DSO 1 –Third Session

Library Presentation

Goal-Setting TheorySpecific Specific goals lead to increasedincreasedperformance.

DifficultDifficult goals, when accepted, result in higherhigher output than easy goals.

Goal-Setting TheoryHolding ability and acceptance constant; the more difficultmore difficult the goals, the higher the levelhigher the level of performance

Goals can be a major sourcemajor source of work motivation.

Reinforcement TheoryBehavior is environmentally caused.ReinforcersReinforcers control behaviors.Consequences immediately following response increase the probability of repeatedrepeatedbehavior.

Reinforcement Theory

Concentrates solely on what happens when person takes some action

People will exert more effort on tasks that are reinforced.

Job Design Theory

The way the elements in a job are organized can act to increase or decrease effort

Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

Skill varietySkill varietyTask identityTask identity

Task significanceTask significanceAutonomyAutonomyFeedbackFeedback

Social Information Processing ModelEmployees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided by others with whom they have contact.

Equity Theory

Employees weigh what they put into a job situation (inputinput) against what they get from it (outcomeoutcome).

Then they comparecompare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of relevant others.

Equity Theory

If they perceiveperceive their ratio to be equal to that of relevant others, a state of equity exists.equity exists.

Equity Theory

If the ratios are unequal, inequityinequity exists, either under-reward or over-reward.

When inequitiesinequities occur, employees will attempt to correctcorrect them.

Equity TheoryWhen employees envision an inequity, they may

make one or more of five choices:1) Distort either their own or others’ inputs or

outcomes2) Behave in some way so as to induce others to

change their inputs or outcomes3) Behave in some way so as to change their own

inputs or outcomes4) Choose a different comparison referent5) Quit their job

Expectations

First break all the rules – expectationsTalentmap – expectationsGoal Theory – expectationsDarryl Connor – expectations

Expectancy Theory

Strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on

Strength of expectationStrength of expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome AttractivenessAttractiveness of that outcome to the individual

Expectancy Theory1) Attractiveness 2) Performance-reward linkage3) Effort-performance linkage

IndividualEffort

IndividualPerformance

OrganizationalRewards

IndividualGoals

Simplified Expectancy

Model

Picture 1

Picture 2

Scoring for Needs

Read the paragraphs you wrote. Try to rate each one in one of three areas:

Is the primary theme of that paragraph one of using personal effort to accomplish a very special outcome? – If yes – Need for AchievementIs the primary theme one of getting others to do things, sending them off or having them provide support? If yes – then Need for PowerIs the primary theme one of being with and around people. Engaging people in activities? – If yes –Need for Affiliation

Measuring Psychological Qualities

Can’t be measured directlyCreate “underlying construct”Develop a tool to measure itEvaluate reliability and validity of measure

McClelland's Theory of Needs

Need for achievement (nAch) - drive to excel Need for power (nPow) - the need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwiseNeed for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

McClelland's Theory of Needs

• High achievers prefer jobs with personal responsibilityresponsibility, feedbackfeedback, and intermediate degree of risk.risk.

• High achievers are not necessarily goodgoodmanagers.

•• AffiliationAffiliation and powerpower closely related to managerial success

• Employees can be trained to stimulatestimulate their achievement need.

Compensation and Motivation

What’s the relationship?How can it best be managed?

Relationships

Wheatley – relationshipsCCL Derailers – relationshipsFirst break all the rules – relationshipsTalentMap data – relationships

Best Practices

Dependent on two factorsWhat your organization valuesWhat type of behavior you want

Dependent on Relationships and Clear ExpectationsRequires active people management

Conflict

Conflict:

Any situation in which people have incompatible goals, interests, principles or feelingsProcess that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.

Transitions in Conflict Thought

The Traditional ViewThe Traditional View: Conflict is bad; synonymous with violence, destruction, and irrationalityThe Human Relations View:The Human Relations View: Conflict is natural and inevitable; accept itThe Integrationist View:The Integrationist View: Conflict should be encouraged; keeps the group alive, self-critical, and creative

Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict

Task conflictTask conflict relates to the content and goals of the workRelationship conflictRelationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationshipsProcess conflict Process conflict relates to how the work gets done

Conflict Process

Conflict Model Developed for the Conflict Dynamics Profile

Interpersonal conflict as studied by social psychologists (e.g. Caryl Rusbult, John Gottman)Conflict in organizations as studied by investigators who have gone beyond the typical “style”-based approach (e.g., Amason, Feeney and Davidson, Sessa)Conflict as treated by popular, general interest publications (e.g., Getting to Yes)

CDP Approach

Focus explicitly on specific behavioral responses to conflict, and how they mightbe changed.Examine the way conflicts unfold over time.Start with the assumption that conflict is inevitable; it cannot, nor should it be, completely avoided.The goal of successful conflict management is not its elimination, but to reduce its harmful effects and maximize its useful ones.

Cognitive Conflict (Task-Oriented)

Focuses on ideas, not personalitiesCan occur during times of creativity and productivityAffect is neutral, or positiveUnrelated, or positively related, to group functioning

Emotional Conflict (Personal)

Focuses on people, not ideasCan occur at any timeAffect is negativeNegatively related to group functioningCan escalate rapidly

Path of Conflict

ConstructiveResponses

Behaviors that keep conflict to a minimum

DestructiveResponses

Behaviors that escalate or prolong conflict

Precipitating Event and/or Hot Buttons

Task-focused Conflict(Cognitive)

• Focus on task and problem solving

• Positive affect• Tension decreases• Group functioning improves

Person-focused Conflict(Emotional)

• Focus on personalities• Negative emotions (anger,

frustration)• Tension increases• Group functioning decreases

Conflict De-escalates Conflict Escalates

Initiate Conflict

Constructive Responses

Behaviors that research demonstrates to be highly effective in keeping the harmful effects of conflict to

a minimum

Constructive responses emphasize:task-completion and focus on problem-solving,creative problem solving and focus on exchange of ideas,expression of positive emotions and optimism, andnot provoking the other person.

Typical Outcomes of Constructive ResponsesWin-win solutionsOpen and honest communication of feelingsBoth parties’ needs are metNon-judgmental actionsNot sticking adamantly to one positionActively resolving conflict (not allowing conflict to continue)Thoughtful responses (not impulsive)Team performance improves

Destructive Responses

Behaviors that research has demonstrated to escalate or

prolong conflict

Destructive responses emphasize:negative expression of emotions,trying to win — no matter what,lack of respect for the other person, andavoiding conflict rather than facing it.

Typical Outcomes of Destructive Responses

Feelings of anger and frustrationJudgmental actionsGetting even and keeping scoreOther party does not have needs metClosed channels of communicationRefusing to deal with issuesDecreased self-confidenceTasks not completedTeam performance decreases

Active and Passive Responses to Conflict

Research further demonstrates the usefulness of classifying conflict-related responses into two

additional categories.

ActiveActive behaviors involve overt responses, taking action, or making an effort. Outcome can be either constructive or destructive.

PassivePassive behaviors involve withholding a response, not taking action, or not making an effort. Outcome can be either constructive or destructive.

Conflict Response Categories

AvoidingYieldingHiding EmotionsSelf-criticizing

Reflective ThinkingDelay RespondingAdapting

Winning at All CostsDisplaying AngerDemeaning OthersRetaliating

Perspective TakingCreating SolutionsExpressing EmotionsReaching Out

Constructive Destructive

Act

ive

Pass

ive

Hot Buttons

36 items tapping the nine situations/people causing the greatest degree of irritation to the individual

• Unreliable • Overly analytical• Unappreciative • Aloof• Micro-managing • Self-centered• Abrasive • Untrustworthy• Hostile

Active Constructive ResponsesPerspective Taking

Mentally put yourself in the other’s place and work to understand their point of view, motivation, reaction to the conflict.Examine the flaws/weaknesses of your own position.Ask open-ended questions and listen!Rephrase what you think has been said.

Expressing EmotionsBe sure the emotions are worth expressing and provide useful information.Don’t let hot buttons interfere with the process.Explain how you feel and why — choose words carefully.Express yourself in ways that cast no blame.

Creating SolutionsIdentify each other’s motives, goals, and agendas.Identify points of mutual agreement and interdependence.Brainstorm every possible solution.Select the two or three solutions that best meet the other person’s needs.

Reaching OutExpress your sincere desire to understand.Encourage the other person to express their feelings.Accept responsibility for your contribution to the conflict.Ask what you can do to make amends.

Passive Constructive ResponsesReflective Thinking

Note your initial reaction to a conflict —analyze why it occurred.Consider the impact of differences in style and opinions.Carefully review alternatives. Solicit input from others.

Delay RespondingCall for time out when tensions interfere with problem solving.Time out ≠ avoidance.Replace stressful thoughts with calm, reassuring ones.Re-focus, reflect, and return to constructive conflict.

AdaptingLook forward, not back.Find the best in people and in the situation.Direct your thoughts to adapting and accepting.Be optimistic — things will work out —keep trying.

Return to conflict

Article –Wiess, Jeff and Hughes, Jonathan, Want Collaboration?: Accept – and – Actively Manage – Conflict. Harvard Business Review, March 2005, pp92-101.Very culturally oriented – High individualism