 Booth et al. Intracellular replication of Edwardsiella ictaluri in channel catfish

2006 Bricknell et al. Diseases of gadoid fish in cultivation

2006 Colakoglu et al. Occurrence of Vibrio sp. and Aeromonas sp. in shellfish

2006 Elsayed et al. Isolation of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus from muskellunge

2006 Angelidis Efficacy of a Listonella anguillarum (syn. Vibrio anguillarum) vaccine for juvenile sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax

2006 Schulze et al. Bacterial diversity in a marine hatchery: Balance between pathogenic and potentially probiotic bacterial strains

2006 Ramaiah Fungal diseases on marine fish, prawn, coral and algae

2006 Douglas and Yarbrough The occurrence of fin rot in mullet Mugil cephalus

 

 

54

2006 Burke and Rodgers Pathogenic bacteria associated with the occurrence of red spot in sea mullet, Mugil cephalus L.

2006 Giles et al. Fin erosion in mullet exposed to crude oil

2006 Vinod et al. Isolation of Vibrio harveyii bacteriophage with potential for biocontrol of vibriosis in hatchery environment

2007 Sahu et al. Effect of Allium sativum on the immunity and survival of Labeo rahita infected with Aeromonas hydrophila

2007 Groocock et al. Detection of viral hemorrhagic septicemia in round gobies in New York

2007 Pirarat et al. Lymphoid apoptosis in Edwardsiella tarda septicemia in tilapia Oreochromis niloticus

2007 Matte et al. Virulence factors of Vibrio metschnikovii strains isolated from Brazil

2007 Balcazar et al. Quantitative detection of Aeromonas salmonicida in fish tissue by real-time PCR busing self-quenched, fluorogenic primers

2007 Jeffrey et al. Isolation of a cyprinid herpesvirus (CyHV-2) from goldfish (Carassius auratus)

2007 Prakash Williams et al. Antimicrobial activity of tissue and associated bacteria from benthic sea anemone Stichodactyla haddoni against fish pathogens

 

 

 

55

2007 Oladosu et al. Isolation and pathogenicity of a Bacillus sp. associated with a septicaemic condition in some tropical fresh water fish species

2008 Aly et al. Bacillus subtilis and Lactobacillus acidophilus as potential probiotics on the immune response and resistance of Tilapia nilotica Oreochromis niloticus to challenge infections

2008 Siri et al. Antibacterial and phytochemical studies of 20 Thai medicinal plants against catfish-infectious bacteria, Aeromonas caviae

2008 Choudhury et al. Inhibition of actinomycetes to histamine producing bacteria associated with Indian mackerel fish Rastrelliger kanagurta

2008 Mousa et al. Effect of neem leaf extract on fresh water fishes and zooplankton

2008 Punitha et al. Immunostimulating influence of herbal biomedicines on nonspecific immunity in grouper Epinephelus tauvina juvenile against Vibrio harveyi infection

2008 Verma Fungus disease in fish, diagnosis and treatment

2008 Feist and Longshaw Pathology of parasitic infections in fish

2008 Stone et al. Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia in farmed rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

2008 El-sheekh et al. Antimicrobial activity of the cyanobacteria Anabaena wisconsinense and Oscillatoria cuviceps against pathogens of fish in aquaculture

 

 

56

2008 Kent et al. Control of pathogens and infectious diseases in fish

2008 Dubber and Harder Extracts of Ceramium rubrum, Mastocarpus stellatus and Laminaria digitata inhibit growth of marine and fish pathogenic bacteria at ecologically realistic concentrations

2008 Abdel - Raouf and Ibraheem

Antibiotic activity of two Anabaena species against four fish pathogenic Aeromonas species

2009 Reid et al. Identification of Vibrio logei, Vibrio anguillarum and Vibrio splendidus pathogens from cod larvae

2009 Rattanachaikunsopon and Phumkhachorn

Protective effect of clove oil-supplemented fish diets on experimental Lactococcus garvieae infection in tilapia

2009 Turker et al. Sensitivity of bacteria isolated from fish to some medicinal plants

2009 Li and Tsai Transgenic microalgae as a non-antibiotic bactericide producer to defend against bacterial pathogen infection in the fish digestive tract

2010 Rattanachaikunsopon and Phumkhachorn

Potential of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) oil to control Streptococcus iniae infection in tilapia Oreochromis niloticus

2010 Saravanakumar et al. Control of fish bacterial pathogens by antagonistic marine actinomycetes isolated from gulf of Mannar coast

2010 Al- Sunaiher et al. Association of Vibrio species with diseased cultured fishes

2010 Omeji et al. Common protozoan parasites of Heterobranchus longifilis from the wild and cultured environment

 

 

57

2010 Khairy and El-Kassas, Active substance from some blue green algal species used as antimicrobial agents to two fungal fish pathogens

2010a Ravikumar et al. Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants against isolated ornamental fish pathogens

2010 Dhayanithi et al. Effect of neem extract against the bacteria isolated from marine fish

2010 Rahaman et al. Tail and fin rot diseases of Indian major carp and climbing perch

2010 Noor El-Deen et al. Impact of humic acid and formalin on ectoparasitic infestation in Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus

2010 El-Tantawy and Sherbiny

Some protozoan parasites infecting catfish Clarias gariepinus

2010 Briede The prevalence of bacterial fish diseases in fish hatcheries

2010 Ahilan et al. Influence of certain herbal additives on the growth, survival and disease resistant of gold fish, Carassius auratu

2011 Prem Anand et al. Screening of antibiotic producing marine bacteria against fish pathogens

2011 Ibrahem et al. Assessment of the susceptibility of polyculture reared African catfish and Nile tilapia to Edwardsiella tarda

2011 Pandey et al. Biological characterization of marine fish pathogen, Acinetobacter sp. strain producing antibacterial metabolite against fish diseases

2011 Eissa et al. Internal parasitic diseases in male and hybrid tilapia

 

 

 

58

2011 Birkbeck et al. Francisella infections in fish and shellfish

2011 Abdul Kader Mydeen and Haniffa

Evaluation of antibacterial activity of medicinal plants on fish pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila

2011 Prasad et al. Lytic bacteriophages specific to Flavobacterium columnare rescue catfish, Clarias batrachus (Linn.) from columnaris disease

2011 Noorlis et al. Prevalence and quantification of Vibrio species and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in freshwater fish

2011a Ravikumar et al. In vitro antibacterial activity of coastal medicinal plants against fish pathogens

2011b Ravikumar et al. Bioactive potential of Seagrass Syringodium isoetifolium against fish pathogens.

2011 Colquhoun and Samuel Duodu

Francisella infections in farmed and wild aquatic organisms

2011 Nzeh and Udeze Lactobacillus delbruekii infection of Clarias bidorsalis cultured in fish tanks

2011 Yuvaraj et al. Extraction, purification and partial characterization of Cladophora glomerata against fish Pathogens

 

 

59

Table 2. Works concerned with biological activities of sponge and associated microorganisms

Year Author(s) Aspect(s) studied

1969 Burkholder and Rutzler

Antimicrobial activity of some marine sponges

1978 Bergquist and Bedford

Antibacterial activity of marine demospongiae

1981 Tachibana et al. Okadaic acid, a cytotoxic polyether from two marine sponges of the genus Halichondria

1982 Amade et al. Antimicrobial activities of marine sponges from French Polynesia and Brittany

1985 McCaffrey and Endean

Antimicrobial activity of tropical and subtropical sponges

1985 Thompson et al. Screening and bioassays for biologically active substances from forty marine sponge species from San Diego, California

1987 Komoto et al. Antitumor and antiviral furanoditerpenoids from a marine sponge

1987 Amade et al. Antimicrobial activities of marine sponges from the Mediterranean Sea

1988 Roll et al. Antimicrobial pigment from the marine sponge Fascaplysinopsis sp.

1988 Fahy et al. An antimicrobial alkaloid from the sponge Haliclona sp.

1988 Perry et al. Antiviral compound from a New Zealand sponge of the genus Mycale

1988 Sakemi et al. Isolation and structural elucidation of onnamide A, a new bioactive metabolite of a marine sponge

 

 

60

 

 

1989 Kondracki and Guyot

Biologically active quinine and hydroquinone sesquiterpenoids from the sponge Smenospongia sp.

1992 McClintock and Gauthier

Antimicrobial activities of Antarctic sponges

1992 Parameswaran et al. Anti bacterial compounds from the sponge Haliclona sp.

1992 Fusetani et al. Potent antitumor metabolites from a marine sponge

1993 Imamura et al. Novel antimycin antibiotics, urauchimycins A and B, produced by marine actinomycete

1993 Muricy et al. Antimicrobial activity of south western Atlantic shallow water marine sponges

1993 Teeyapant et al. Antibiotic and cytotoxic activity of brominated compounds from the marine sponge Verongia aerophoba

1994 Kobayashi et al. Trisindoline, a new antibiotic indole trimer, produced by a bacterium of Vibrio sp. isolated from marine sponge Hyrtios altum

1994 Becerro et al. Antimicrobial activity and surface bacterial film in marine sponges

1994 Willemsen Antifouling activity of sponge extracts

1994 Oclarit et al. Anti-Bacillus substance from marine sponge Hyatella species

1994 Pettit et al. Antineoplastic agents from a Republic of Comoros marine sponge

1994 Bifulco et al. Novel HIV inhibitory halistanol sulphates F–H from a marine sponge

 

 

61

 

1995 Albrizio et al. Amphitoxin, a new high molecular weight antifeedant pyridinium salt from the Caribbean sponge

1996 Wang et al. Three novel anti-microfouling nitroalkyl pyridine alkaloids from the okinawan marine sponge Callyspongia sp.

1996 Hirota et al. Terpenoids with antifouling activity against barnacle larvae from the marine sponge Acanthella cavernosa

1996 Zampella et al. An anti-HIV cyclic depsipeptide from sponge Callipelta sp

1996 Konig et al. Novel potent antimalarial diterpene isocyanates isothiocyanates and isonitriles from the tropical marine sponge Cymbastela hooperi

1997 Sepcic et al. Biological activities of aqueous extracts from marine sponges and cytotoxic effects of 3-alkylpyridinium polymers from Reniera sarai

1998 Prabha et al. Antifouling activity of Indian marine invertebrates against the green mussel Perna viridis L.

1998 Miyaoka et al. Antimalarial activity of kalihinol A and new relative diterpenoids from the Okinawan sponge Acanthella sp.

1998 Compagnone et al. Antileishmanial cyclic peroxides from the Palauan sponge

1998 Betancourt-Lozano et al.

Variation of antimicrobial activity of the sponge Aplysina fistularis and its relation to associated fauna

1999 Newbold et al. Antimicrobial activity of Caribbean sponge extracts

 

 

62

 

1999 Ovenden and Capon Novel nematocides from Southern Australian marine sponges of the genus Amphimedon

1999 Capon et al. A novel nematocide from a Southern Australian marine sponge

1999 Wilkinson Nitrogen fixation in symbiotic marine sponges

2000 Thakur and Anil Antibacterial activity of the sponge Ircinia tetrahedron

2000 Sepcic Bioactive alkylpyridinium compounds from marine sponges

2000 Dixit and Pant Hydrocarbon degradation and protease production by Nocardiopsis sp.

2000 Dumbar et al. Anticryptococcal and nitric oxide synthase inhibitory imidazole alkaloids from the calcareous sponge

2000 Ivanova et al. Antifungal compounds produced by bacterial populations of the sea sponge Verongia sp.

2000 De Rosa et al. Metabolites from a marine bacterium Pseudomonas/Alteromonas, associated with the sponge Dysidea fragilis

2000 Schmidt et al. Identification of the antifungal peptide containing symbionts of the marine sponge Theonella swinhoei as a novel proteobacterium

2000 Gab Alla et al. Antimicrobial activity of some sponges from Gulf of Aqaba

2000 Zheng et al. Detection of antitumor and antimicrobial activities in marine organisms associated actinomycetes isolated from the Taiwan Strait, China

 

 

63

2000 Zhou et al. New cytotoxic Manzamine alkaloids from a Palaun sponge

2001 Hentschel et al. Antimicrobial activities of Mediterranean sponges Aplysina aerophoba and Aplysina cavernicola

2001 El Sayed et al. Antimalarial antiviral and antitoxoplasmosis norsesterterpene peroxide acids from the Red Sea sponge Diacarnus erythraeanus

2001 Rudi et al. A novel anti-HIV-1 RTase sulphated sterol from the sponge Clathria species

2001 Rashid et al. A new HIV inhibitory cyclic depsipeptide from the marine sponge Sidonops microspinosa

2001 Kelman et al. Antimicrobial activity of the reef sponge Amphimedon viridis from the Red Sea

2001 Martinez et al. Antiparasitic activity of methanol extracts and isolated fractions from Caribbean sponges

2002 Swatschek et al. Marine sponge collagen effect on the skin parameters

2002 Tsoukatoua et al. Antifouling activity of three mediterranean sponges of the genus Ircinia

2002 Linington et al. An antimicrobial glycolipid isolated from the marine sponge Caminus sphaeroconia

2002 Okada et al. An antibacterial depsipeptide from the marine sponge Theonella swinhoei

2002 Torres et al. Antibacterial activity against resistant bacteria and cytotoxicity of four alkaloid toxins isolated from the marine sponge Arenosclera brasiliensis

2003 Groud et al. Anti-HIV active petrosins from the marine sponge Petrosia similes

 

 

64

 

 

2003 Sera et al. A new antifouling hexapeptide from a Palauan sponge, Haliclona sp.

2003 Rao et al. New manzamine alkaloids with activity against infectious and tropical parasitic diseases from an Indonesian sponge

2003 Suzumura et al. Novel thiopeptide antibiotics produced by Bacillus cereus isolated from a marine sponge

2003 Faimali et al. Non-toxic antifouling activity of polymeric 3-alkylpyridinium salts from the Mediterranean sponge Reniera sarai

2003 Thiel and Imhoff Antimicrobial activities of Mediterranaen sponges

2003 Thakur et al. Antibacterial activity of the sponge Suberites domuncula

2004 Rodriguez et al. Antimicrobial activity of marine organisms collected from the coast of South East India

2004 Joseph Selvin et al. Antibacterial potential of antagonistic Streptomyces sp. isolated from the marine sponge Dendrilla nigra

2004 Kuramoto et al. Bioactive alkaloid ircinamine purified from Ircinia species possess reactive thioester and may have therapeutic potential

2004 Chelossia et al. Characterisation and antimicrobial activity of epibiotic bacteria from Petrosia ficiformis (Porifera, Demospongiae)

2004 Pettit et al. Antibacterial activity of the marine sponge constituent cribrostatin

2004 Piel et al. Antitumor polyketide biosynthesis by an uncultivated bacterial symbiont of the marine sponge Theonella swinhoei

 

 

65

2004 Nakao et al. Identification of renieramycin as an antileishmanial substance in marine sponge Neopetrosia species

2004 Rao et al. Three new menzamine alkaloids from a common Indonesian sponge and their activity against infectious parasitic disease

2005 Kanagasabhapathy et al.

Inhibitory activities of surface associated bacteria isolated from the marine sponge Pseudoceratina purpurea

2005 Zheng et al. Antimicrobial screening and active compound isolation from marine bacterium NJ6-3-1 associated with the sponge Hymeniacidon perleve

2005 Fguira et al. Antifungal and antibacterial activities of newly isolated Streptomyces sp. strain

2005 Rifai et al. Screening of antimicrobial activity of marine sponge extracts

2005 Sionov et al. Antifungal effect and possible mode of activity of a compound from the marine sponge Dysidea herbacea

2005 Tsukamoto et al. A new proteasome inhibitor isolated from a marine sponge of the genus Mycale

2005 Gonzalez et al. Cytotoxic and clastogenic effects on human lymphocytes of 5a, 8a-epidioxysterol fraction of the marine sponge Ircinia campana of Colombian Caribbean

2005 Hellio et al. Inhibitory effects of Mediterranean sponge extracts and metabolites on larval settlement of barnacle Balanus Amphitrite

2005 Pettit and Xu Anticancer activity of irciniastatins A and B from indo-Pacific marine sponge Ircinia romosa

2005 Thakur et al. Antiangiogenic, antimicrobial and cytotoxic potential of sponge-associated bacteria

 

 

66

2005 Dembitsky et al. Novel antitumor agents: marine sponge alkaloids, their synthetic analogs and derivatives

2005 Faimali et al. Antisettlement activity of synthetic analogues of polymeric 3-alkylpyridinium salts isolated from the sponge Reniera sarai

2005 Keyzers and Davies Anti inflammatory metabolites from marine sponges

2006 Sladic and Gasic Reactivity and biological activity of the marine sesquiterpenes hydroquinone avarol and related compounds from sponges

2006 Prem Ananda et al. Antimicrobial activity of marine bacteria associated with sponges from South East coast of India

2006 Wang Diversity and biotechnological potential of the sponge associated microbial consortia

2006 Chelossi et al. Antibacterial activity of polymeric 3-alkylpyridinium salts isolated from the Mediterranean sponge Reniera sarai

2006 Okada et al. Calyculin E and F, novel insecticidal metabolites from the marine sponges, Discoderma sp.

2006 Hentschel et al. Marine sponges as microbial fermenters

2006 Chevallier et al. A potent new 18-membered-ring cytotoxic macrolide isolated from Papua New Guinea marine sponge Ircinia sp

2006 Radjasa and Agus Sabdono

Phylogenetic diversity of secondary metabolite producing bacteria associated with sponge from Bandengan waters

2006 Kim et al. Discovery of a new source of rifamycin antibiotics in marine sponge actinobacteria by phylogenetic prediction

 

 

67

2007 Chen et al. Construction of metagenomic DNA library of symbionts of sponge Gelliodes gracilis and screening of antibacterial metabolites

2007 Hada et al. Synthesis and biological activities of glycosphingolipid analogues from marine sponge Aplysinella rhax

2007 Li et al. Three South China Sea sponges associated biologically active bacterial isolation and phylogenetic analysis

2007 Funda Biological activities of the marine sponge Auxinella

2007 Radjasa et al. Antibacterial activity of marine bacteria associated with sponge Aaptos sp. against multi drugs resistant (MDR) strains

2007 Martinez Insecticide action of sponges from uraba gulf on Aedes agypti and Culex quinquefasciatus larvae

2007 Galeano and Martinez

Antimicrobial activity of marine sponges from Uraba Gulf

2007 Touati et al. Antimicrobial activity of marine sponges extracts collected from Tunisian coast

2007 Luter et al. Cytotoxic and anti-microbial activity of the sponge Iotrochota sp.

2007 Tasdemir et al. Marine natural products from the Turkish sponge Agelas oroides that inhibit the enoyl reductases from Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Escherichia coli

2007 Motti et al. Comparison of the biological properties of several marine sponge-derived sesquiterpenoid quinones

 

 

 

68

2008 Silberhorn et al. Bioactivity of cultured sponge-associated bacteria from the Mediterranean sponge

2008 Desoubzdanne et al. Alisiaquinones and alisiaquinol dual inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum enzyme targets from a new Caledonian deep water sponge

2008 Azevedo et al. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of an extract from marine sponge Aplysina caissara

2008 Bharat et al. Antibacterial activity of marine sponges from rocky coast of India

2008 Gandhimathi et al. Antimicrobial potential of sponge associated marine actinomycetes

2008 Romanenko et al. Antagonistic potential of Stenotrophomonas strains isolated from deep-sea invertebrates

2008 Zhang et al. A comparative study on the phylogenetic diversity of culturable actinobacteria isolated from five marine sponge species

2008 Kossuga et al, Antiparasitic, antineuroinflammatory and cytotoxic polyketides from the marine sponge Plakortis angulospiculatus collected in Brazil

2008 Radjasa Growth inhibition of antibiotic resistant bacteria by sponge associated bacteria

2008 Annie Selva Sonlal et al.

Antibacterial activity of marine sponge extracts against fish pathogenic bacteria

2009 Han et al. Antifungal chitinase from marine Streptomyces sp. DA11 associated with South China sea sponge Craniella australiensis

2009 Joseph Selvin et al. Optimization and production of novel antimicrobial agents from sponge associated marine actinomycetes Nocardiopsis dassonvillei MAD08

 

 

69

2009 Zhang et al. The screening of antimicrobial bacteria with diverse novel nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) genes from South China Sea sponges

2009 Laport et al. Marine sponges: potential sources of new antimicrobial drugs

2009 Safaeian et al. Antimicrobial activity of marine sponge extracts of offshore zone from Nay Band Bay, Iran

2009 Limna Mol et al. Antifouling activity exhibited by secondary metabolites of the marine sponge Haliclona exigua

2010b Ravikumar et al. Antagonistic activity of marine actinomycetes from Arabian sea coast

2010 Pedpradab et al. Biological activities of extracts from Andaman sea sponges, Thailand

2010 Manilal et al. Antagonistic potentials of marine sponge associated fungi Aspergillus clavatus MFD15

2010c Ravikumar et al. Antimicrobial activity of sponge associated macroorganisms against fish pathogen

2010 Dharmaraj et al. Bioactive potential of marine Streptomyces

2010 Wilson et al. Antimicrobial activities of surface-attached marine bacteria from Sydney Harbour, Australia

2010 Orhan et al. Inhibitory activity of marine sponge derived natural products against parasitic protozoa

2010 Limna Mol et al. Inhibitory effect of Indian sponge extracts on bacterial strains and larval settlement of the barnacle, Balanus Amphitrite

2010 Santos et al. Antimicrobial activities of sponge associated bacteria from Brazil

 

 

70

2010 Lakshmi et al. Antifungal activity of marine sponge Haliclona exigua

2011 Premanand et al. Antibiotic producing marine bacteria against fish pathogens

2011 Baby Joseph and Sujatha

Pharmacologically important natural products from marine sponges

2011 Jacob Inbaneson and Ravikumar

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of marine sponge Hyattella intestinalis associated bacteria against Plasmodium falciparum

2011 Sujatha and Joseph Effect of few marine sponges and its biological activity against Aedes aegypti Linn and Musca domestica

2011 Jin et al. Bacillamide C production by the optimized cultivation of the Bacillus atrophaeus strain C89 associated with the South China sea sponge Dysidea avara

2011 Yung et al. Novel antibacterial proteins from the microbial communities associated with the sponge Cymbastela concentrica