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ssTTÞÞaannuuRRkkmm G l o s s a r y

A

aa lava: a lava flow that solidifies with a rough surface. kMEGrPñMePø IgeRKIm ¬GrGr¦ ³ lMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIg EdleFIV[eLIgrwgman

épÞ KRKat b¤rdibrdub. abrasion: the grinding of rock by friction and impact during transportation. karswk ³ kardac;ecjénsilaedaykarkkit nigkarb:HTgÁic enAxN³

eBldwkCBa¢Ún. absolute age dating: age given in years or another unit of time. kalbriecäTdac;xat ³ GayukalEdlpþl;CaqñaM b¤CaxñateBlevla

epSgeTot. absolute sea-level change: a change in the level of the sea surface without any change in the land-surface (or sea bed).

karERbRbYldac;xaténnIv:UsmuRT ³ bERmbRmYlkñúgkRmiténépÞTwk edayKµanbERmbRmYlNamYyrbs;épÞdI ¬b¤)atsmuRT¦.

acid (felsic): silica-rich igneous rock with a relatively high content of potassium and sodium.

GasIut ¬EhVlsuic¦ ³ silaPñMePøIgEdlsm,ÚrsIulIs edayman brimaNb:UtasüÚm nigsUdüÚmx<s;.

active tectonic control: the influence of ongoing tectonic activity, such as faulting and tilting of the ground surface, on fluvial systems.

karRtYtRtatictUnicskmµ ³ \Ti§BlénskmµPaBtictUnicbnþbnÞab; dUc CabMNak;Rsut nigkareRTt ¬eRC¦ énépÞdIelIRbB½n§Tenø.

aeolian (eolian): of, or relating to the action of the wind. énxül;bk; ³ én b¤EdlTak;TgnwgskmµPaBrbs;xül;bk;. aeolian geomorphology: the study of processes, landforms, sediments and landscapes related to the action of the wind.

PUmisNæanviTüaxül;bk; ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkar sNæandI kemÞckMN nigeTsPaBsNæanEdlTak;TgeTAnwgskmµPaBxül;bk;.

aerial photography: a type of remote sensing, by which the Earth’s surface is photographed by a camera on an aeroplane.

karftrUbBIelIGakas ³ RbePTénkarykB½t’manBIcm¶ay EdlépÞ rbs;EpndI RtUvftrUbedaym:asIunftrUbelIynþehaH.

aggradation: the vertical growth of the land surface by the accumulation of sediment.

kareBjeLIg ³ kMeNIntamTisbBaÄrénépÞdIedaykarekIneLIgénkemÞc kMN.

alluvial: of, or relating to alluvium. éndIl,ab; ³ én b¤EdlTak;TgnwgdIl,ab;. alluvial channel: a river channel that is cut in alluvium. pøÚvTwkelIdIl,ab; ³ pøÚvTwkTenø EdlhUrkat;dIl,ab;. alluvial fan: large, fan-shaped pile of sediment that usually forms where a stream’s velocity decreases as it emerges from a narrow canyon onto a flat plain at the foot of a mountain range.

l,ab;ragpøit ³ KMnrénkemÞckMNEdlmanragdUcpøit ehIyFM EdlCa Fmµta ekIteLIgenAkEnøgEdlel,Ónrbs;TwkfycuH edayvapusecjBI RClgceg¥ót nigecatmYy eTAelITMnabdIrabesµI enAÉeCIgCYrPñM.

alluvium: material deposited by flowing water on land. Does not include lake or dIl,ab; ³ smasFatuEdlRtUvcak;bgÁredaylMhUrTwkelIdI minrab;bBa©Úl

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marine sediments. TaMgkemÞckMNbwg b¤smuRT. anabranching channel: a channel planform where multiple channels of a river are separated by islands.

pøÚvTwkEbgEck ³ KMrUénpøÚvTwkRbePTmYy CakEnøgpøÚvTwkcRmuHrbs;Tenø RtUvdac;ecjBIKñaedayekaH.

annual hydrograph: a graph showing the relationship between discharge and time (1 year) for a point in a drainage basin.

GIuRdURkabRbcaMqñaM ³ RkabEdlbgðajBITMnak;TMngrvagcMNuHTwk nigeBl evla ¬1 qñaM¦ sRmab;cMNucmYyenAkñúgGagbgðÚr.

anthropogeomorphology: the study of the role of humans as a geomorphological agent which creates and changes landforms and landscapes.

PUmisNæanviTüamnusS ³ karsikSaBItYnaTIrbs;mnusS CaPñak;garPUmi- sNæanviTüa EdlbegáIt nigeFIV[ERbRbYlsNæandI nigeTsPaBsNæan.

anticline: an arched fold in which the rock layers usually dip away from the axis of the fold.

Gg;TIKøINal; ³ BMenIgpñt;ragFñÚr EdlRsTab;sila CaFmµta eRTtcuH q¶ayBIG½kSénBMenIgpñt;.

applied geomorphology: the application of geomorphology to the solution of various problems, especially to the development of resources and management of hazards.

PUmisNæanviTüaGnuvtþn_ ³ karGnuvtþPUmisNæanviTüacMeBaHdMeNaH RsaybBaðaepSg²Kña CaBiesscMeBaHkarGPivDÆénFnFan nigkarRKb;RKg eRKaHFmµCati.

aquiclude: an impermeable rock incapable of absorbing or transmitting much water. Some porous rocks act as aquicludes when saturated.

mUldæanéndegðImTwk ³ silaminRCabTwk KµanlT§PaBsRmUb b¤benÞrTwk )aneRcIneT. silaes<atmYycMnYn edIrtYnaTICa mUldæanéndegðImTwk enA eBlEq¥tTwk.

aquifer: a saturated rock or layer of sediment through which water can move easily.

degðImTwk ³ sila b¤RsTab;kemÞckMNEq¥tTwk EdlTwkGacbmøas;TI b¤ TwkhUrkat;y:aggayRsYl.

arch (sea arch): bridge of rock left above an opening eroded in a headland by waves.

TVarekag ¬TVarekagsmuRT¦³ s<anénsilaEdlbnSl;TukenABIelI RbehagEdlrgsMNwkenAkñúgeRCayedayrlksmuRT.

arid zone geomorphology: the study of the processes, landforms and landscapes of regions which receive less than 25 cm rainfall per year.

PUmisNæanviTüatMbn;hYtEhg ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkar sNæandI nig eTsPaBsNæanéntMbn;nana EdlTTYl)anTwkePøógticCag 25 s>m kñúg mYyqñaM.

ash: fine-grained volcanic debris (less than 4 mm). epHPñMePøIg ³ kemÞckMNPñMePøIgRKab;m:dæ ¬TMhMtUcCag 4 m>m¦. asthenosphere: a zone within the Earth’s mantle, from 50-300 km, beneath the lithosphere, to a depth of 700 km. It is weaker than the zones above and below it, is partly melted, and behaves as a plastic.

GaesþNUEsV‘r ³ mNÐlmYyenAkñúgRsTab;m:g;tUrbs;EpndI manBI 50- 300 K>m ehIysßitenABIeRkammNÐlfµ eTACeRmA 700 K>m. va KWexSay CagtMbn;EdlenABIelI nigBIeRkamva vaRtUv)anrlayedayEpñk nigRbRBwtþ eTACapøasÞik.

Astronomical Theory: a hypothesis developed in the early 20th century, that assumes Earth surface temperatures would vary in response to regular changes in the Earth’s orbit and axis.

RTwsþItarasa®sþ ³ smµtikmµEdlvivtþeTAenAedImstvtSTI 20 Edl snµt;fa sItuNðPaBépÞEpndI nwgmanlkçN³ERbRbYlkñúgkareqøIytbeTAnwg bERmbRmYleTogTat;enAkñúgKnøg nigG½kSrbs;EpndI.

atmosphere: the layer of gases approximately 80 km-thick which surrounds the Earth and is joined to it by gravity.

mNÐlbriyakas ³ RsTab;]sµ½n mankRmas;RbEhlCa 80 K>mEdl Bak;B½n§CMuvijEpndI ehIyRtUvP¢ab;eTAnwgvaedayTMnajEpndI.

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atoll: a circular coral reef surrounding a deeper lagoon. ekaHpáafµ ³ fµb:RbHTwkragCavg;mUl EdlB½n§CMuvijRtBaMgTwkéRbeRCACag. atom: smallest particle into which an element can be subdivided and still retain its chemical properties.

GatUm ³ PaKl¥ittUcbMputenAkñúgFatumYyEdlGacbMEbkbnþeTot ehIy enAEtrkSaTuklkçN³KImIrbs;va.

atomic mass number: the total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom.

cMnYnma:s ³ cMnYnsrubénRbUtug nigNWRtugkñúgéNVy:UGatUm.

atomic number: the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. elxGatUm ¬elxlMdab;¦ ³ cMnYnRbUtug enAkñúgéNVy:Urbs;GatUm.

B

backshore zone: the upper part of the beach, between the high-water mark (HWM) and the highest point influenced by marine action.

tMbn;eqñrxageRkay ³ EpñkxagelIéneqñrxSac; enAcenøaH kRmitCMenar x<s; nigcMNucx<s;bMput EdlRtUvman\Ti§BledayskmµPaBsmuRT.

backwash: the return flow of water down a beach after a wave has broken. rlkRtLb;cuH ³ karfycuHénlMhUrTwkelIeqñrxSac; bnÞab;BIrlkRtUv)an

bMpøaj. ballistic impact (reptation): the collision of airborne particles with other grains which causes them to start moving.

karbukTgÁicénRKab;dI ³ karbukKñaénPaKl¥itkñúgGakasCamYyRKab; b¤ PaKl¥itepSg²eTot Edl bgá[BYkvacab;epþImmanclna.

bar: a ridge of sediment, usually sand or gravel, deposited in a river channel or inside a meander because of a decrease in stream velocity.

pñÚk ³ RTnugkemÞckMN CaFmµtaCadIxSac; b¤RKab;RkYs EdlRtUvcak;bgÁr enAkñúgpøÚvTwkTenø b¤enAkñúgePñnTenø edaysarkarfycuHénel,ÓnlMhUrTwk.

barrier island (barrier beach): long, sandy ridge above sea-level which is parallel to the coast and separated from it by a lagoon.

r)aMgekaH ¬r)aMgeqñr¦ ³ RTnugdIxSac; ehIyEvgenAelInIv:UTwksmuRT EdlsßitenARsbeqñr ehIyRtUvdac;ecjBIeqñrRtBaMgTwkéRb.

barrier reef: a coral reef separated from the coast by a lagoon. r)aMgfµb:RbHTwk ³ fµb:RbHTwkEdldac;ecjBIeqñrxSac;edayRtBaMgTwk

éRb. base flow: the constant, reliable river flow component of total discharge from a drainage basin.

lMhUrmUldæan ³ smasPaBlMhUrTwkTenøEdlminsUvERbRbYl ehIy eTogTat;éncMNuHTwksrubBIGagbgðÚr.

base level: a theoretical lower limit for fluvial erosion of the Earth’s surface. kRmitmUldæanénPUmisNæanviTüa ³ karkMNt;kRmitTabtamlkçN³

RTwsþIcMeBaHsMNwképÞEpndItamTwkTenø. basic (mafic): igneous rocks containing less than 55% silica, and containing magnesium, iron and calcium.

)as ¬m:ahVic¦ ³ silaPñMePøIgEdlpÞúkFatusIulIsticCag 55° ehIy pÞúknUvFatum:aejsüÚm Edk nigkal;süÚm.

basin: a large, natural bowl-shaped depression on the land surface, into which rivers flow, or on the seabed

)asaMg ³ RkhUgEdlmanRTg;RTaydUccaneKamtamlkçN³FmµCati ehIyFM²elIépÞdI EdlTwkTenøhUr b¤enAelI)atsmuRT.

basin-and-range landscape: a type of landscape where there are fault block mountains separated by basins, as in Utah and Nevada.

eTsPaBsNæanén)asaMg-CYr ³ RbePTéneTsPaBsNæan Edl manPñMbøúkbMNak;Rsut Edldac;ecjBIKñaeday)asaMg dUcenA Utah nig Nevada ¬s>r>G¦.

batholith: a large mass of intrusive igneous rock of great depth, which can cover or lie beneath very large areas.

)atUlIt ³ m:asFMénsilam:ak;m:aeRCotEdlmanCeRmAeRCA EdlRKb

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dNþb; b¤enABIeRkamtMbn;FMTUlay. bay: a broad inlet of the sea where the land curves inward qksmuRT ³ édsmuRTd¾FM EdldIlycUlkñúg. baymouth bar: a ridge of sediment that cuts a bay off from the ocean. pñÚkkat;qksmuRT ³ RTnugkemÞckMNEdlkat;pþac;qksmuRTecjBI

smuRT. beach: a narrow coastal area of sediment (usually sand or coarser) that is formed by tides and waves.

eqñrxSac; ³ tMbn;eqñrkemÞckMNd¾ceg¥ót ¬CaFmµtaCaxSac; b¤RKab;eRKIm Cag¦ EdlRtUvkekItedayCMenar-lMnac nigrlksmuRT.

beach face: the section of the beach exposed to wave action. muxeqñrxSac; ³ EpñkéneqñrxSac;EdlEbrmuxeTAnwgrlksmuRT. bedding: an arrangement of layers or beds of rock. KMnrRsTab;sila ³ karerobcMCaRsTab;énsila. bedload: heavy or large sediment particles being transported in a fluid, near or on the bed of the flow.

bnÞúk)at ³ PaKl¥itkemÞckMNF¶n; ehIyFM EdlRtUv)andwkCBa¢ÚnenAkñúg snÞnIyenAEk,r b¤enAelI)aténlMhUr.

bedrock: the consolidated, unweathered rock exposed at the land-surface or below the soil and near-surface deposits.

silaRTnr ³ silaEdlbRgYbbRgYmKña ehIyminrgrbic EdleXIjman enAÉépÞdI b¤BIeRkamdI nigkemÞckMNCitépÞdI.

bedrock channel: a river channel that flows directly over bedrock. pøÚvTwkelIsilaRTnr ³ pøÚvTwkTenøEdlhUredaypÞal;elIsilaRTnr. berm: a flat ridge of sand parallel to the coastline, often found on the land-side of steep beaches. It is formed by deposition at the upper limit of waves.

RTnugeqñr ³ RTnugxSac;RtdagRsbnwgExSeqñr CaerOy²eXIjmanenAEpñk dImçagéneqñrxSac;ecat. vaRtUv)ankekIteLIgedaykarcak;bgÁrenARBM Edl xagelIénrlk.

biochemical sediment: sediment that is produced by living organisms, their remains, or is precipitated from mineral or organic sources.

kemÞckMNKImI-CIv³ ³ kemÞckMNEdlRtUvbegáItedaysrIragÁmanCIvit sMNl;rbs;BYkva b¤RtUv)anCRmuH b¤køayCakkrBIEr: b¤RbPBsrIragÁ.

biogeography: the science of biological distribution patterns, and the spatial and temporal occurrence of the Earth’s organisms.

CIvPUmiviTüa ³ viTüasa®sþénKMrUr)ayCIvviTüa nigkarkekIteLIgénsrIragÁ EpndItammaRtlMh nigeBlevla.

biogeomorphology: the study of the influence of landforms on the distribution and development of organisms, and the influence of organisms on landform processes and development.

PUmisNæanviTüaCIv³ ³ karsikSaBI\T§iBlsNæandIelIr)ay nigkarvvitþ énsrIragÁ nig\T§iBlénsrIragÁelIdMeNIrkarnana nigkarvivtþénsNæandI.

biological weathering: the decomposition and disintegration of rock in situ as a result of organic activity.

rbicCIv³ ³ karBukpuy nigkarEbk)ak;énsarFatusila enAkñúgTItaMgmYy EdlCalT§plénskmµPaBsrIragÁ.

biosphere: the zone in which life occurs on Earth. It includes parts of the hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere.

mNÐlCIv³ ³ tMbn;EdlCIvitekItmaneLIgelIEpndI. varab;bBa©ÚlTaMg EpñknanaénmNÐlTwk mNÐlfµ nigmNÐlbriyakas.

braided channel: a river that flows in multiple channels that divide and rejoin around bars.

pøÚvTwkCakRmg ³ TenøEdlhUrenAkñúgpøÚvTwkCaeRcIn EdlEbkecj nig P¢ab;vijenACMuvijpñÚk.

breaker zone: the coastal zone in which waves break. tMbn;rlkEbkTwk ³ tMbn;eqñrEdlrlkEbkTwk.

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C

caldera: a large (2-40 km diameter) volcanic hollow much larger than the original crater. They may form when an empty volcano collapses after an eruption.

reNþAPñMePøIg ³ RbehagPñMePøIgFM ¬Ggát;p©itBI 2-40 K>m¦ KWFMCagmat;PñM ePøIgedIm. BYkva GacekItmaneLIgenAeBlPñMePøIgTMenr Føak;cuH bnÞab;BIbnÞúH PñMePøIg.

cambering: the result of warping and sagging of rock layers which overlie clay. dMeNIrbegáagRsTab;sila ³ lT§plénkMeNag nigkarFøak;énRsTab;

sila EdlTeRmtelIdI\dæ. capacity: the total load that a river or hstream can transport. smtßPaB ³ bnÞúksrubEdlTenø b¤eRCaH GacdwkCBa¢Ún)an. carbonation: a reaction that occurs naturally between carbonic acid (H2CO3) and rock minerals, especially calcite (CaCO3).

kabUNatkmµ ³ RbtikmµEdlekIteLIgtamlkçN³FmµCatirvagGasIut kabUNat ¬H2CO3¦ nigEr:xniCrbs;sila CaBiesskal;sIut ¬CaCO3¦.

Catastrophism: the approach that ascribes important change in the physical environment to large, sudden and infrequent events such as floods.

RTwsþIeRKaHmhnþray ³ eKalviFIEdlGagelIbERmbRmYlsMxan;enAkñúg birsßanrUbcMeBaHRBwtþikarN_FM Pøam² nigminjwkjab; dUcCaTwkCMnn;CaedIm.

catchment: drainage basin. GageRCaH ³ GagbgðÚr. Cenozoic (Cainozoic) era: a geological era including the Tertiary and Quaternary periods (the last 65 million years).

s½kesNUUsUGiuc ³ s½kFrNIkal Edlrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgs½kTI 3 nigs½k TI 4 ¬65 lanqñaMcugeRkay¦.

channel (drainage) network: the system of river channels in a particular area. bNþajpøÚvTwk ³ RbB½n§pøÚvTwkTenøenAtMbn;BiessNamYy. channel pattern (planform): the classification of river channels in terms of their sinuosity and number of channels. Planform is the shape viewed from above.

KMrUénpøÚvTwk ¬TRmg;bøg;¦ ³ cMNat;fñak;énpøÚvTwkTenøtamPaBRkgi-kRkgk; nigcMnYnpøÚvTwkrbs;va. TRmg;bøg; KWCarUbragEdlemIlBIelI.

chemical weathering: the decomposition of rock resulting from its in situ exposure to water and atmospheric gases.

rbicKImI ³ karbMEbkFatuénsilaEdlCalT§plBIkarb:HeTAnwgTwk nig ]sµ½nbriyakas kñúgkEnøgmYy.

cinder cone volcano: a volcano constructed of loose rock fragments ejected from a central vent.

PñMePøIgragsaCI ³ PñMePøIgEdlekIteLIgBIbMENksilaFUr² EdlRtUvRcan ecjBIrn§kNþalmYyénPñMePøIg.

clastic sediment: sediment or sedimentary rock composed of fragments of other debris or rock.

kemÞckMNkøasÞic ³ kemÞckMN b¤silakemÞckMN EdlpSMBIbMENk kemÞcTI b¤BIsilaepSgeTot.

cleavage: the ability of a mineral to break or split along preferred planes. kareRcok ³ smtßPaBénEr:edIm,IbMEbk b¤eRcoktambeNþayépÞrab. cliff: a steep rock face, usually in mountainous areas or at the coast. l,ak; b¤ RcaMgcMeNat ³ CRmalecat kekItBIsila enAtMbn;PñM b¤enA

tamExSeqñr. climate change: the long-term variability of the Earth-ocean-climate system. karERbRbYlGakasFatu ³ bERmbRmYlénRbB½n§GakasFatu-EpndI-

mhasmuRTry³eBlyUr. climatic geomorphology: an approach to the study of landforms which developed in the early 20th century. It divided the world into climatic zones, each with distinctive landforms and landscapes.

PUmisNæanviTüaGakasFatu ³ eKalviFIcMeBaHkarsikSasNæandI Edl )anvivtþenAedImstvtSTI 20. eKalviFIenH )anEbgEckBiPBelakCatMbn; GakasFatuCaeRcIn EdltMbn;GakasFatunImYy² mansNæandI nigeTsPaB

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sNæanepSg²Kña. climatology: the study of the state of the atmosphere, including the causes of present and past climates.

GakasFatuviTüa ³ karsikSaBIsPaBénbriyakas rYmmanbuBVehtunana énGakasFatubc©úb,nñ nigGtItkal.

closure temperature: the temperature at which products of radioactive decay of isotopes of minerals are retained in a cooling rock.

sItuNðPaBénkarbiT ³ sItuNðPaB EdlplitplénkarbMEbk viTüúskmµénGIusUtUbrbs;Er: RtUv)anbgçaMgTukenAkñúgsilaEdlcuHRtCak;.

coast: the land near the sea, including the beach and a strip of land near the beach. tMbn;eqñr ³ dIenAEk,rsmuRT rYmmaneqñrxSac; nigk,aldIenAEk,reqñr

xSac;. coastal dune: deposit of wind-blown sand next to the sea or large lakes. Sediment is sourced from a beach.

BMnUkxSac;eqñr ³ karcak;bgÁrxSac;edaycrnþxül;bk;enACitsmuRT b¤bwg FM². kemÞckMN KWmanRbPBBIeqñrxSac;.

coastal environment (littoral zone): the area in which terrestrial and marine environments influence each other.

brisßaneqñr ³ tMbn;EdlbrisßanTIVb nigsmuRT man\Ti§BlelIKñaeTAvij eTAmk.

coastal geomorphology: the study of landforms, processes and sediments at the coast.

PUmisNæanviTüaeqñrsmuRT ³ karsikSaBIsNæandI dMeNIrkar nigkemÞc kMNnanaenAtMbn;eqñr.

coastline: the boundary between the land and the sea. ExSeqñr ³ RBMEdnrvagdI nigsmuRT. cohesion: the attraction of particles to each other (usually clay minerals in soils), apart from friction.

kmøaMgs¥itCab; ³ karRsUbTajénPaKl¥itnanaeTAvijeTAmk ¬CaFmµta Er:dI\dæenAkñúgdI¦/ xusBIkarkkit.

collapsing wave: a form of wave intermediate between plunging and surging.

rlk)ak;cuH ³ TRmg;énrlk eFIVGnþraKmn_rvagrlkmuCTwknigrlk eRTaleLIg.

collision: the impact of two tectonic plates which converge together. karbukKña ³ karb:HTgÁicénpøaktictUnicBIr EdlTajKñacUl. competence: the largest particle that a river or stream can transport. smtßPaBdwkCBa¢Ún ³ PaKl¥itFM²bMput EdlTenø GUr b¤eRCaH Gacdwk

CBa¢Ún)an. composite volcano (stratovolcano): a volcano constructed of alternating layers of volcanic rock debris (pyroclasts) and solidified lava flows.

PñMePøIgsmas ¬PñMePøIgRsTab;¦ ³ PñMePøIgEdl)ankekIteLIgBIRsTab; qøas;KñaénkemÞckMTIsilaPñMePøIg ¬bMENksilaPñMePøIg¦ nigkMEGrPñMePøIgkkrwg.

composition: the elements or compounds making up a material or produced from it by analysis.

smasFatupSM ¬smasPaB¦ ³ Fatu b¤smasFatuEdl bgárUbFatu b¤ RtUv)anbegáIteLIg BIrUbFatuedaykarviPaK.

compound: a pure substance containing elements in definite and constant proportion. Its components can only be separated by chemical reactions.

smasFatu ³ sarFatusuT§EdlmanFatukñúgsmamaRtkMNt; nigefr. smasPaKenHGacEjkecjtamRbtikmµKImI.

compound slope: a slope comprising a series of cliffs separated by talus slopes, controlled by alternating rock layers of varying resistance.

CRmalsmas ³ CRmalEdlcg;P¢ab;KñaCaes‘rIénRcaMg EdlRtUvdac; ecjBIKña edayCRmalkemÞckMTIfµI RtUvRtYtRtaedayRsTab;silaqøas;Kña éner:sIusþg;xus²Kña.

compressive stress: a stress due to a force pushing together on a rock, shortening it or decreasing its volume.

kmøaMgCRmujpÞb; ³ kmøaMgsgát;edaysarEt kmøaMgEdlrujpÞb;RBmKñaelI silamYy eFIV[varYjxøI b¤bnßynUvTMhMrbs;va.

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concave slope: slope form found most often near the slope foot, where slope wash or deposition are the main processes. Slope gradient decreases downslope.

CRmalragxUg ³ TRmg;CRmal EdleXIjmanjwkjab;bMputenAEk,reCIg CRmal CakEnøgEdllMhUrTwk b¤karcak;bgÁr KWCadMeNIrkarsMxan;². PaBeTrrbs;CRmal bnßytamTiscuHCRmal.

concordant coastline: a coastline where the general direction is parallel with, and controlled by geological structures, such as faults.

ExSeqñrRsbKña ³ ExSeqñr EdlTisedATUeTA KWRsbKñaCamYynwgrcna sm<½n§énFrNIkal ¬dUcCa bMNak;Rsut¦ ehIyRtUv)anRtYtRtaedayva.

conservative (transform) boundary: boundary between two tectonic plates that are sliding past each other.

RBMEdneLIgcuH ¬RBMEdnpøas;bþÚr¦ ³ RBMEdnrvagpøaktictUnicBIr Edl rGilelIKña.

constructive (divergent) boundary: boundary separating two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other.

RBMEdnsMNg; ¬RBMEdnEbkecjBIKña¦ ³ RBMEdnEdlbMEbkpøak tictUnicBIr EdlkMBugeFIVclnaecjBIKña.

contact (thermal) metamorphism: metamorphism under conditions in which high temperature is the dominant factor.

lMnaMERbkMeNItedayb:Hnwgm:ak;m:a ³ lMnaMERbkMeNItenAeRkamlkç- xNÐnana EdlsItuNðPaBx<s; KWCaktþaRtYtRtaelI.

continental crust: the thick, granitic crust under continents. sm,kTVIb ³ sm,kd¾Rkas; ehIysm,ÚrsilaRkanItenAeRkamTIVb. continental drift: a concept suggesting that continents move over Earth’s surface. karrsat;énTVIb ³ bBaØtiþEdlpþl;eyabl;fa TIVbeFIVclnaelIépÞEpndI. continental platform: a continental area covered by relatively flat or gently tilted, sedimentary rocks, above a basement of igneous or metamorphic rocks.

RkabénpÞaMgdITVIb ³ tMbn;TIVbEdlRtUvRKbdNþb;edaysilakemÞckMN épÞrab b¤eRTtlµm enABIelImUldæanCan;eRkaménsilaPñMePøIgb¤silaERb- kMeNIt.

continental rise: a wedge of sediment that extends from the lower part of the continental slope to the ocean floor.

CRmalminsUvecaténTVIb ³ RCugénkemÞckMNBIEpñkTabCagén CRmalTIVb eTA)atmhasmuRT.

continental shelf: a submarine platform at the edge of a continent, sloping towards the sea at less than 1°.

CayTVIb ³ pÞaMgsilaeRkamsmuRTenAkEnøgEKmTIVb EdlRCaleTAkan; smuRTenAkRmitmYyticCag 1 dWeRk.

continental shield (craton): inner part of a continent that has been geologically stable for at least 500 million years.

ExlTVIb ³ EpñkxagkñúgénTIVb EdlmansßirPaBtamlkçN³FrNIkal sRmab;ry³eBly:agehacNas; 500 lanqñaM.

continental slope: a steeper slope below 100-200 m depth, at the edge of the continental shelf.

CRmalecaténTVIb ³ CRmalecateRkamCeRmA 100-200 Em:Rt eRkamsmuRT enAEKménCayTIVb.

continental-margin island arc: a volcanic island arc that forms where oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust that lies below sea level.

kMeNagekaHCayTVIb ³ kMeNagekaHPñMePøIg EdlkekIteLIgenAkEnøg Edlsm,kmhasmuRT Føak;cuHeRkamsm,kTIVb EdlenAeRkamnIv:UsmuRT.

continental-margin orogen: a volcanic mountain range that forms where oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust.

ExSRkv:at;PñMCayTVIb ³ CYrPñMePøIgEdlkekIteLIgenAkEnøgEdlsm,k mhasmuRT Føak;cuHeRkamsm,kTIVb.

contour ploughing: ploughing along the contour lines of a slope, not across them, in order to reduce soil erosion.

karP¢ÜrdIragCavg; ³ karP¢ÜrdItambeNþayExSvg; ¬ExSkm<s;¦ énCRmal edIm,Ikat;bnßysMNwkdI minEmnP¢Ürkat;BYkvaenaHeT.

convergent (destructive) boundary: a boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving towards each other.

RBMEdnTaj¼rYmKñacUl ¬RBMEdnbMpøaj¦ ³ RBMEdnrvagpøaktictUnic BIrEdlkMBugeFIVclnaTajcUlKña.

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convex slope: slope form found most often on slope crests, where creep is the main process. Slope gradient increases downslope.

CRmalrage):ag ³ TRmg;CRmalEdleXIjmanjwkjab;bMputenAelI kMBUlCRmal EdlkareRCcuHyWt² KWCadMeNIrkarsMxan;. PaBeTrCRmal begáIneLIgtamTiscuHCRmal.

coral reef: a rocky construction at or near sea level, formed from biologically-produced carbonates.

fµb:RbHTwk ³ sMNg;silaenAÉ b¤enAEk,rnIv:UsmuRT EdlbegáIteLIgBI kabUNattamlkçN³CIvsa®sþ.

core: the intensely hot (2500°C) inner part of the Earth, below a depth of 2900 km. The outer part may be liquid and the inner solid.

sñÚl ³ EpñkxagkñúgekþAxøaMg ¬2500 °C¦ énEpndI eRkamCeRmA 2900 K>m. EpñkxageRkA GacCasarFaturav ehIyEpñkxagkñúgrwg.

coring: a cylindrical sample of rock, ice, or other material obtained by boring with a hollow drill.

karsVan ¬xYg¦ ³ sMNakdUcbMBg;énsila Twkkk b¤smasFatuepSg² eTot EdlTTYl)anedaykarxYgRbehag.

correlation: the process of establishing a relationship or connection between rock or sediment layers in different places, on the basis of their rock type, composition or fossil content.

shsm<½n§sila ¬karCab;Tak;TgKña¦ ³ dMeNIrkarénkarbegáIt TMnak;TMng b¤karTak;TgKñarvagsila b¤RsTab;kemÞckMNenAkEnøgepSg²Kña edayEp¥kelImUldæanénRbePTsila smasFatupSM b¤pUsIulrbs;va.

corrosion: the process of solution of rock by chemical agents in water. karsIudac; ³ dMeNIrkarsUluysüúgrbs;silaedayPñak;garKImIenAkñúgTwk. country rock: any rock that was older than and intruded by an igneous rock. silaenACMuvijva ³ silaNamYyEdlcas;Cag ehIyRtUv)aneRCotcUl

edaysilam:ak;m:a. covalent bonding: chemical bonding formed as two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

karcgsm<½n§kUv:aLg; ³ sm<½n§KImIekIteLIgedayGatUmBIrEdldak;eTVta eGLicRtugmYy b¤eRcInrYmKña.

cove: a small, sheltered bay. QUgsmuRTtUc ³ qksmuRTtUc ehIys¶b;. crater: a bowl-shaped depression over a vent at the summit of a volcano. mat;PñMePøIg ³ RkhUgEdlmanRTg;RTaydUccaneKamenAelIrn§énkMBUl

PñMePøIg. creep: very slow, continuous downslope movement of soil or debris. kareRCcuHyWt² ³ clnacuHCRmaléndI b¤kemÞckMNEdlbnþy:agyWt². critical flow (entrainment) threshold: the flow velocity required to initiate the movement of sediment particles by wind or water.

kRmitlMhUrBiess ¬kRmitel,Ónénkarykecj¦ ³ el,Ón lMhUrEdlRtUvkar edIm,IepþImeLIgnUvclnaénPaKl¥itkemÞckMN edayxül; bk;; b¤edaycrnþTwk.

crop rotation: the action or system of rotating crops in a particular field, to conserve soil nutrients and reduce soil erosion.

dMNaMqøas; ³ skmµPaB b¤RbB½n§énkareFIVdMNaMqøas;enAkñúgvalmYy edIm,IrkSanUvsarFatuciBa©wm nigkat;bnßynUvsMNwkdI.

cross-section form: the shape of a landform (e.g. a river channel) that is exposed by making a straight cut through it, at 90° to the axis.

TRmg;kat;TTwg ³ RTg;RTayénsNæandI ¬]TahrN_³ pøÚvTenø¦ Edl RtUv)anbgðaj[eXIjedaykarkat;Rtg;tamRTg;RTayenH enAmMu 90 dWeRk EkgnwgG½kSrbs;va.

crust: the outer layer of rock, forming a thin layer (35-100 km) over the Earth’s surface.

sm,kEpndI ³ RsTab;eRkArbs;sila EdlbegáIt)anCaRsTab;esþIgmYy ¬35-100 K>m¦ enAelIépÞEpndI.

crustal uplift: the upward movement of a thickness of rock, relative to sea level. karegIbeLIgénsm,kEpndI ³ clnaegIbeLIgénsilad¾Rkas; eFob

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eTAnwgnIv:UsmuRT. crystal: a substance in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice.

Rkam ³ sarFatuEdlGatUm GIuy:ug b¤m:UelKul RtUv)anteRmobtam lMdab;lMedaydEdl² CaKMrUvimaRtbI ehAfa bNþajRkam.

crystallization: the process of forming crystals from a liquid or gas. kMNkRkam ³ lMnaMénkarkekItRkamBIGgÁFaturav b¤]s½µn. cutoff: an abandoned section of a river channel, where a meander has become detached from the active river channel because its neck has been breached.

EPñnkat; ³ EpñkEdle)aHbg;ecalénpøÚvTenø CakEnøgEdlEPñnRtUv)an pþac;ecjBIpøÚvTwkTenøskmµ edaysarkEPñn RtUv)aneFIV[TMlay b¤eFIV[)ak; Ebk.

D

dating: establishing the age of an object or event. karkMNt;kalevla b¤ kalbriecäT ³ karKNnaGayukalénvtßú

mYy b¤RBwtiþkarN_mYy. debris: any unconsolidated material at the Earth’s surface. kemÞckMTI ³ smasFatuEdlminbRgYbbRgYmKña enAépÞEpndI. debris flow: mass movement in which motion takes place throughout a fluidized mass of debris.

lMhUrkemÞckMTI ³ clnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu EdlclnaenHekIteLIg enAkñúgkemÞckMTIsnÞnIy.

deep rotational slide: slope failure, often in clays, where the slip surface is curved, and usually deeper than 5 m.

karrGilragekag-eRCA ³ kar)ak;Føak;CRmal CaerOy²ekItmanenAkñúg dI\dæ CakEnøgEdlépÞrGil manragekag ehIyCaFmµtaeRCACag 5 Em:Rt.

deflation: removal of fine sediment or snow from the land surface by the wind. kardkecj ³ karykecjnUvkemÞckMNm:dæ b¤RBil BIépÞdI edaysar

xül;bk;. deflation hollow: shallow (less than 10 m) depressions eroded by wind in many deserts and some mountain environments.

RkhUgénkardkecj ³ TMnabrak;² ¬rak;Cag 10 m¦ RtUvrgsMNwk edayxül;enAtMbn;valxSac;nana nigbrisßanPñMmYycMnYn.

deformation (strain): the alteration of a material’s shape and internal structure, involving compression, extension, folding, faulting and shear.

karxUcRTg;RTay ³ bERmbRmYlénRTg;RTaysmasFatu nigrcnasm<½n§ xagkñúg EdlTak;Tgnwgkarsgát;CRmujpÞb; sgát;RbTaj BMenIgpñt; bMNak;- Rsut nigkarrGil.

deglaciation: the thinning, melting and withdrawal of glaciers from an area. karrlaypÞaMgTwkkk ³ PaBesþIg karrlay nigkardkykecjénTenø

Twkkk BItMbn;mYy. delayed flow: component of stream flow which is delayed in reaching the channel after rainfall. Not base flow.

lMhUrbg¥g; ³ smasPaBénlMhUrExSTwk EdlRtUv)anbg¥g;eTAdl;pøÚvTwk eRkayeBlePøógFøak;. minEmnlMhUrmUldæaneT.

delta: a sediment landform deposited at the mouth of a river when the river velocity decreases as it flows into slower-moving water.

dIsNþ ³ sNæandIkemÞckMN EdlRtUv)ancak;bgÁrenAmat;Tenø enAeBl el,ÓnTenøfycuH xN³eBlEdlvahUreTAkñúgTwkEdlmanclnahUryWt².

denudation: the combined processes of weathering, mass movement and erosion which cause the wearing down of the land surface.

karcuHTabénépÞdITVIb ³ dMeNIrkarcgP¢ab;Kñaénrbic clnacuHCRmalén rUbFatu nigsMNwk Edlbgá[mankarswkricrilénépÞdI.

dependent variable: a factor which varies because of a change in a related, GefrminÉkraCü b¤GefrGaRs½y ³ ktþaEdlERbRbYl edaysarEt

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independent variable. bERmbRmYlkñúgGefrÉkraCü EdlTak;Tg. deposition: the accumulation of sediments which were formerly in motion. karcak;bgÁr ³ karekIneLIgénkemÞckMNEdlBImunsßitkñúgkarman

clna. desert: a region with low precipitation (usually less than 25 cm per year). vallMh ³ tMbn;mYyEdlmankRmitkMNkGakasTab ¬CaFmµtaticCag

25 s>m kñúgmYyqñaM¦. desert pavement: loose, gravel surface layer from which fine sediment has been blown or washed out, and which protects rock or sediment below.

kRmalfµenAvallMh ³ RsTab;épÞRkYs ehIyFUr KµankemÞkkMNm:dæ EdlRtUv)anbk; b¤rsat;ecj ehIyEdlkarBarsila b¤kemÞckMNenABI eRkam.

desertification: land degradation in dry areas resulting from climatic variations and human activities.

dMeNIrbegáItCavallMh ³ karxUcdIenAtMbn;s¶ÜtEhg EdlCalT§pl BIbERmbRmYlGakasFatu nigskmµPaBmnusS.

destructive (convergent) boundary: a boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving towards each other.

RBMEdnbMpøaj ¬RBMEdnTaj¼rYmKñacUl¦ ³ RBMEdnrvagpøaktictUnic BIrEdlkMBugeFIVclnaTajcUlKña.

differential erosion: varying rates of erosion (or weathering) resulting from varying resistance of rocks in an area.

sMNwkepSgKña ³ GRtaERbRbYlénsMNwk ¬b¤rbic¦ EdlCalT§plBI bERmbRmYler:sIusþg;silaenAtMbn;mYy.

discharge: the volume of water that flows past a particular point in a river, during a unit of time, expressed in m3 s-1.

cMNuHTwk ³ TMhMTwkEdlhUrqøgkat;cMNucmYyenAkñúgTenø kñúgkMLúgxñat eBlevla Edl)anbgðajCa m3 s-1.

discontinuity: a joint, crack or fault in a rock which reduces friction and rock strength and allows water and air to enter.

PaBdac;² ³ sñameRbH karEbk)ak; b¤bMNak;RsutenAkñúgsilamYy Edl kat;bnßynUvkarkkit nigPaBCab;rbs;sila nigGnuBaØat[Twk nigxül;cUl )an.

discordant coastline: a coastline where the general direction is perpendicular to, and controlled by geological structures.

ExSeqñrminRsbKña ³ ExSeqñr EdlTisedATUeTA KWkat;Ekgnwgrcna sm<½n§FrNIkal ehIyRtUv)anRtYtRtaedayva.

disrupted (offset) drainage: the lateral displacement of a river channel where it flows across an active strike-slip fault.

karbgðÚrTwkRtUv)anbg¥ak; ³ karpøas;kEnøgenABIxagénpøÚvTwkTenø Edl vahUrkat;bMNak;RsutrGilEbkskmµmYy.

dissolved (solute) load: material in solution transported by a river. bnÞúkrlay ³ smasFatuenAkñúgsUluysüúg EdlRtUv)andwkCBa¢Ún

edayTenø. divergent (constructive) boundary: boundary separating two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other.

RBMEdnEbkecjBIKña ¬RBMEdnsMNg;¦ ³ RBMEdnEdlbMEbkpøak tictUnicBIr EdlkMBugeFIVclnaecjq¶ayBIKña.

doline (sinkhole): cone-shaped depression formed by the solution and collapse of limestone below.

dUlIn ³ RkhUgEdlmanrUbragdUcekaN RtUvbegáIteLIgedaysUluysüúg nigkarFøak;cuHénfµkMe)arBIxageRkam.

downslope: situated or moving in the direction of the bottom of a slope. karcuHCRmal ³ kartaMgenA b¤kareFIVclnakñúgTisedAcuHeTA)atCRmal. downstream: situated or moving in the direction in which a stream or river flows. ExSTwkhUrcuH ³ kartaMgenA b¤kareFIVclnakñúgTisedA EdlGUr eRCaH b¤

TenøhUr. drainage basin: total area drained by a river and its tributaries. GagbgðÚr ³ tMbn;TaMgmUl RtUv)anbgðÚrTwkedayTenø nigédrbs;va.

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drainage divide (watershed): the boundary of a drainage basin. ExSEckTwk ¬TICRmal¦ ³ RBMEdnénGagbgðÚr. drainage (channel) network: the system of river channels in a particular area. bNþajpøÚvTwk ³ RbB½n§énpøÚvTwkTenøenAtMbn;BiessNamYy. drainage pattern: the planform of a drainage network, influenced by geology and tectonic activity.

KMrUbgðÚrTwk ³ TRmg;bøg;énbNþajpøÚvTwk Edlrg\Ti§BledayFrNIsa®sþ nigskmµPaBtictUnic.

drainage reversal: the reversal in direction of a river flow caused by rapid uplift.

PaBbRBa©asvijénkarbgðÚrTwk ³ PaBbRBa©asTisedAénlMhUrTwkTenø EdlbgáeLIgedaykaregIbeLIgy:agrh½s.

dune: a mobile, sand landform shaped by fluid motion on river beds, coasts and deserts.

BMnUkxSac; ³ sNæandIxSac;cl½t EdlkMNt;RTg;RTayedayclna snÞnIyelI)atTenø eqñr nigvallMh.

duricrust: a hard crust, often composed of oxides, found on tropical land surfaces as a result of weathering.

RsTab;rwgénrbic ³ sm,kd¾rwg CaerOy²pSMBIGuksIut EdleKeXIjman enAelIépÞdItMbn;RtUBic EdlCalT§plénrbic.

dyke (dike): a column-shaped igneous intrusion which cuts across (not parallel to) existing rock layers.

DIk ³ kareRCotrbs;m:ak;m:aragCassr Edlkat;ExVg RsTab;silaEdl manRsab; ¬minRsbeTAnwgvaeT¦.

dynamic geomorphology: an approach to geomorphology which focuses on the study of modern, surface processes.

PUmisNæanviTüaDINamic ³ eKalviFIcMeBaHPUmisNæanviTüa Edlepþat elIkarsikSaBIdMeNIrkarépÞdIsm½yTMenIb.

E

earth flow: slow-to-rapid mass movement in which debris moves downslope as a very viscous fluid.

lMhUrdI ³ clnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu BIyWteTAelOn EdlkemÞckMTI eFIVclnacuHCRmalCarUbFatuxab;Gn§wlxøaMg.

earthquake: a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the surface.

karrBa¢ÜydI ³ rMj½réndIEdlbgáeLIgedaykarbeBa©jfamBlPøam² Edl sþúkTukenAkñúgsilaeRkamépÞdI.

earthquake focus (hypocentre): the location of origin of an earthquake. kMNMurBa¢Üy ³ kEnøgedIménkarrBa¢ÜydI. effusive eruption: volcanic eruption characterized by a lack of explosive activity, caused by basic magma with few volatile compounds.

bnÞúHénlMhUr ³ bnÞúHPñMePøIgEdlkMNt;lkçN³edaykarxVHxaténskmµ-PaBbnÞúH RtUv)anbgáeLIgedaym:ak;m:a)asmansmasFatuEdlehIrtic².

electron: light, negative particle that can be relatively easily removed from an atom. The charge of an electron is – 1.

eGLicRtug ³ PaKl¥itGviC¢manRsal EdlGacpþac;ecjBIGatUm)any:ag gay. bnÞúkrbs;vaesµI -1.

element: pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means to simpler substances. Each element is unique.

Fatu ¬FatuKImI¦ ³ sarFatusuT§EdlminGacbMEbk)antamviFIKImI[eTA CasarFatugayCagva. FatunImYy²manEtmYy.

elevation: the altitude (height) of an object above sea level. ry³km<s; ³ ry³km<s; ¬km<s;¦énvtßúmYyenAelInIv:UsmuRT. emergent coast: coast in which land formerly under water has recently become above sea level, via uplift of land or a fall in sea level.

eqñrEdlpuseLIg ³ eqñrEdldIkalBImunsßiteRkamTwk fµI²enHsßitenAelI nIv:UsmuRT tamry³karegIbeLIgénépÞdI b¤karFøak;cuHénnIv:UsmuRT.

endogenic process: processes originating within the Earth. Energy is derived from the Earth’s hot interior.

dMeNIrkarépÞxagkñúg ³ dMeNIrkarTaMgLayEdlcab;kMeNItenAkñúg EpndI. famBl KWmanRbPBBIEpñkekþAxagkñúgrbs;EpndI.

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entrainment: the setting into motion of a particle. karykecj ³ karbegáItCaclnaénPaKl¥it. entrainment (critical flow) threshold: the flow velocity required to initiate the movement of sediment particles by wind or water.

kRmitel,Ónénkarykecj ¬kRmitlMhUrBiess¦ ³ el,Ón lMhUrEdltRmUveLIg edIm,IeFVI[PaKl¥itkemÞckMNmanclnaedayxülbk;; b¤crnþTwk.

environmental reconstruction: the use of geological, geomorphological and biological evidence to produce a synthesis of former (palaeo) environmental conditions, processes and changes.

karsßabnanUvbrisßaneLIgvij ³ kareRbIR)as;nUvPsþútagFrNIviTüa PUmisNæanviTüa nigCIvviTüaedIm,IbegáItkarsMeyaKnUvlkçxNÐ dMeNIrkar nig bERmbRmYlbrisßanBImun.

eolian (aeolian): of, or relating to the action of the wind. énxül;bk; ³ én b¤EdlTak;TgnwgskmµPaBrbs;xül;bk;. epeirogeny (warping): uplift of large areas of crust without much deformation; different from orogeny.

eGeprU:CwnI ¬karekageLIgéntMbn;FM¦ ³ karegIbeLIgnUvtMbn;FM²én sm,kEpndI edayKµankarxUcRTg;RTayeRcIneT EtxusBIkaregIbeLIgén Rkvat;PñM ¬GUr:UCwnI¦.

ephemeral channels: a stream which contains flowing water only during and immediately after a rainstorm.

pøÚvTwkminsßitesßr ³ GUr b¤eRCaHEdlmanEtTwkhUrenAkMLúgeBlman BüúHePøóg nigPøam²bnÞab;BImanBüúHePøóg.

epicentre: the point on the Earth’s surface which is directly above the focus of an earthquake.

p©itelI ³ cMNucenAelIépÞEpndIEdlsßitenAcMBIelIkMNMurBa¢ÜyEpndI.

epicontinental: on a continent. enAelITVIb ³ enAelITIVb. epicontinental (epeiric) sea: a shallow sea on the continental shelf which is connected with an ocean.

smuRTelICayTVIb ³ smuRTTwkrak;enAelICayTIVb EdlRtUvtP¢ab; CamYymhasmuRT.

epoch: a unit of geological time, a division of a period. sm½y ³ xñaténFrNIkal EdlCaEpñkmYyrbs;sm½ykal. era: the largest unit of geological time, made up of one or more periods. s½k ³ xñatFMbMputéneBlevlaPUKBÖsaRsþ EdlbegáIteLIgBIsm½ykal

mYy b¤eRcIn. erodibility: the susceptibility of a land surface to erosion. PaBGacgayTTYlsMNwk ³ PaBGacTTYlrgGMeBIRKb;y:agénépÞdI

cMeBaHsMNwk. erosion: the group of processes whereby debris or rock material is loosened or dissolved and removed from the Earth’s surface.

sMNwk ³ RkuméndMeNIrkar EdlkemÞckMTI b¤smasFatusila RtUvrbUt ecj b¤RtUvrlay ehIyRtUvpþac;ecjBIépÞEpndI.

erosivity: a measure of the ability of a geomorphic process to erode a land surface.

PaBGaceFVI[mansMNwk ³ karvas;EvgénsmtßPaBrbs;dMeNIrkar PUmisNæan EdleFIV[mansMNwkdl;épÞdI.

etchform: landforms resulting from weathering below the ground surface, exposed by removal of overlying material.

TRmg;dIqøak; ³ sNæandI EdlCalT§plénrbiceRkamépÞdI RtUvbgðaj[ eXIjedaykarsIudac;nUvsmasFatuxagelI.

eustatic: relating to global sea-level change caused by absolute changes in the volume of sea water.

yUsþaTic b¤ényUesþsIu ³ Tak;TgeTAnwgbERmbRmYlnIv:UTwksmuRT sakl EdlRtUvbgáedaybERmbRmYldac;xatkñúgTMhMTwksmuRT.

evaporation: the vaporization of water into the atmosphere from open water surfaces.

rMhYt ³ karhYténTwkeTAkñúgbriyakasBIépÞTwkebIkcMh.

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evapotranspiration: the vaporization of water into the atmosphere from a vegetated surface.

karhYt-karbeBa©j ³ dMeNIrkøayeTACacMhayTwkrbs;TwkeTAkñúg briyakasBIépÞEdlRKbdNþb;edayrukçCati.

exfoliation (onion-skin weathering): the weathering of rock by the flaking off of its surface layers.

karbeBa©jRsTab;sila ¬rbicEbbkarrbksm,kxÞwm)araMg¦ ³ rbicénsilaedaykarbkecjnUvRsTab;épÞrbs;va.

exhalative eruption: volcanic eruption characterized by the release of gases. bnÞúHdMNkdegðIm ³ bnÞúHPñMePøIg EdlRtUvkMNt;lkçN³edaykarbeBa©j

nUv]sµ½nepSg². exogenic process: processes occurring at or near the Earth’s surface. Energy is derived from outside the Earth.

dMeNIrkarépÞxagelI b¤xageRkA ³ dMeNIrkarnanaEdlekItmaneLIg enAÉ b¤Ek,répÞEpndI. famBlenH manRbPBmkBIeRkAEpndI.

experimentation: a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact

karBiesaF ³ TRmg;karviTüasa®sþ EdlRtUveFIVeLIg edIm,IeFIVrbkKMehIj sakl,gsmµtikmµ b¤edIm,IbgðajBIehtukarN_Edl)andwg.

explosive eruption: violent volcanic activity characterized by the eruption of acid (silica-rich) pyroclastic material.

bnÞúHrMesv ³ skmµPaBPñ MePøIgd¾xøaMg EdlRtUvkMNt;lkçN³edaybnÞúHén smasFatubMENksilaPñMePøIgGasIut ¬sm,ÚrsIulIka¦.

extrusive (volcanic): an igneous rock which erupts at the Earth’s surface before cooling.

silam:ak;m:axageRkA ¬silaPñMePøIg¦ ³ silaPñMePøIgEdlpÞúHenAelI épÞEpndI muneBlcuHRtCak;.

F

fall: mass movement that occurs when material free-falls or bounces down a cliff. karFøak;cuH ³ clnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu EdlekIteLIgenAeBlsmas-

Fatu Føak;cuHedayesrI b¤elatcuHBIRcaMg. fall velocity: the velocity below which a moving fluid is unable to transport material of a given size.

kRmitel,ÓnénkarTmøak;cuH ³ el,ÓnénsnÞnIyeFIVclna Edlmin GacdwkCBa¢ÚnsmasFatuénTMhMkMNt;BiessNamYy.

fault: a fracture in bedrock along which tectonic movement has taken place. bMNak;Rsut ³ bMENkenAkñúgtambeNþaysilaRTnr Edlclna

tictUnicekItmaneLIg. fault scarp: a steep slope formed as a result of uplift along a normal fault. muxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut ³ CRmalecat Edl)anekItmaneLIg Ca

lT§plénkaregIbeLIgtambeNþaybMNak;RsutFmµta. fault-block mountains: a mountain range created by uplift along normal faults. PñMbøúkbMNak;Rsut ³ CYrPñMeEdl)anekIteLIgedaykaregIbeLIgtam

beNþaybMNak;RsutFmµta. feedback: the state of a system such that, when change is introduced via one of the variables in the system, its activity through the system leads back to a change in the original variable..

Rbtikmµ ³ lkçN³énRbB½n§. enAeBlGefrmYyénRbB½n§ ERbRbYl enaH skmµPaBrbs;vatamry³RbB½n§naM[manbERmbRmYlkñúgGefredImvij.

felsic (acid): silica-rich igneous rock with a relatively high content of potassium and sodium.

EhVlsuic ¬GasIut¦ ³ silaPñMePøIgEdlsm,ÚrsIulIsedaymanbrimaN b:UtasüÚm nigsUdüÚmx<s;.

field observation: the collection of scientific data in the natural environment. karsegáteTAelITIlan ³ karRbmUlpþúMnUvTinñn½yviTüasaRsþ enAkñúg

brisßanFmµCati.

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flood (storm) hydrograph: a graph showing the relationship between discharge and time for a single storm in a drainage basin.

GIuRdURkabCMnn; b¤BüúH ³ RkabEdlbgðajBITMnak;TMngrvagcMNuHTwk nig eBlevla sRmab;BüúHEtmYyenAkñúgGagbgðÚr.

fjord: a coastal inlet that is a glacially-eroded valley, the floor of which has been flooded during postglacial sea-level rise.

QUgsmuRTceg¥ót ³ édsmuRT EdlCaRClgrgsMNwkedayTwkkk Edl)aténRClgRtUv)anCn;lic kñúgGMLúgeBlkMeNInnIv:UTwksmuRT taMgBI sm½yTwkkk.

fissility: the ability of a rock to split into thin layers. PaBGaceRcok ³ smtßPaBrbs;sila edIm,IeRcokeTACaRsTab;esþIg². floodplain: a broad belt of land built up by sedimentation on either side of a river channel.

TMnablicTwk ³ k,aldId¾TUlaymYy EdlbegáIteLIgedaykemÞckMN enAelIEpñkmçagénpøÚvTwkTenø.

flow: a type of mass movement in which material is moving downslope as a viscous fluid.

lMhUr ³ RbePTénclnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu EdlsmasFatukMBugeFIV clnacuHCRmal CasnÞnIyxab;Gn§wl.

fluid threshold: the wind velocity required to cause movement of particles through lift or drag.

kRmiténel,ÓnsnÞnIy ³ el,Ónxül;bk; EdltRmUveLIgedIm,Ibgá[ PaKl¥itmanclnatamry³karelIkeLIg b¤karTajeLIg.

fluvial: of or relating to rivers or streams. énTenø ³ én b¤EdlTak;TgnwgTenø GUr b¤eRCaH. fluvial denudation: lowering of the elevation of the land surface by river erosion.

karcuHTabénépÞdItamTenø ³ kareFIV[Tabénry³km<s;épÞdI eday sMNwkTenø.

fluvial geomorphology: the study of fluvial processes, sediments, landforms and landscapes.

PUmisNæanviTüaTenø ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkar kemÞckMN sNæandI nig eTsPaBsNæanrbs;Tenø.

fold: plastic deformation which has bent and shortened formerly planar layers of rock.

BMenIgpñt; ³ kMhUcRTg;RTaypøasÞic Edl)aneFIV[ekag nigeFIV[rYjxøI nUv RsTab;rabesµIBImunrbs;sila.

fold mountains: mountain range formed as a result of collision and folding. PñMBMenIgpñt; ³ CYrPñMEdlkekIteLIgCalT§plénkarbukKña nigBMenIgpñt;. foliation: parallel alignment of textural and structural features of a rock acquired during metamorphism.

vaynPaBdUcRkambnÞH ³ karerobCaCYrRsbKñaénlkçN³vaynPaB nigrcnasm<½n§énsila EdlTTYl)anenAkMLúgeBldMeNIrkarERbkMeNIt.

force: (1) mass x acceleration, measured in newtons (N); (2) the application of stresses to material which, if greater than the resisting strength of that material, will cause it to change.

kmøaMg ¬kmøaMgFmµCati¦ ³ ¬1¦ m:as x kMeNInel,Ón Edlvas;EvgCa jÚtun ¬N¦ ¬2¦ karGnuvtþnUvkmøaMgsgát;eTAelIsmasFatu Edlvanwgbgá[ ERbRbYl RbsinebIkmøaMgsgát;FMCagPaBCab; b¤PaBFn;énsmasFatu enaH.

foreshore zone: the part of a beach between the low-water mark and the high-tide mark.

tMbn;eqñrxagmux ³ EpñkéneqñrxSac;enAcenøaHrvagkRmitCMenarTab nig kRmitCMenarx<s.

fossil: traces of plants or animals that have been preserved in rock. pUsIul ³ smøakénrukçCati b¤stVEdlrkSaenAkñúgsila. fracture: the way a material breaks as a result of stress. karEbk)ak; ³ meFüa)ayEdlsmasFatuEbk)ak; CalT§plénkmøaMg

sgát;. free dune: sand dune whose form is determined by wind characteristics. BMnUkxSac;esrI ³ pñÚkxSac; EdlTRmg;rbs;va RtUv)ankMNt;edaylkçN³

xül;bk;.

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freeze-thaw weathering (gelifraction): the fracture of rock as a result of the repeated application of internal stresses generated by expansion on freezing.

rbicedaykarkk nigkarrlay ³ karEbk)ak;énsilaCalT§plén karGnuvtþénkmøaMgsgát;xagkñúgdEdl² EdlbegáIteLIgedaykarrIkmaDén kMNk.

fringing reef: a coral reef directly attached to the shore. fµb:RbHTwkCayeqñr ³ fµb:RbHTwkEdlCab;pÞal;eTAnwgeqñr.

G

geochemistry: the study of the chemistry of the Earth’s constituents. PUKBÖKImI ³ karsikSaBIKImIviTüarbs;FatupSMrbs;EpndI. geodesy: the science of the precise measurement and mapping of the Earth’s surface.

RbfBIviPaK ³ viTüasa®sþénkarvas;Evg nigkareFIVEpnTICak;lak; énépÞ EpndI.

geoid: the surface of equal values of the Earth’s gravitational field, coinciding with mean sea level and its imagined extension through land areas.

CIGUGIud ³ épÞéntémøesµIKñaénEdnTMnajEpndI EdlekIteLIgdUcKñanwgnIv:U TwksmuRTmFüm nigkarlatsn§wgrbs;vatamry³épÞdITVIb.

Geographical Cycle (Cycle of Erosion) : theoretical sequence of denudation processes and forms between initial uplift of a landscape to its erosion to a flat plain.

vdþPUmiviTüa ¬vdþsMNwk¦ ³ lMdab;tamRTwsþIéndMeNIrkar nigTRmg; énkarcuHTabénépÞdITIVb rvagkaregIbeLIgdMbUgrbs;eTsPaBsNæan cMeBaH sMNwkrbs;vaeTAnwgTMnabrabesµI.

Geological Cycle: the repeated sequence of uplift, denudation, sedimentation and lithification of Earth materials.

vdþFrNIviTüa ³ lMdab;dEdl²énkaregIbeLIg karcuHTabénépÞdITIVb KMnrkemÞckMN nigdMeNIrkarkøayCasilaénsmasFatuEpndI.

geological time: the age of the Earth and its rocks. GayukalénPUKBÖsa®sþ ³ Gayukalrbs;EpndI nigsilarbs;va. geological timescale: an absolute timescale made up of standard divisions based on rock and fossil sequences.

maRtdæaneBlevlaPUKBÖsa®sþ ³ maRtdæaneBlevladac;xat pSM eLIgBIbMENgEcksþg;da edayEp¥kelIlMdab;énsila nigpUsIul.

geo- (palaeo-) magnetic timescale: timescale established from the timing of reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field since 160 Ma.

maRtdæaneBlevlam:aej:Tic ³ maRtdæaneBlevlaEdlbegáIteLIg BIkarkMNt;eBlevlaénkarbRBa©asrbs;Ednm:aej:TicEpndI taMgBI 160 lanqñaMmun.

geology: the science that studies the Earth’s physical structure and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it.

FrNIviTüa b¤ PUKBÖsa®sþ ³ viTüasa®sþEdlsikSaBIrcnasm<½n§rUb sarFatu nigRbvtþirbs;EpndI nigdMeNIrkarnana EdlekIteLIgenAelIEpndI.

geomorphology: the science that studies landforms and landscapes at the Earth’s surface, including their processes, form and history.

PUmisNæanviTüa ³ viTüasa®sþEdlsikSaBIsNæandI nigeTsPaB-sNæan enAÉépÞEpndI rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgdMeNIrkarnana TRmg; nigRbvtþirbs;va.

geophysics: the application of the principles and techniques of physics to the study of the Earth.

PUKBÖrUbvnþ ³ karGnuvtþnUveKalkarN_ nigbec©keTsrUbviTüaeTAelIkar sikSaBIEpndI.

geothermal heat: heat transferred from the Earth’s interior towards its surface. kemþAkñúgEpndI ³ kemþAEdl)anepÞrBIépÞkñúgEpndI eq<aHeTAkan;épÞEpndI. geyser: a fountain of geothermally heated water that erupts intermittently as a result of increases in pressure beneath the surface.

ExSTwkekþA ³ RbPBTwkekþA EdlpÞúHecjeRkA dac;² CalT§plénkMeNIn sm<aFBIeRkamépÞdI.

glacial: (adj). of or relating to glaciers. énTenøTwkkk ³ én b¤EdlTak;TgeTAnwgTenøTwkkk.

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glacial (glacial period): (n). time periods when ice sheets were expanded and average global climates were colder and drier than during the intervening interglacials, such as exists at present.

sm½yTwkkk ³ sm½ykalEdlEpnTwkkk RtUvrIkmaD ehIysItuNðPaB saklmFüm KWRtCak;Cag nigs¶ÜtCag enAGMLúgeBlGnþrsm½yTwkkk dUc Camanesssl;dl;eBlbc©úb,nñ.

glacial geomorphology: the study of glacial processes, sediments and landforms.

PUmisNæanviTüaTenøTwkkk ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkar kemÞckMN nig TRmg;dIénTenøTwkkk.

glacier: a mass of snow and ice which, if thick enough, deforms under its own weight and flows.

TenøTwkkk ³ m:asénRBil nigTwkkk EdleFIV[xUcRTg;RTayeRkam Tm¶n; niglMhUrpÞal;rbs;va RbsinebIvamankRmas;RKb;RKan;.

glacio-eustasy: absolute changes in the global sea level due to changes in the volume of glaciers on land.

yUesþsIuénTwkkk ³ bERmbRmYldac;xatkñúgnIv:UsmuRTsakl eday GaRs½yelIbERmbRmYlTMhMTenøTwkkkelIépÞdI.

glacio-isostacy: local uplift and depression of the sea-bed and land level caused by changes in the volume of glaciers on land.

GaysUesþsIuénTwkkk ³ karegIbeLIg nigkarFøak;cuHkñúgtMbn;énnIv:U)at smuRT nignIv:UdI EdlbgáeLIgedaybERmbRmYlTMhMTenøTwkkkelIépÞdI.

global atmospheric circulation: the lateral motion of air (energy and moisture) around the world.

rgVl;briyakassakl ³ clnaenABIxagelIénbriyakas ¬famBl nigsMeNIm¦ CMuvijBiPBelak.

global ocean circulation: the motion of surface and deep ocean currents which transfer heat energy and moisture around the Earth.

rgVl;mhasmuRTsakl ³ clnaéncrnþmhasmuRTeRCA² nigenACit épÞTwksmuRT EdlepÞrfamBlkemþA nigsMeNImCMuvijEpndI.

global hypsometric curve: a graph showing the proportion of the area of the Earth’s surface at different altitudes above and below sea level.

ExSekagénkm<s;EpndI ³ RkabEdlbgðajBIsmamaRténtMbn;elIépÞ EpndI enAÉry³km<s;epSg²Kña xagelI nigxageRkamnIv:UsmuRT.

Global Positioning System (GPS): a system for establishing accurate positions and heights of the Earth’s surface using satellites.

RbB½n§kMNt;TItaMgEpndI ³ RbB½n§sRmab;karbegáItTItaMg nigry³km<s; RtwmRtUvénépÞEpndI edayeRbIR)as;páayrNb.

Gondwanaland: the southern part of Pangaea, that formed South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica.

kugdVaNa ³ Epñkxagt,Úgénb:g;eso EdlbegáIt)anCaTVIbGaemrikxag t,Úg GaRhVik \NÐa GU®sþalI nigGg;takTik.

Greenhouse effect: the trapping of heat by a planet’s atmosphere, causing the planet to be warmer than otherwise.

plpÞHkBa©k; ³ karRsUbkemþAedaybriyakasEpndI Edlbgá[PBEpndI eLIgekþACagtamEbbepSgBIenH.

groundwater flow: the movement of water beneath the Earth’s surface. lMhUrTwkeRkamdI ³ clnaTwkeRkamépÞEpndI. gulf: a long inlet of the sea almost surrounded by land, with a narrow mouth. QUgsmuRT ³ édsmuRTEvgmYyesÞIrEtB½T§CMuvijedayépÞdI edaymanmat;

ceg¥ót. gullying: erosion of a steep-sided channel or trench on a slope, to a depth of several metres by flowing water.

lMhUrTwkenAtamGUr ³ sMNwkénpøÚvTwk b¤sñamePøaHecatenAelICRmal eTAkan;CeRmACaeRcInEm:RtedaylMhUrTwk.

H

hardness: the resistance of a material to scratching. PaBrwg ³ karTb;Tl;rbs;smasFatumYy cMeBaHkarqUt. headland: a narrow piece of land that juts out from a coastline into the sea. eRCay ³ Epñkceg¥óténdI EdleTIbEtelcecjBIExSeqñreTAkan;smuRT.

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heave: a type of mass movement where repeated cycles of expansion and contraction cause soil to move downslope.

PaBpt-e)a:g ³ RbePTénclnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu EdlCavdþdEdl² énkarrIkmaD nigrYmmaD eFIV[dImanclnaRCalcuH.

helical flow: spiraling fluid flow which causes lateral movement of sediment. lMhUrragrgVg; ³ lMhUrragrgVg; b¤ragKUfxüg;enAkñúgsnÞnIy Edlbgá[

manclnakemÞckMNenABIxag. high-water mark (HWM): the level reached by the sea at high tide. kRmitCMenarx<s; ³ nIv:Urbs;TwksmuRTenACMenarx<s;. hillslope geomorphology: the study of processes and forms on slopes. PUmisNæanviTüaCRmal ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkar nigTRmg;nana enAelI

CRmal. honeycomb weathering: the development of numerous small pits formed by weathering, joined in a network structure.

rbicEbbsMNMuTwkXµM ú ³ karvivtþénreNþAtUc²CaeRcIn EdlbegáIteLIg edayrbic Edl)ancUlrYmenAkñúgrcnasm<½n§bNþaj.

horst: an up-raised block bounded by normal faults. PñMbMNak;Rsut ³ bøúkEdlegIbeLIg RtUv)ankMNt;EdnsIma edaybMNak;

RsutFmµta. hot spot: an area of volcanic activity and high heat flow above a rising mantle plume.

cMNucekþA ³ tMbn;énskmµPaBPñMePøIg niglMhUrkemþAxøaMgBIelIcrnþrgVl; kñúgm:g;tUEdlekIneLIg.

humid tropical geomorphology: the study of Earth surface processes and landforms in humid tropical environments.

PUmisNæanviTüatMbn;RtUBicesIm ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkarépÞEpndI nig TRmg;dIenAtMbn;brisßanRtUBicesIm.

hydration: the addition of water into the chemical composition of a mineral, which can cause swelling, creating stress and rock weathering.

GIuRdatkmµ ³ karbEnßmTwkeTAkñúgsmasFatupSMKImIrbs;Er:xmYy Edl Gacbgá[mankare)a:geLIg begáItnUvkmøaMgsgát; nigrbiceTAelIsila.

hydraulic action: the ability of the force of water to pick up and transport rock and sediment.

skmµPaBénkmøaMgTwk ³ smtßPaBénkmøaMgrbs;Twk edIm,ITajyk nig dwkCBa©ÚnnUvsila nigkemÞckMN.

hydraulic geometry: relationships between river flow characteristics such as discharge, velocity and channel size at one point as discharge varies, and downstream as discharge increases.

FrNImaRténClKtviTüa ³ TMnak;TMngrvaglkçN³lMhUrTenø dUcCa cMNuHTwk el,Ón nigTMhMpøÚvTwkenAcMNucmYy xN³eBlcMNuHTwkmanPaB xusKña ehIyExSTwkhUrcuH xN³eBlcMNuHTwkekIneLIg.

hydraulic radius: the efficiency of a section of river channel, being the ratio of wetted perimeter to cross-sectional area.

kaMénClKtviTüa ³ karpþl;[nUvpll¥énEpñkrbs;pøÚvTwkTenø EdlCa RbPaKénbrimaRtesImcMeBaHTMhMBMnuHkat;TTwg.

hydro-isostasy: the reaction of the Earth’s crust to the addition and removal of a load of water.

GaysUesþsIuénTwk ³ Rbtikmµénsm,kEpndIeTAnwgkarbEnßm nigkar pþac;ecjnUvbnÞúkrbs;Twk.

hydrograph: graph showing changes in discharge with time for a point in a drainage basin.

GIuRdURkab b¤ RkahVikTwk ³ RkabEdlbgðajJBIbERmbRmYlcMNuHTwk CamYynwgeBlevlasRmab;cMNucmYyenAkñúgGagbgðÚr.

hydrology: the study of water’s properties, circulation, and distribution. ClFaviTüa ³ karsikSaBIlkçN³ rgVl; nigr)ayrbs;Twk. hydrolysis: an important mechanism of chemical weathering, in which a compound dissociates with water.

GIuRdUlIs ³ ynþkarsMxan;mYyénrbicKImI EdlsmasFatumYybMEbk CamYyTwk.

hydrosphere: the Earth’s water, both fresh and saline, in liquid, solid or gas states, which is moved between various

mNÐlTwk ³ Twkrbs;EpndI TaMgTwksab nigTwkéRb sßitkñúgPav³rav rwg

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locations by the hydrological cycle. nig]sµ½n EdleFIVclnaenAcenøaHTItaMgepSg²KñaedayvdþTwk. hydrostatic equilibrium: the state of pressure balance of an object floating on a liquid.

smtaGIuRdUsþaTik ³ lkçN³éntulüPaBsm<aFrbs;vtßúmYy Edl GENþtenAelIGgÁFaturav.

hypsometry: the measurement of the elevation of the land-surface or sea floor above or below sea-level.

TRmg;FrNIsa®sþ ³ karvas;Evgénry³km<s;rbs;épÞdI b¤)atsmuRT BI elI b¤BIeRkamnIv:UsmuRT.

I

ice core: a column of ice extracted by drilling into an ice sheet. Analysis of ice core data has provided a detailed record of global climate change for 800,000 years.

ssrTwkkk ³ ssrTwkkk RtUv)anykecjedaykarxYgeTAkñúgEpnTwk kk. karviPaKTinñn½ysssrTwkkk )anpþl;nUvkarkt;Rtay:agBisþarBIkar- ErbRbYlGakasFatusaklry³eBl 800 000 qñaM.

ice sheet: a large dome-shaped glacier (over 50,000 km2 in area) with an outward radial flow. The Antarctic ice sheets are more than 4 km thick.

pÞaMgTwkkk ³ TenøTwkkkmansNæandUcedamFMmYy ¬épÞRkLaelIsBI 50 000 K>m2¦ edaymanlMhUrdUckaMxageRkA. pÞaMgTwkkkGg;tak;Tik KW mankRmas; Cag 4 K>m.

igneous rock: rock formed when molten material (magma), solidifies, either within the Earth’s crust or at the surface.

silam:ak;m:a ³ silaEdlekItmanenAeBlsmasFaturlay ¬m:ak;m:a¦ eLIgkkrwg enAkñúgsm,kEpndI b¤enAÉépÞEpndI.

impact threshold: the wind velocity required to cause movement of particles through collision impact.

kRmiténel,ÓnTgÁicKña ³ el,Ónxül;bk; RtUv)antRmUveLIg edIm,I begáItclna[PaKl¥it tamry³\Ti §BlénkarbukTgÁicKña.

impeded dune: sand dune whose form is determined by vegetation, topographic obstacles or very localized sediment sources.

pñÚkxSac;bg¥ak; ³ pñÚkxSac; EdlTRmg;rbs;va RtUv)ankMNt;edaysar-eBIrukçCati edayrnaMg sPaBTabx<s;énsNæandI b¤RbPBkemÞckMNtam tMbn;.

incised meander: the winding pattern of a river channel flowing over and cutting down into bedrock.

EPñnEdlkat; ³ KMrUxül;bk;énpøÚvTwkTenøEdlhUrelI nighUrkat;cuHeTA kan;silaRTnr.

incision: the erosion of a narrow, bedrock river channel by vigorous fluvial down-cutting.

sMNwkedaykarvH ³ sMNwkénpøÚvTwksilaRTnrEdlceg¥ót eday karhUrkat;silay:agxøaMg.

incremental dating method: dating method based on regular additions of organic material or sediment layers.

viFIkalbriecäTéncMnYnbEnßm ³ vIFIkMNt;kalbriecäTedayEp¥kelIkar bEnßmeTogTat;énsmasFatusrIragÁ b¤RsTab;kemÞckMN.

independent variable: a factor which, when it varies, causes a related, dependent variable to change also.

GefrÉkraCü ³ ktþaEdlbgá[GefrTak;Tg nigGefrGaRs½yERbRbYl pgEdr enAeBlvaERbRbYl.

infiltration: the process by which water drains from the ground surface into the soil.

CRmabTwk ³ dMeNIrkarEdlTwk hUrecjBIépÞdIcUleTAkñúgdI.

inselberg: ´island hill´: a large hill remaining on an eroded plain, because of their higher resistance. Include tors.

PñMsMNl; ³ {PñMekaH}³ PñMFMEdlbnSl;enAelITMnabEdlrgsMNwkrYc eday sarEter:sIusþg; b¤kmøaMgTb;x<s;rbs;va rab;TaMgBMnUkfµnanaCaedIm.

inshore zone: the shallow water coastal zone below the low-water mark, where tMbn;eqñrxagkñúg ³ tMbn;eqñrTwkrak; BIeRkamkRmitCMenarTab Edlrlk

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approaching waves change shape before breaking. ERbRbYlrUbragrbs;va muneBlvaEbk. insolation weathering (thermoclasty): disintegration of rock in response to temperature changes causing stresses.

Rbicedaykarpøas;bþÚrénsItuNðPaB ³ karEbk)ak;énsilakñúgkar eqøIytbeTAnwgbERmbRmYlsItuNðPaB Edlbgá[mankmøaMgsgát;.

inter-continental orogen: linear mountain range formed as a result of two continental plates colliding.

ExSRkvat;PñMGnþrTVIb ³ CYrPñMlIenEG‘r EdlekIteLIgCalT§plénkarbuk KñaénpøakTIVbBIr.

inter-tidal zone: coastal zone between the low-water and high-water marks, regularly covered and uncovered by the rise and fall of the tides.

tMbn;cenøaHCMenar ³ tMbn;eqñrcenøaHrvagkRmitCMenarTab nigCMenarx<s; RtUv)anRKbdNþb; nigminRKbdNþb;CaeTogTat;edaykarekIneLIg nigkar RskcuHCMenar.

interglacial period: a phase of warmth between glacials, when the great ice sheets retreated and decayed. The present Holocene period is an interglacial.

Gnþrsm½yTwkkk ³ dMNak;kalekþAenAcenøaHsm½yTwkkk xN³eBl pÞaMgTwkkkFM² RtUvfycuH ehIyrlay. sm½yhULÚsIunbc©úb,nñ KWCaGnþr- sm½yTwkkk.

intra-oceanic island arc: a chain of volcanic islands forming where oceanic crust is subducted beneath another oceanic part of a plate.

kMeNagekaHxagkñúgmhasmuRT ³ ExSRkvat;énekaHPñMePøIg EdlekIt eLIgenAkEnøgEdlsm,kmhasmuRT RtUvFøak;cuHBIeRkamEpñkmhasmuRT mYyénpøakmYyeTot.

intrusion (pluton): a mass of igneous rock that has penetrated older rocks through cracks and faults before cooling.

silaeRCot ¬silaBøúytUnic¦ ³ m:asénsilaPñMePøIg Edl)aneRCot cUleTAkñúgsilaEdlcas;CagtamsñameRbH nigbMNak;RsutmuneBlcuH RtCak;.

intrusive (plutonic): a description of igneous rock that has penetrated surrounding rocks before solidifying and cooling.

silam:ak;m:axagkñúg ¬BøúytUnic¦ ³ karBiBN’BIsilam:ak;m:a Edl )aneRCotcUlkñúgsilaEdlenACMuvij muneBlvakkrwg nigcuHRtCak;.

inverted topography: the situation resulting from erosion of high areas (such as anticlines) to produce low areas, which results in the originally lower areas becoming hills. Equally, deposition of resistant sediments (e.g. duricrusts and lag gravels) in river valleys may cause them to be left high after further erosion.

eTsPaBsNæanbRBa©as ³ sßanPaBEdlTTYllT§plBIsMNwktMbn; x<s;² ¬dUcCaGg;TIKø INal;CaedIm¦ edIm,IbegáIt)anCatMbn;Tab EdlCalT§- pléntMbn;TabCagedIm EdlkøayeTACatMbn;PñM. dUcKñaenHEdr karcak;bgÁr énkemÞckMNrwg² ¬]TahrN_³ RsTab;rwgénrbic nigRKab;RkYs¦enAkñúg RClgTenø Gacbgá[BYkvaenAsl;x<s; bnÞab;BIsMNwkbEnßm.

ion: an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge; an atom that has lost or gained electrons and no longer has the same number of electrons as the number of protons in its nucleus. Positive ions are called cations, and negative ions are called anions.

GIuy:ug ³ GatUm b¤RkuménGatUmEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man b¤GviC¢man. GatUm Edlxat b¤cMeNjeGLicRtug ehIy ElgmancMnYneGLicRtugdUcKñanwgcMnYn RbUtug enAkñúgéNVy:Urbs;vaeTotehIy. GIuy:ugviC¢manCakacug nigGIuy:ug GviC¢man CaGaj:úg.

ionic bonding: attractive force between two oppositely charged ions. karcgsm½<n§GIuy:ug ³ kmøaMgTMnajrvagGIuy:ugBIrEdlmanbnÞúkpÞúyKña. island arc: an arc-shaped chain of volcanic islands rising from deep ocean and associated with an ocean trench. According to the Plate tectonics model, they are formed as a result of volcanism induced by subduction of oceanic crust.

kMeNagekaH b¤ FñÚekaH ³ Rkvat;énekaHPñMePøIgragdUcFñÚ Edlelc eLIgBImhasmuRTeRCA² ehIyTak;TgnwgsñamePøaHmhasmuRTmYy. Eday eyageTAelIRTwsþIpøaktictUnic BYkvaRtUvkekIteLIgCalT§plénskmµPaB PñMePøIg EdlCaehtuénkarFøak;cuHénsm,kmhasmuRT.

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isostasy: the state of balance between sections of the lighter lithosphere floating on the denser, underlying mantle.

GaysUesþsIu ¬PaBsmlMnwg¦ ³ sPaBéntulüPaBrvagEpñknanaén mNÐlfµEdlRsalCag EdlGENþtelIm:g;tUEdlF¶n;Cag enABIeRkam.

isostatic rebound: uplift of the land in response to a reduction of the lithosphere’s weight (via deglaciation, denudation etc) depressing the mantle.

karegIbeLIgvijénGaysUesþsIu ³ karegIbeLIgénépÞdI CalT§pl énkarfycuHTm¶n;rbs;mNÐlfµ ¬tamry³ karrlaypÞaMgTwkkk kar-cuHTabénépÞdITIVb -l-¦ EdlFøab;sgát;elImNÐlm:g;tU.

isotope: atoms of a given element which have the same number of protons in their nuclei but have different numbers of neutrons.

GIusUtUb ³ GatUménFatuNamYyEdlmancMnYnRbUtugesµIKñaenAkñúgéNVy:U b:uEnþmancMnYnNWtRtugxusKña.

J

joint: a fracture within a rock, often caused by its contraction when cooling or drying.

sñameRbH ³ karEbk)ak;enAkñúgsila CaerOy² RtUv)anbgáeLIgeday karrYmmaDrbs;va enAeBlcuHRtCak; b¤eLIgs¶Üt.

jökulhlaup: a sudden flood of glacier meltwater from a lake beneath or next to a glacier, caused by melt of an ice dam.

TwkCMnn;BIPñMePøIg ³ TwkCMnn;Pøam²énkarrlayTwkkkBIbwgenAeRkam b¤ enAEk,rTenøTwkkk EdlRtUvbgáeLIgedaykarrlayénTMnb;Twkkk.

K

karst: limestone areas which contain distinct weathering landforms, including caves, springs and dolines.

kasf_ ³ tMbn;fµkMe)ar EdlpÞúknUvsNæandIrbicepSg²Kña rYmmanrUgfµ TwkpuseRkamdI nigdUlIn.

karst geomorphology: the study of limestone landscapes, dominated by solution weathering and the development of underground drainage systems.

PUmisNæanviTüakasf_ ³ karsikSaBIeTsPaBsNæanfµkMe)ar EdlRtUv RtYtRtaedayrbicsUluysüúg nigkarvivtþénRbB½n§bgðÚrxageRkamdI.

knickpoint: a break in the long profile of a river, as at a waterfall or lake. Their presence may be explained by patterns of rock type and geological structures, or a response to changes in base level.

cMNuckaM ³ karEbk)ak;kñúgTRmg;d¾EvgénTenøenAkEnøgTwkFøak; b¤bwg. vtþmanrbs;BYkva GacRtUvBnül;GFib,ayedayKMrUnanaénRbePTsila nig rcnasm<½n§PUKBÖsa®sþ b¤kareqøIytbeTAnwgbERmbRmYlkRmitmUldæan.

L

laccolith: an intrusive rock which is concordant with the host rocks, but has domed up the layers above.

Lak;kUlIt ³ silaeRCotEdlRsbKñanwgsila EdlenACMuvijva b:uEnþ)an eFVI[RsTab;xagelIeBIgeLIg.

lagoon: a body of salt water separated from the sea by a sand bar or coral reef. RtBaMgTwkéRb ³ sésTwksmuRT Edldac;ecjBIsmuRTedaypñÚkxSac; b¤

edayfµb:RbHTwk. lahar: volcanic ash on the side of a volcanic cone, which may move as a mudslide when wet.

lMhUrénPk;PñMePøIg ¬eLhar¦ ³ epHPñMePøIgenAelICRmalénekaNPñM ePøIg EdlGaceFIVclnaCakarrGilPk;enAeBlvaesIm.

laminar flow: a rare type of water flow in which the fluid moves in the same direction and at a uniform velocity.

lMhUréndM)ar ¬lMhUrLamIEn¦³ RbePTkRmmYyénlMhUrTwk Edl kñúgenaHsnÞnIyeFIVclnatamTisedA nigel,ÓndUcKña.

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landform: a characteristically-shaped natural feature of the Earth’s surface. sNæandI b¤ TRmg;dI ³ lkçN³FmµCatirbs;épÞEpndI EdlRtUv)an

eFVIGtþsBaØaNeyagtamrUbragrbs;va. landscape: the features of an area. eTsPaBsNæan ³ lkçN³éntMbn;mYy. landscape evolution: the changing form of the landscape through time. karvivtþeTsPaBsNæan ³ TRmg;ERbRbYléneTsPaBsNæantam

ry³eBlevla. landslide: the downslope movement of a mass of debris or rock, under the influence of gravity.

karrGildI ³ clnacuHCRmalénm:askemÞckMTI b¤sila eRkam\Ti§Blén TMnajEpndI.

Last Glacial Maximum (LGM): the largest extent of ice during the last glacial period, approximately 18,000 years ago.

visalPaBFMbMputénsm½yTwkkkcugeRkay ³ visalPaBénEpn TwkkkFMbMputenAkMLúgsm½yTwkkkcugeRkay RbEhl 18 000 qñaMmun.

lateral accretion deposits: floodplain sediments (point bar deposits) which accumulate at the side of a river channel as it moves laterally.

kemÞckMNBIépÞxag ³ kemÞckMNTMnablicTwk ¬karcak;bgÁrpñÚkcMNuc¦ EdlRbmUlpþúMenAmçagénpøÚvTwkTenø enAeBlvaeFIVclnaBIépÞxag.

lava: molten rock material which flows from volcanoes. kMEGrPñMePø Ig ³ smasFatusilaEdlrlay EdlhUrecjBIPñMePøIg. lava plateau: an area of high ground which builds up through the accumulation of many separate lava flows in an area.

x<g;rabkMEGrPñMePø Ig ³ tMbn;dIx<s; EdlkekIteLIgtamry³karRbmUlpþúM énlMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIgepSg² enAkñúgtMbn;mYy.

lava tube: tunnel-like cave within a lava flow, which forms during the final stages of solidification of a mafic lava flow.

bMBg;kMEGrPñMePøIg ³ KuhadUcCILavenAkñúglMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIg EdlkekIt eLIgenAkMLúgeBldMNak;kalcugeRkayéndMeNIrkkrwgénlMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIg m:ahVic.

leading-edge (convergent margin) coast: the edge of a continental plate with a coastal orogen, narrow shelf and deep offshore trench which influence the nature of coastal development.

eqñrmanEKmnaMmux ³ EKménpøakTIVbedaymanExSRkvat;PñMtMbn;eqñr Cay ceg¥ót nigsñamePøaHkñúgsmuRTeRCA² Edlman\Ti§BlelIlkçN³rbs; karvivtþeqñr.

levée: a bank of coarse debris alongside a floodplain river, formed by the accumulation of suspended sediment during flooding. Levées also flank debris flows as a result of ejection during turbulent flow.

BMnUk ³ RcaMgénkemÞckMTIeRKImtamTenøTMnablicTwk kekIteLIgeday karRbmUlpþúMénkemÞckMNGENþtenAkMLúgeBlTwkCMnn;. BMnUk k¾GmlMhUr kemÞckMTI CalT§plénkar)aj;ecjenAkMLúgeBllMhUrkYc.

limit equilibrium model: Mohr-Coulomb equation describing a state of balance between shear stress and shear strength in Earth materials.

KMrUkMNt;smta ³ smIkar Mohr-Coulomb EdleFIVkarBiBN’naBI tulüPaBrvagkmøaMgrGil niger:sIusþg;rGilenAkñúgsmasFatuEpndI.

linear valley: a straight, long valley following a fault line. RClgCaCYr ³ RClgRtg; EvgenAtamExSbMNak;Rsut. lithification: the transformation of sediment into solid sedimentary rock. dMeNIrkøayCasila ³ karERbkøaykemÞckMNeTACasilakemÞckMNrwg. lithosphere: the rigid, outermost solid layer of Earth, 7-130 km thick, comprising the crustal plates and upper mantle.

mNÐlfµ ¬lItUEsV‘r¦ ³ RsTab;EpndIEdlrwgmaMEpñkxageRkAbMput man kRmas;BI 7-130 K>m EdlpSMBIpøaksm,kEpndI nigRsTab;m:g;tUeRkA.

littoral zone (coastal environment): the area in which terrestrial and marine environments influence each other.

brisßaneqñr ³ tMbn;EdlbrisßanTIVb nigsmuRT man\Ti§BlelIKñaeTAvij eTAmk.

loess: accumulation of fine-grained wind-blown dust. Lws ³ karRbmUlpþúMénFUlIm:dæEdlbk;edayxül;.

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long-profile form: the shape of a landform (e.g. river channel) running lengthwise rather than across.

TRmg;Epñkd¾Evg ¬TRmg;beNþay¦ ³ rUbragénsNæandI ¬]TahrN_³ pøÚvTwkTenø¦ EdlhUrtambeNþay minEmnhUrkat;TTwg.

long-wave radiation: electromagnetic radiation between 3 and 100 µm. Earth radiates this waveband back to space.

famBlrlkEvg ³ famBleGLicRtUm:aej:TicenAcenøaH 3 nig 100 mIRkUEm:Rt. EpndI beBa©jfamBlrlkenHRtLb;eTAkñúglMhGakasvij.

longshore bar: a submerged sand bar parallel with the beach on low-gradient coasts.

pñÚktamExSeqñr ³ pñÚkxSac;eRkamTwk RsbeTAnwgeqñrxSac;enAelIeqñr CRmalTab.

longshore current: a coast-parallel current in the surf zone which returns to deeper water occasionally as rip currents.

crnþtameqñrsmuRT ³ crnþTwkEdlhUrRsbnwgExSeqñrenAkñúgtMbn;BBuH rlk EdlhUrRtLb;eTAkan;TwkeRCACagvij edayeBl² CacrnþTwk bRBa©as.

longshore drift: sediment transfer along the coast by longshore currents. karrsat;tambeNþayExSeqñr ³ karepÞrkemÞckMN tambeNþay

eqñreday crnþtameqñrsmuRT. low-water mark (LWM): the level reached by the sea at low tide. kRmitCMenarTab ³ nIv:Urbs;TwksmuRTenACMenarTab.

M

mafic (basic): igneous rocks containing less than 55% silica, and containing magnesium, iron and calcium.

m:ahVic ¬)as¦ ³ silaPñMePøIgEdlpÞúkFatusIulIsticCag 55° ehIy pÞúknUvFatum:aej:süÚm Edk nigkal;süÚm.

magma: molten rock, usually mostly silica. The liquid may contain solid minerals and dissolved gases.

m:ak;m:a ³ silaEdlrlay CaFmµtamansIulIsPaKeRcIn. GgÁFaturav GacmanEr:Edlrwg nig]sµ½nrlay)an.

magnetic anomaly: changes in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. PaBxusEbøkFmµtaénm:aej:Tic ³ bERmbRmYlénkmøaMgrbs;Edn

m:aej:TicEpndI. magnetic epoch: long periods of time of positive or negative magnetic polarity. sm½ym:aej:Tic ³ GMLúgeBlEvgénb:UElPaBm:aej:TicviC¢man b¤GvC¢-

man. magnetic field: region of magnetic force that surrounds the Earth. Ednma:ej:Tic ³ tMbn;énkmøaMgm:aej:TicT EdlB½T§CM uvijEpndI. magnetic polarity: the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field. TisedAb:UElPaBrbs;Ednm:aej:Tic ³ TisedAénEdnm:aej:TicEpndI. magnetic reversal: change in the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field, such that the positions of magnetic north and magnetic south become interchanged.

PaBbRBa©asénm:aej:Tic ³ bERmbRmYlénTisedAEdnm:aej:TicEpn dI. TItaMgénm:aej:TicxageCIg nigm:aej:Ticxagt,Úg KWmanGnþrbNþÚr nwgKña.

magnitude and frequency: natural events can be described by their magnitude and frequency of occurrence. Usually, large events of the same process occur seldom, and small events occur often.

TMhM nigPaBjwkjab; ³ RBwtþikarN_FmµCati GacRtUv)anBiBN’na)an edayTMhM nigPaBjwkjab;rbs;va. CaFmµta RBwtþkarN_FMéndMeNIrkardUcKña ekIteLIgy:agkRm ehIyRBwtþkarN_tUc ekIteLIgjwkjab;.

mantle: 2850 km-thick layer of rock which separates Earth’s crust above from the core below.

m:g;tU ³ RsTab;silaEdlmankRmas; 2850 K>m EdlEcksm,kEpndI xagelIBIsñÚlxageRkam.

mantle convection current (mantle plume): narrow column of hot mantle rock that rises to the base of the

crnþrgVl;enAkñúgm:g;tU ³ ssrceg¥óténsilam:g;tUekþA EdlelceLIg

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lithosphere and spreads outwards. eTAkan;)aténmNÐlfµ nigEjkecjBIKñaenATIenaH. mass movement (mass wasting): movement of rock, debris or soil downslope, under the influence of gravity.

clnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu ³ clnacuHCRmalénsila kemÞckMTI b¤dI eRkam\Ti§BlénTMnajEpndI.

mean sea-level (MSL): average elevation of the sea surface. nIv:UTwksmuRTmFüm ³ ry³km<s;mFüménépÞTwksmuRT. meandering channel: a sinuous, winding river channel. pøÚvTwkbt; ³ pøÚvTwkTenø Edlbt;Ebn. mechanical (physical) weathering: the in situ, physical disintegration of rock into smaller pieces at / near the Earth’s surface.

rbicemkanic b¤rbicrUb ³ kareRbHEbkénsilaedayviFIrUbeTACa bMENktUc² enAkñúgtMbn;mYy enAɼenAEk,répÞEpndI.

mesosphere: the more rigid part of the mantle below the asthenosphere. emsUEsV‘r ³ Epñkénm:g;tU EdlrwgmaMCag nigenAeRkamGaesþNUEs‘Vr. Mesozoic era: the era that followed the Paleozoic era and preceded the Cenozoic era.

s½kemsUsUGiuc b¤s½kTI 2 ³ s½kEdlbnÞab;BIs½k)a:elGUsUGiuc ¬s½k TI 1¦ nigmuns½ksIuNUsUGiiuc ¬s½kTI 3-4¦.

metamorphic rock: rock produced by metamorphism. silaERbkMeNIt ³ silaEdlbegáIteLIgedaylMnaMERbkMeNIt. metamorphism: processes by which the composition, structure and texture of rocks are significantly altered through the action of high temperature and/or high pressure, without actually melting the rock.

lMnaMERbkMeNIt ³ dMeNIrkarnana EdlsmasFatupSM rcnasm<½n§ nig vaynPaBrbs;sila KWERbRbYly:agxøaMgtamry³skmµPaBénsItuNðPaB x<s; nig¼b¤sm<aFx<s; b:uEnþKµankarrlaysilaeT.

meteorite: extra-terrestrial rock fragment that hits Earth’s surface. Gacm’páay ³ bMENksila EdlFøak;mkelIépÞEpndI. mid-ocean ridge: a giant mountain range on the ocean floor that extends around the world.

RTnugkNþalmhasmuRT ³ CYrPñMd¾FMenAelI)atmhasmuRT Edllat sn§wgenACMuvijBiPBelak.

Milankovich hypothesis (orbital theory): model that ascribes long-term changes in solar radiation received by Earth to periodic changes in Earth’s orbit and tilt.

smµtikmµmILaMgkUvic ³ smµtikmEdl)anGHGagBIbERmbRmYlry³ eBlEvgénfamBlRBHGaTitüEdlEpndITTYl)an GaRs½yeTAelIbERm-bRmYlKnøg nigPaBeRTtrbs;EpndI.

mineral: naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid that has a specific chemical composition.

Er: ³ GgÁFaturwgekIteLIgtamlkçN³FmµCati GsrIragÁ nigRKIsþal; Edl mansmasFatupSMKImIc,as;las;.

model: in science a model is a graphic, mathematical or verbal image based on known data.

KMrU ³ enAkñúgviTüasa®sþ KMrU KWCarUbPaBRkahVik KNitviTüa b¤rUbPaBkay vikar edayEp¥kelITinñn½yEdl)andwg.

Moho (Mohoroviĉić discontinuity): the boundary separating the crust from the mantle below it.

m:UhU ³ RBMEdnEdlbMEbksm,kEpndIecjBIm:g;tUxageRkamva.

molecule: group of atoms bonded together in fixed proportions to constitute a compound.

m:UelKul ³ RkumGatUm Edlcgsm½<n§CamYyKña kñúgsmamaRtkMNt; edIm,I bgáCasmasFatu.

moraine: ridge or mound of unsorted sediment deposited under or next to a glacier.

dMufµedayKMnrTwkkk ³ BMnUkénkemÞckMNEdlmankarteRmobcRmuH RtUv)ancak;bgÁrenAeRkam b¤Ek,rTenøTwkkk.

morphoclimatic (morphogenetic) zone: regions in which some claim that certain geomorphological processes result from a particular set of climatic conditions, producing distinct regional landscapes.

tMbn;GakasFatuPUmisNæan ³ tMbn;EdlGñkPUmisNæanviTüamYy cMnYn )anGHGagfa dMeNIrkarPUmisNæanxøH² kekItmkBIlkçxNÐGakas-FatuBiess EdlbegáIt[maneTsPaBsNæanepSg²Kña eTAtamtMbn;.

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N

nappe: a fold which has been so deformed it has become recumbent (horizontal) and sheared forewards along its axis.

pñt;eRTl ³ BMenIgpñt;EdlRtUv)anxUcRTg;Rtayy:agxøaMg eFVI[va)ankøay pñt;Rcas ehIy)aneRbH nigrGileTAmuxtambeNþayG½kSrbs;va.

neap tide: period of less pronounced high and low tides, when the sun and moon are at right angles to each other.

CMenar-lMnactUcCagFmµta ³ ry³kalénCMenarminsUvx<s; b¤Tab enA eBlRBHGaTitü nigRBHc½nÞ KwsßitenAcMmMu 90° cMeBaHEpndI.

neutron: nuclear particle with an electric charge of zero, found in the nucleus of the atom.

NWRtug ³ PaKl¥iténéNVy:UEdlmanbnÞúkGKiÁsnIsUnü EdlmanenAkñúg éNVy:UGatUm.

nonfoliated: metamorphic rock texture in which textural and structural features are not aligned parallel to each other.

vaynPaBmindUcRkambnÞH ³ vaynPaBsilaERbkMeNIt Edl lkçN³vaynPaB nigrcnasm<½n§ minRtUv)anerobCaCYrRsbKñaeT.

nonsilicate: minerals that do not have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedral in their crystal structure.

Er:KµansIulIkat ³ Er:EdlminmanctumuxsIulIkug-GuksIuEsnenAkñúgrcna-sm<½n§RKIsþal;rbs;BYkvaeLIy.

normal fault: a fault in which one block (hanging wall) moved down relative to the other block (footwall).

bMMNak;RsutFmµta ³ bMNak;RsutEdlbøúkmYy ¬CBa¢aMgBüÜr¦ eFIVclna cuHeRkambøúkmYyeTot ¬CBa¢aMg)at¦.

nucleus: the dense central portion of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons. éNVy:U ³ EpñkkNþal nigF¶n; rbs;GatUmEdlmanRbUtug nigNWRtug. numerical modelling: method for obtaining deductions for a model which is expressed in mathematical or logical form.

kareFVItamKMrUKNitviTüa ³ vIFIedIm,ITTYlnUvGnumansRmab;KMrU Edl RtUvbgðajtamTRmg;KNitviTüa b¤tkáviC¢a.

O

oblique-slip margin: a convergent or divergent plate boundary where there is considerable transform motion.

RBMEdnrGilBIKñaeRTt ³ RBMEdnpøakTajcUlKña b¤EbkKñaecj enAkEnøg Edlmanclnapøas;bþÚry:agxøaMg.

ocean basin: the deep bottom of the ocean floor, which starts beyond the continental slope.

GagmhasmuRT ³ )atmhasmuRTeRCA² Edlcab;epþImBIeRkayCRmal TIVb.

ocean trench: long, narrow, deep troughs with steep sides that often parallel the coasts of convergent plate boundaries.

sñamePøaHkñúgmhasmuRT ³ RClg)atsmuRTeRCA ceg¥ót Evg nigecat EdlCaerOy² RsbnwgExSeqñrénRBMEdnpøakTajcUlKña.

oceanic crust: the thin, basaltic crust under oceans. Denser than continental crust.

sm,kmhasmuRT ³ sm,keRkammhasmuRTEdlCasila)asal; ehIyesþIg. vamantg;sIuetx<s;Cagsm,kTIVb.

offset (disrupted) drainage: the lateral displacement of a river channel where it flows across an active strike-slip fault.

karbgðÚrTwkRtUv)anbg¥ak; ³ karpøas;TIBIépÞxagrbs;pøÚvTwkTenø kEnøg EdlvahUrqøgkat;bMNak;RsutrGilEbkskmµmYy.

offshore zone: zone of deeper water on the inner margins of the continental shelf, beyond the inshore zone.

tMbn;kñúgsmuRT ³ tMbn;TwkeRCAenAelIEKmxagkñúgénCayTIVb BIeRkay tMbn;eqñrkñúg.

onion-skin weathering (exfoliation): the weathering of rock by the flaking off of its surface layers.

rbicEbbkarrbksm,kxÞwm)araMg ¬karbeBa©jRsTab;sila¦ ³ rbicénsilaedaykarbkecjnUvRsTab;épÞrbs;va.

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ore mineral: naturally occurring mineral which has commercial value. Er:sRmab;;vis½yesdækic© ³ Er:EdlkekIteLIgtamlkçN³FmµCati Edl

mantémøsRmab;vis½y]sSahkmµ. orogenesis (orogeny): the period or mechanism of construction of linear or arcuate mountain ranges on continents. Associated with intense deformation, metamorphism and igneous activity.

GUr:UCwnI ¬karegIbeLIgénExSRkvat;PñM¦ ³ GMMLúgeBl b¤ynþkarén sMNg;CYrPñMCaCYr b¤CakMeNagenAelITIVb. Tak;TgeTAnwgkMhUcRTg;RTayxøaMg køa lMnaMERbkMeNIt nigskmµPaBm:ak;m:a.

orogenic belt (orogen): the total rock mass deformed during an orogeny. ExSRkvat;CYrPñM ³ m:assilasrubEdlRtUvxUcRTg;RTay enAkMLúgeBl

karegIbeLIgénExSRkvat;PñM. overbank deposits: flood sediment deposited by a river beyond its normal flow channel.

kemÞckMNelIRcaMgTenø ³ kemÞckMNTwkCMnn;EdlRtUv)ancak;bgÁr edayTenø enABIeRkaylMhUrpøÚvTwkFmµta.

overburden: loose, unconsolidated material overlying bedrock. bnÞúkBIelI ³ smasFatuFUrlug ehIyminbRgYbbRgYmKña sßitenABIelI

silaRTnr. overland flow: non-channelled flow of water over the ground surface. lMhUrTwkelIépÞdI ³ lMhUrTwkEdlmintampøÚvTwkenAelIépÞdI. oxbow lake: an arcuate lake occupying the abandoned channel of a river meander (cutoff).

bwgkMeNag ³ bwgekagEdlsßitenAkñúgpøÚvTwkcas;rbs;EPñnTenø ¬EPñn kat;¦.

oxidation: the loss of electrons from an atom, especially the loss of oxygen from a substance or addition of hydrogen to a substance. Important type of weathering.

GuksIutkmµ ³ kar)at;bg;eGLicRtugBIGatUmmYy CaBiesskar)at;bg; GuksIuEsnBIFatumYy b¤karbEnßmGIuRdUEsneTA[FatumYy. CaRbePT sMxan;énrbic.

oxygen isotope analysis: analysis of the varying proportions of oxygen isotopes 16O and 18O in deposits as a record of former climate change.

karviPaKGIusUtUbGuksIuEsn ³ karviPaKénsmamaRtepSg²énGIusU- tUbGuksIuEsn 16O nig 18O enAkñúgkarcak;bgÁr CakMNt;RtaénbERmbRmYl GakasFatuBImun.

P

pahoehoe lava: a lava flow characterized by a smooth, ropy or billowy surface. kMEGrPñMePø IgRkmYn b¤ )a:h½½yh½y ³ lMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIg EdlRtUv

kMNt;lkçN³edayépÞrelag épÞGnøay² b¤épÞdUcrlk. palaeo-: prefix indicating older or ancient, especially relating to the geological past.

):aeLGU- ³ buBVbTEdlbgðajfacas; b¤buraN CaBiessTak;TgeTAnwg GtItkalénPUKBÖsa®sþ.

palaeoecology: the study of fossils in order to infer past ecological processes, environments and patterns.

)a:eLGUeGkULÚsIu ³ karsikSaBIpUsIul edIm,IeFVIkarsnñidæanBIdMeNIrkar brisßan nigKMrUeGkULÚsIuGtItkal.

palaeoenvironmental reconstruction: the use of geological, geomorphological and biological evidence to produce a synthesis of former (palaeo) environ-mental conditions, processes and changes.

karsßabnaeLIgvijnUv):aeLGUbrisßan ³ kareRbIR)as;nUvPsþútag FrNIviTüa PUmisNæanviTüa nigCIvviTüa edIm,IbegáItkarsMeyaKnUvlkçxNÐ brisßan dMeNIrkar nigkarERbRbYlBImun ¬)a:eLGU¦.

palaeomagnetism: the intensity, direction and polarity of the Earth’s magnetic filed throughout geological time.

):aeLGUm:aej:Tic ³ GaMgtg;sIuet TisedA nigb:UElPaBrbs;Ednm:aej:Tic EpndI TUTaMgeBlevlaPUKBÖsa®sþ.

mUldæanRKwHénPUmisNæanviTüa

612

palaeo- (geo-) magnetic timescale: timescale established from the timing of reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field since 160 Ma.

maRtdæaneBlevla):aeLGUm:aej:Tic ³ maRtdæaneBlevla Edl begáIteLIg BIkarkMNt;eBlevlaénkarbRBa©asEdnm:aej:TicEpndI taMgBI 160 lanqñaMmun.

Paleozoic era: the era that followed the Precambrian and began with the appearance of complex life, as indicated by fossils.

s½k)a:eLGUsUGiuc b¤s½kTI 1 ³ s½kEdlbnÞab;BIsm½ymunkMRb‘Íyag nig)ancab;epþImedayelceLIgnUvCIvitsaMjaMu dUc)anbgðajedaypUsIul.

palynology (pollen analysis): the analysis of microscopic pollen grains and spores preserved in sediments, in order to reconstruct former vegetation patterns and paleoenvironments.

lm¥gviTüa ³ karviPaKBIRKab;lm¥g nigs,: edayeRbImIRkUsáúb Edlbgáar enAkñúgkemÞckMN edIm,Isagsg;KMrUsareBIrukçCati nigbrisßanBImuneLIgvij.

Pangaea: a former continent which broke apart 200 million years ago to form the present continents.

b:g;eso ³ TIVbGtItkal Edl)anEbkedayEpñkkalBI 200 lanqñaMmun edIm,IbegáItCaTIVbbc©úb,nñ.

parent rock: original rock before being metamorphosed or weathered. silaem ³ silaedIm muneBlRtUvERbkMeNIt nigrgrbic. passive continental margin: a continental margin that formed as a result of the breakup of a supercontinent, now characterized by little tectonic activity.

CayTIVbGskmµ ³ CayTIVbEdlkekIteLIg CalT§plénkarEbkecjBI TIVbFM bc©úb,nñRtUvkMNt;lkçN³edayskmµPaBtictUnictictYc.

passive tectonic control (structural control): the influence of previous tectonic activity, such as the arrangement of different rock types, on fluvial systems.

karRtYtRtatictUnicGskmµ ³ \Ti§BlénskmµPaBtictUnicBImun dUcCa karerobcMénRbePTsilaxus²Kña enAelIRbB½n§Tenø.

pediment: a gently-sloping erosion surface at the foot of a mountain range, may be covered by deposits such as fans.

CRmaleCIgPñM ³ épÞsMNwkminecat enAÉeCIgénCYrPñM GacRtUv)anRKb dNþb;edaykarcak;bgÁrdUcCapøit.

percolation: vertical movement of water down through soil or rock. bgðÚrcuH ³ clnaTwktamTisQr Føak;cuHeRkamtamdI b¤sila. periglacial: cold, non-glacial conditions in high-latitude and high-altitude environments, where the ground may be frozen.

éndIkkrwg ³ lkçxNÐRtCak;enAkñúgbrisßanry³TTwg nigry³km<s;x<s; CakEnøgEdldI GacRtUvkk.

periglacial geomorphology: the study of periglacial processes, landforms, sediments and environments.

PUmisNæanviTüadIkkrwg ³ karsikSaBIdMeNIrkar sNæandI kemÞckkMN nigbrisßandIkkrwg.

period: a division of the eras of the geological time scale. sm½ykal ³ karEbgEcks½knanaénmaRtdæaneBlevlaPUKBÖsa®sþ. permeability: ability of soil or rock to transmit fluids through their pores, cracks, joints.

PaBRCabTwk ³ smtßPaBrbs;dI b¤sila edIm,IbBa¢ÚnsnÞnIytamrn§ sñamEbk nigsñameRbH.

phase change: the change from one state to another (solid, liquid, gas) of a material. karpøas;bþÚrpas ³ bERmbRmYlBIsPaBmYyeTAsPaBmYyeTot ¬rwg rav

nig]sµ½n¦ énsmasFatu. photosynthesis: the conversion of CO2 and water into carbohydrates, with the release of oxygen. Chemical process within green plants, algae and plankton, using solar energy.

rsµIsMeyaK ³ benÞrkabUnDIGuksIut nigTwkeTACakabUnGIuRdat eday beBa©jnUvGuksIuEsn. dMeNIrkarKImI enAkñúgrukçCatiébtg variCati nigbøg;tug ¬FarasuxumR)aN¦ edayeRbIR)as;nUvfamBlRBHGaTitü.

physical geography: the study of the form and processes shaping the Earth’s surface, including its spatial and temporal patterns and links with human activity.

PUmiviTüarUb ³ karsikSaBITRmg; nigdMeNIrkarrUbragénépÞEpndI rab; bBa©ÚlTaMgKMrUlMh nigeBlevla nigTMnak;TMngCamYyskmµPaBrbs;mnusS.

sTÞanuRkm

613

pillow lava: pillow-shaped lumps of basalt formed as underwater lava flows. kMEGrPñMePø IgragexñIy ³ KMnrragexñIyénsila)asal; Edl)ankekItCa

lMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIgeRkamTwk. pipeflow: water flow in underground channels caused by removal of clay particles in fine-grained soils, often in arid regions.

lMhUrTwkenAkñúglUbgðÚrTwk ³ lMhUrTwkkñúgpøÚvTwkeRkamdI bgáeLIgeday karsIupþac;énPaKl¥itdI\dæ enAkñúgdIRKab;m:dæ CaerOy²manenAtMbn;hYtEhg.

planetary geomorphology: the comparative geomorphological analysis of the planets and moons of the Solar System.

PUmisNæanviTüaPB ³ karviPaKPUmisNænviTüaeRbobeFobrbs;PB nig RBHc½nÞénRbB½n§RBHGaTitü.

planform (channel pattern): the classification of river channels in terms of their sinuosity and number of channels. Planform is the shape viewed from above.

TRmg;bøg; ¬KMrUénpøÚvTwk¦ ³ cMNat;fñak;énpøÚvTwkTenøtamPaBRkgi-kRkgk; nigcMnYnpøÚvTwkrbs;va. TRmg;bøg; KWCarUbragEdlemIlBIelI.

plate (tectonic plate): a large, rigid slab of the Earth’s lithosphere, floating above the asthenosphere and mobilized by convection in the mantle.

pøak ¬pøaktictUnic¦ ³ pÞaMgFM ehIyrwgénmNÐlfµrbs;épndI Edl GENþtelIGaesþNUEsV‘r ehIyRtUv)aneFIV[manclnaedayrgVl;enAkñúg RsTab;m:g;tU.

plate boundary: the lateral margin of a plate, represented by an ocean ridge, subduction zone, or transform fault.

RBMEdnpøak ¬EKménpøak¦ ³ CayépÞxagénpøak RtUv)antMNageday RTnugmhasmuRT tMbn;Føak;cuH b¤bMNak;Rsutpøas;bþÚr.

plate interior: the central part of a plate, far from its boundaries. tMbn;Epñkxagkñúgpøak ³ EpñkkNþalénpøakmYy EdlenAq¶ayBIRBMEdn

rbs;va. plate tectonics theory: the global-scale movement and deformation of Earth’s lithospheric plates, responsible for global-scale landforms.

RTwsþIpøaktictUnic ³ clna nigkMhUcRTg;RTayénpøakmNÐlfµrbs; EpndI tammaRtdæansakl EdleFVI[karkekItsNæandInana tammaRtdæan sakl.

plateau: an elevated area of relatively smooth terrain. x<g;rab ³ tMbn;Edlmanry³km<s;x<s; nigmanépÞrabesµI. plunging cliff: a vertical sea cliff which rises out of deep water. RcaMgmuCTwk ³ RcaMgsmuRTbBaÄr EdlegIbeLIgecjBIépÞTwkeRCA². plunging wave: a form of wave where the seafloor is quite steep. The wave front is nearly vertical as the crest falls forward.

rlkmuCTwk ³ TRmg;énrlkEdl)atsmuRT KWecatxøaMg. RBMrlk KWesÞIr EtbBaÄr enAeBlEdlkMBUlFøak;cuHeTAxagmux.

pluton (intrusion): a mass of igneous rock that has penetrated older rocks through cracks and faults before cooling.

silaBøúytUnic ¬silaeRCot¦ ³ m:asénsilaPñMePøIg Edl)aneRCot cUleTAkñúgsilaEdlcas;Cag tamsñameRbH nigbMNak;Rsut muneBlcuH RtCak;.

plutonic (intrusive): a description of igneous rock that has penetrated surrounding rocks before solidifying and cooling.

BøúytUnic ¬silam:ak;m:axagkñúg¦ ³ karBiBN’BIsilam:ak;m:a Edl )aneRCotcUlkñúgsilaEdlenACMuvij muneBlvakkrwg nigcuHRtCak;.

polar geomorphology: a branch of climatic geomorphology which focuses study on the polar landscapes.

PUmisNæanviTüatMbn;b:Ul ³ EpñkénPUmisNæanviTüaGakasFatu Edl epþatkarsikSaelIeTsPaBsNæantMbn;b:Ul.

polar wandering: the movement of the Earth’s magnetic poles. karrsat;énb:Ulm:aej:Tic ³ clnaénb:Ulm:aej:TicEpndI. pool: a depression formed by erosive scour of a stream bed. GagtUc² ³ RkhUg EdlekIteLIgedaysMNwkén)atGUr b¤eRCaH.

mUldæanRKwHénPUmisNæanviTüa

614

pore-water pressure: water pressure within the pores of soil or sediment. sm<aFrn§Twk ³ sm<aFTwkenAxagkñúgrn§dI b¤kemÞckMN. porosity: the ratio (%) of the volume of voids to the total volume of rock or soil. PaBes<at ³ pleFob ¬°¦ énTMhMcMhr cMeBaHTMhMsrubrbs;sila b¤dI. potential energy: the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position relative to other objects.

famBlb:Utg;Esül ³ famBlEdlvtßúmYyman edayGaRs½ynUvTItaMg rbs;vacMeBaHvtßúepSgeTot.

precipitation: (1) all types of falling of water from the atmosphere at Earth’s surface, e.g. rain, snow, hail, dew, frost. (2) the process of producing a separate solid phase within a liquid medium.

1. kMNkGakas³ ³ RbePTTaMgGs;énkarrFøak;cuHénTwk BIbriyakas mkelIépÞEpndI ]TahrN_ ePøóg RBil Twkkk TwksenSIm kMNksenSIm. 2. karbegáItkkr ¬kMNkkkr¦³ dMeNIrkarbegáItpasrwgedayELk enAkñúgmCÄdæanrav.

pressure-release (unloading): important mechanical weathering process that causes rocks to crack when overburden is removed.

karbeBa©jsm<aF ³ dMeNIrkarrbicemkanicsMxan;mYy Edlbgá[sila eRbHEbk enAeBlbnÞúkBIelIva RtUv)andkecj.

primary mineral: a mineral formed at the same time as the parent rock bearing it. Er:RbePTTImYy ³ Er:EdlekIteLIgenAeBlevladUcKñanwgsilaemrbs;va. principle of cross-cutting relationships: a law stating that any geological feature that cuts across or is intruded into a rock must be younger than that rock.

eKalkarN_énTMnak;TMngkat;ExVg ³ c,ab;mYyEdlbgðajfa lkçN³PUKBÖsa®sþNamYyEdlkat; b¤eRCotcUleTAkñúgsilamYyeTot RtUv EtekµgCagsilaEdlenaH.

principle of faunal succession: a law stating that fossil species succeed one another in a clear order through time.

eKalkarN_éntMNBUC b¤karCab;RsLayKñaénBBYkstV ³ c,ab;mYyEdlbgðajfa RbePTBUCpUsIulbnþbnþb;Kña tamlMdab;c,as;las;.

principle of original horizontality: a law stating that in general, sediments are deposited in flat layers, so any layers of sedimentary rock that are not horizontal have been subsequently subjected to forces of deformation.

eKalkarN_énépÞBRgab ³ c,ab;mYyEdlbgðajfa CaTUeTA kemÞckMN RtUvcak;bgÁrenARsTab;rabesµI dUecñH RsTab;minrabesµIénsilakemÞckMN RtUv)anTTYlkMhUcRTg;RTay bnÞab;BIkarcak;bgÁrrbs;va.

principle of superposition: a law stating that an undisturbed sequence of horizontal rock layers is arranged in age order with the oldest layers at the bottom.

eKalkarN_énlMdab;fñak;RsTab;sila ³ c,ab;mYyEdlbgðajfa lMdab;minrMxanénRsTab;silaedk KWRtUv)anerobcMtamlMdab;Gayu Edl RsTab;cas;bMput KWenAÉ)atsila.

principle of uniformity: a law stating that geological processes operating at present are the same processes that operated in the past.

eKalkarN_énPaBdUcKña ³ c,ab;mYyEdlbgðajfa dMeNIrkarPUKBÖ- sa®sþ EdleFIVeLIgenAeBlbc©úb,nñ KWCadMeNIrkardUcKña EdlRbRBwtþeLIg enAkñúgGtItkalpgEdr.

process: a series of actions or changes which achieve a particular result. dMeNIrkar ³ lMdab;skmµPaB b¤bERmbRmYl EdlseRmc)anlT§pl

BiessmYy. progressive failure: the slow reduction of cohesion and friction within a soil- or rock-slope, until slope failure occurs.

kar)ak;Føak;bnþicmþg² ³ karfycuHyWt²énPaBCab;s¥it nigkarkkit enAkñúgCRmaldI b¤CRmalsila rhUtdl;kar)ak;Føak;CRmal ekItmaneLIg.

proton: a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. RbUtug ³ PaKl¥iténGatUmEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man manenAkñúgéNVy:UGatUm. pull-apart basin: a basin formed as a result of normal faulting and subsidence at a divergent, oblique-slip margin.

GagTajecjBIKña ³ )asaMgEdlekIteLIgCalT§plénbMNak;Rsut Fmµta nigkarRsutcuHenARBMEdnrGilBIelIKñaeRTtEdlTajKña ecj.

sTÞanuRkm

615

pyroclast: fragments of rock or ash ejected during a volcanic eruption. bMENksilaPñMePøIg ³ bMENksila b¤epH EdlbeBa©jenAkMLúgeBl

bnÞúHPñMePøIg. pyroclastic flow: turbulent mixture of pyroclasts and gases flowing quickly down the side of a volcano.

lMhUrénepHPñMePøIgy:agekþA nigelOn ³ l,aykYcénbMENksila PñMePøIg nig]sµ½nPñMePøIgEdlhUrcuHy:agelOgtamCRmalPñMePøIg.

Q

Quantitative revolution: period in the history (after 1950) of physical geography when process measurement (mapping, models, statistics, and mathematics) became the central focus of research.

bdivtþn_brimaNedayeRbIkMuBüÚT½r ³ Rbvtþikal ¬bnÞab;BIqñaM 1950¦ énPUmiviTüarUb enAeBlkarvas;EvgdMeNIr ¬kareFIVEpnTI KMrU sßiti nigKNit-viTüa¦ )ankøayCacMNuckNþalénkarRsavRCav.

Quaternary science: the study of the Quaternary period (2.5 Ma to present), a time of many rapid climatic changes and human evolution.

viTüasa®sþs½kTI 4 ³ karsikSaBIsm½ykals½kTI 4 ¬2/5 lanqñaM dl;eBlbc©úb,nñ¦ KwCary³eBlénbERmbRmYlGakasFatu nigkarvivtþrbs; mnusSy:agelOn.

quick flow: the water which reaches a river channel quickly, after a rainstorm. Mainly overland flow and throughflow. In contrast to base flow.

lMhUrelOn ³ TwkEdlhUrdl;pøÚvTwkTenøy:agelOn bnÞab;BIBüúHePøóg. lMhUrelIdI niglMhUrkñúgdIcm,g². pÞúyeTAnwglMhUrmUldæan.

R

radioactive decay: natural decay of the nucleus of an atom where alpha or beta particle and/or gamma rays are released at a fixed rate.

karbMEbkénFatuviTüúskmµ ³ karbMEbkCalkçN³FmµCatiénéNVy:U rbs;GatUm EdlPaKl¥itGal;pa b¤Ebta nig¼b¤kaMrsµIhÁam:a RtUv)anbeBa©j enAGRtakMNt;mYy.

radioactive half-life: time required for half of the radioactive nuclei present to undergo radioactive decay.

CIvitBak;kNþalviTüúskmµ ³ ry³eBlcaM)ac;sRmab;Bak;kNþal éNVy:UviTüúskmµrgkarbMEbkviTüúskmµ.

radiocarbon dating: method for dating carbon materials in the range 0-40,000 years, based on the relative abundance of radioactive carbon isotope (14C) to a stable carbon isotope (12C).

kalbriecäTénkareRbIR)as;kabUnviTüúskmµ ³ viFIsRmab;kMNt;kal briecäTsmasFatukabUn EdlmanGayukalBI 0-40000 qñaM edayEp¥kelI PaBsm,ÚrEbbénGIusUtUbkabUnviTüúskmµ (14C) eTAnwgGIusUtUbkabUn 12C.

radiometric dating method: techniques of determining the age of rocks from the relative proportions of a radioactive parent and its decay product.

viFIkalbriecäTviTüúskmµ ³ bec©keTsénkarkMNt;Gayukalrbs; silaBIsmamaRteFobénplitplemviTüúskmµ nigplitplbMEbkrbs;va.

raindrop: liquid form of precipitation, normally has a diameter between than 0.5 and 5 mm.

dMNk;TwkePøóg ³ kMNkGakasGgÁFaturav CaFmµtamanGgát;p©itcenøaH BI 0/5 eTA 5 m>m.

raised beach: a former beach abandoned by isostatic uplift or eustatic fall in sea level, and retaining evidence of its origin.

eqñrxSac;Edl)anegIbeLIg ³ eqñrxSac;kalBImun RtUv)ane)aHbg;ecal edaykaregIbeLIgGaysUesþsIuéndI b¤karFøak;cuHyUesþsIuénnIv:UsmuRT nig EdlmanPsþútagsRmab;RbPBrbs;va.

rapids: a steep section in a river channel where velocity and turbulence increase. TwkCYr ³ EpñkecaténpøÚvTwkTenø Edlel,Ón nigkMnYcekIneLIg.

mUldæanRKwHénPUmisNæanviTüa

616

recumbent fold: a fold overturned such that the rock layers are almost horizontal. pñt;Rcas ³ pñt;EdlRkLab; b¤RcaseTAelIRsTab;silaxageRkam eFVI[

RsTab;manlkçN³esÞIrEtrabesµI. recurrence interval (return period): the average frequency of an event of a particular magnitude.

cenøaHPaBjwkjab; ³ PaBjwkjab;mFüménRBwtþikarN_EdlmanTMhM BiessmYy.

reduction: chemical weathering process that involves the removal of oxygen from a compound.

erdukkmµ ³ dMeNIrkarrbicKImI EdlTak;Tgnwgkarpþac;GuksIuEsnecjBI smasFatumYy.

regime: the average annual variations of climatic or hydrological variables, for example river discharge.

rbb ³ bERmbRmYlGefrGakasFatu b¤énClFaviTüa CamFümRbcaMqñaM ]TahrN_dUcCacMNuHTwkTenøCaedIm.

regional metamorphism: large-scale metamorphic modification of existing rock through the heat and pressure of plutons created at tectonic zones of subduction.

lMnaMERbkMeNItedaykarb:HTgÁic ³ lMnaMERbkMeNItmaRtdæanFMén sila EdlmanRsab;tamry³kemþA nigsm<aFrbs;silaBøúytUnic EdlbegIát eLIgenAtMbn;énkarFøak;cuHtictUnic.

regolith (weathering mantle): loose layer of weathered rock material and soil overlying bedrock.

rC¢Hsila ¬KRmbrbic¦ ³ RsTab;FUrénsmasFatusila nigdIrgrbic EdlenABIelIsilaRTnr.

regression: a seaward retreat of the coast-line caused by a relative fall in sea level. karedIrfyeRkayénExSeqñr ³ kardkfyeTAkan;smuRTénExSeqñr

EdlbgáeLIgedaykarFøak;cuHeFobrbs;nIv:UsmuRT. relative age dating: a simple form of dating, where a sediment, landform or rock layer is given an age order relative to other sediments, landforms or rock layers.

kalbriecäTeFob ³ viFIkalbriecäTsamBaØ EdlkemÞckMN sNæandI b¤RsTab;sila RtUvpþl;nUvlMdab;GayukaleFob eTAnwgkemÞckMN sNæandI b¤RsTab;silaepSg²eTot.

relative sea-level change: a change in the mean level of the sea surface relative to the land surface or sea bed.

bERmbRmYleFobénnIv:UsmuRT ³ bERmbRmYlnIv:UénépÞsmuRTmFüm eFobeTAnwgépÞdI b¤)atsmuRT.

relic (relict): landform or feature which no longer experiences the process that was responsible for its formation.

vtßúburaNenAsl; b¤ sMNl;vtßúburaN ³ TRmg;dI b¤lkçN³Elg TTYlrg\T§iBlBIdMeNIrkar EdlFøam;naM[kMNkMeNItrbs;va.

relief: the range of topographic elevation within a specific area. sNæandItMbn; ³ PaBxusKñarvagry³km<s;Tabx<s;enAkñúgtMbn;mYy. remote sensing: the gathering of information from an object or surface without direct contact.

karRbmUlB½t’manBIcm¶ay ³ karRbmUlB½t’manBIvtßú b¤épÞmYy eday KµanTMnak;TMngpÞal;.

reptation (ballistic impact): the collision of airborne particles with other grains which causes them to start moving.

karbukTgÁicénRKab;dI ³ karbukKñaénPaKl¥itkñúgGakasCamYyRKab; b¤ PaKl¥itepSg²eTot Edl bgá[BYkvacab;epþImmanclna.

resistance: the ability of a material or system to oppose movement or change. kmøaMgTb; ¬er:sIusþg;¦ ³ smtßPaBénsmasFatu b¤RbB½n§mYy edIm,ITb;

Tl;nwgclna b¤karERbRbYl. reverse fault: a vertical fault which develops when compression force causes the displacement of one block of rock over another.

bMMNak;Rsutb®Ba©as ³ bMNak;RsutbBaÄr EdlvivtþeTA enAeBlkmøaMg CRmujpÞb; bgá[mankarpøas;bþÚrbúøksilamYyenABIelIsilamYyepSgeTot.

riffle: bar deposit found on the bed of streams. Associated with the scour of a pool upstream.

kEnøgTwkrak; ³ pñÚkcak;bgÁrenAelI)atGUr b¤eRCaHnana. vaTak;Tgnwg

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sMNwkénGagtUc²EpñkxagelIGUr b¤eRCaH. rift valley (graben): steep sided valley found on the Earth’s surface created by tectonic rifting.

RClgsRmut ³ RClgmanCRmalecat EdlbegáIteLIgedaykarXøat ecjBIKñaéntictUnic.

rifting: the tearing apart of the lithosphere along a linear zone, caused by tectonic forces from thermal uplift or plate motion.

karXøatecjBIKña ³ karrEhkedayEpñkénmNÐlfµ tambeNþaytMbn; CaCYr EdlRtUvbgáeLIgedaykmøaMgtictUnic BIkaregIbeLIgénkemþA b¤clna pøak.

rilling: erosion of very small steep-sided channels which temporarily carry water after rainfall.

lMhUrTwkenAtamGUrtUc ³ sMNwkénpøÚvTwkEdlmanRcaMgecattUc² dwk CBa¢ÚnTwkCabeNþaHGasnñ bnÞab;BImanePøógFøak;.

rip current: a strong narrow current of water that flows seaward against breaking waves.

crnþTwkbRBa©as ³ crnþTwkceg¥ótxøaMgmYy EdlhUreq<aHeTAkan;smuRT RbqaMgnwgrlk.

ripple: small wave-like forms developed by fluid flow over a sandy bed in streams or on dunes.

rlkGgáaj; ³ TRmg;dIdUcrlktUc² RtUv)anvivtþeLIgedaylMhUrsnÞnIy elI)atdIxSac;enAkñúgTenø b¤elIpñÚkxSac;.

river capture (stream piracy): the diversion of the upper tributaries of a drainage basin into part of another basin.

karcab;ykrbs;Tenø ³ karbEgVrénédTenøEpñkxagelIrbs;GagbgðÚr eTAkñúgEpñkénGagbgðÚrepSgeTot.

river metamorphosis: the change of river channel morphology that can occur when changes of discharge and sediment exceed a threshold level.

karERbkMeNIténTenø ³ bERmbRmYlénrUbsa®sþpøÚvTwkTenø EdlGac ekItmaneLIg enAeBlbERmbRmYlcMNuHTwk nigkemÞckMN eRcInelIslb; elIkRmitkMNt;mYy.

rock: consolidated mass of mineral matter. sila ³ m:asénrUbFatuEr:EdlbRgYbbRgYmKña. rock avalanche: a very rapidly moving, turbulent mass movement of broken rock. Gav:aLg;fµ ³ clnacuHCRmaly:agrh½s énrUbFatuEdlmanclnakYc

énbMENksila. rock creep: the slow, plastic deformation of rock in response to the weight of overburden.

kareRCcuHyWt²énsila ³ kMhUcRTg;RTaypøasÞic nigyWt² énsila Tak;TgeTAnwgTm¶n;énbnÞúkBIelI.

rock cycle: general model describing the geomorphic and geologic processes involved in the creation, modification and recycling of rocks.

vdþsila ³ KMrUTUeTAEdlBiBN’naBIdMeNIrkarPUmisNæan nigdMeNIrkar PUKBÖsa®sþ Tak;TgeTAnwgkarbegáIteLIg karERbrUbrag nigvdþeLIgvijén sila.

rockfall: type of mass movement that involves the detachment and movement of a small block of rock from a cliff face to its base.

karFøak;cuHénfµ ³ RbePTénclnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu EdlTak;Tgnwg karpþac;ecj nigclnaénbøúksilatUcmYyBIRcaMg eTAkan;)atrbs;va.

rockslide: large scale mass movement of rock materials downslope along a failure plane.

karrGilpÞaMgfµ ³ clnacuHCRmalmaRtdæanFMénrUbFatusila tam beNþayépÞrabEbk)ak;.

runoff: (1) the flow of water from precipitation to stream channels as overland flow. (2) total water flowing from an area of the land.

lMhUrTwkelIs ¬lMhUrTwkkñúgpøÚvTwk¦ ³ ¬1¦ lMhUrTwkBIkMNk GakaseTApøÚvTwkGUr b¤eRCaH CalMhUrelIdI. ¬2¦ TwksrubEdlhUrBItMbn; mYyénépÞdI.

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S

sackung (rock-mass sag): the large-scale creep deformation of mountain slopes, involving bending, folding and plastic flow of rock.

kareRCcuHénCRmalsila ³ kMhUcRTg;RTayyWt²énCRmalPñMtam maRtdæanFM EdlTak;TgnwglMhUrekag BMenIgpñt; niglMhUrpøasÞicénsila.

salt weathering (haloclasty): the break-down of rock by the presence of salt. rbicedaykarrIkmaDénRkamGMbil ³ karEbk)ak;énsilaedayvtþ-

manénRkamGMbil. saltation: transport of sediment in a fluid (water or air) by repeatedly bouncing from and falling onto a surface.

karelatcuH ³ kardwkCBa¢ÚnénkemÞckMNenAkñúgsnÞnIy ¬Twk b¤xül;¦ edaykarelatcuHBIépÞdImYy b¤karFøak;cuHdEdl² eTAelIépÞdImYy.

saltation load: the amount of sediment transported by saltation. bnÞúkelatcuH ³ brimaNénkemÞckMN RtUvdwkCBa¢ÚnedaykarelatcuH. sand sea (erg): large area (102-106 km2) of wind-deposited sand that may include dunes and sand sheets.

smuRTxSac; ³ tMbn;FM ¬102-106 K>m2¦ éndIxSac; Edl)ancak;bgÁr edayxül;bk; Gacnwgrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgpñÚkxSac; nigpÞaMgpñÚkxSac;.

scree (talus) slope: an accumulation of angular, weathered rock debris at the foot of a cliff.

CRmalénkemÞckMTIfµ ³ karRbmUlpþúMénkemÞckMTIsilaRsYc Edlrgrbic enAÉeCIg b¤)aténRcaMg.

sea cave: a hole eroded by wave action at the base of a sea cliff. rUgsmuRT ³ RbehagEdlrgsMNwk edayskmµPaBrlkenAÉ)aténRcaMg

smuRT. sea cliff: steep rock slopes that border sea coasts. RcaMgcMeNateqñr b¤ l,ak;eqñr ³ CRmalsilaecat EdlmanRBMEdn

Cab;nwgeqñrsmuRT. sea level: the elevation of the ocean surface relative to a vertical reference. nIv:UTwksmuRT ³ ry³km<s;énépÞTwksmuRTeFobeTAnwgkRmitmYy. sea stack: a residual rock tower which marks coastal cliff retreat. ssrsmuRT ³ b:msilasMNl; EdlbgðajBIkardkfyénRcaMgeqñr. sea (swell) wave: an oscillatory rise and fall in the sea surface pushed by wind energy.

rlksmuRT ¬rlkeXøgeXøag¦ ³ karekIneLIg nigkarFøak;cuH eyal² énépÞTwksmuRT EdlRtUvrujRcanedayfamBlxül;bk;.

sea-floor spreading: the concept that the ocean floor is moving away from a mid-ocean ridge and across the ocean basin, to disappear beneath continents and island arcs.

Kmøatén)atmhasmuRT ³ bBaØtiEdl)atmhasmuRT kMBugeFIVclna cak;q¶ayBIRTnugkNþalmhasmuRT nigqøgkat;)asaMgmhasmuRT eTAlic BIeRkamTIVb nigkMeNagekaH.

seamount: volcanic cone rising 1,000 m or more above the sea floor. PñM)atsmuRT ³ ekaNPñMePøIgEdlegIbeLIg 1 000 Em:Rt b¤elIsBIenH

enABIelI)atsmuRT. secondary mineral: a mineral formed after the formation of its enclosing rock, usually by the alteration of a primary mineral.

Er:RbePTTIBIr ³ Er:EdlkekIteLIgbnÞab;BIkMNkMeNIténsilaenACMuvijva CaFmµta KWekIteLIgedaykarpøas;bþÚrénEr:RbePTTImYy.

sediment: solid material that has been or is being eroded, transported, and deposited.

kemÞckMN ³ smasFaturwgEdlRtUv)an b¤kMBugRtUvTTYlrgsMNwk dwk- CBa¢Ún nigcak;bgÁr.

sediment load (sediment yield): the total amount of sediment being transported, for example by rivers out of a drainage basin.

bnÞúkkemÞckMN ³ brimaNkemÞckMNsrub EdlkMBugRtUv)andwkCBa¢Ún ]TahrN_ edayTenøecjBIGagbgðÚr.

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sedimentary rock: rocks formed by the deposition, alteration and/or compression, and lithification of eroded rock debris, chemical precipitates, or organic sediments.

silakemÞckMN ³ silaEdlekIteLIgedaykarcak;bgÁr karpøas;bþÚr nig¼b¤karsgát;CRmujpÞb; nigdMeNIrkøayCasilaénkemÞckMTIsila Edlrg sMNwk kkrKImI b¤kemÞckMNsrIragÁ.

sedimentation: the settling of particles in solutions or suspensions onto a surface, under the influence of gravity.

KMnrkemÞckMN ³ karFøak;cuHénPaKl¥itenAkñúgsUluysüúg b¤karGENþt enAelIépÞdImYy eRkam\Ti§BlénTMnajdI.

sedimentology: the study of sediments and their deposition and accumulation. kkrviTüa ³ karsikSaBIkemÞckMN karcak;bgÁr nigkarRbmUlpþúMrbs;va. seismic wave: a wave of energy produced by an earthquake. rlkrBa¢ÜydI ³ rlkfamBl begáIteLIgedaykarrBa¢ÜydI. semi-arid: climate zone between arid and humid, which receives 25-50 cm precipitation per year.

Bak;kNþals¶Üt ³ tMbn;GakasFatuenAcenøaHtMbn;s¶ÜtEhg nigtMbn; esIm EdlTTYl)anbrimaNTwkePøógBI 25-50 s>m kñúgmYyqñaM².

shallow translational slide: type of mass movement, where soil or rock slides over a shear surface parallel to and usually within 5 m of the ground surface.

karrGilragRtg;-rak; ³ RbePTénclnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu enAkEnøg EdldI b¤silarGilelIépÞrGilRsbeTAnwgépÞdI ehIyCaFmµtaekItmaneLIg enAkñúgCeRmArak;Cag 5 Em:RtBIépÞdI.

shear resistance (shear strength): the ability of a material to resist shear force, related to the material’s strength, cohesion and friction.

er:sIusþg;rGil ³ smtßPaBénsmasFatu EdlFn;nwgkmøaMgrGil Tak;Tg eTAnwgkmøaMg b¤PaBFn; PaBCab;s¥it nigPaBkkitrbs;smasFatu.

shear stress (shear force): stress caused by forces operating parallel to each other but in opposite directions.

kmøaMgrGil ³ kmøaMgsgát;EdlbgáeLIgedaykmøaMgnana EdlRbRBwtþeTA RsbKña b:uEnþtamTisedApÞúyKña.

sheetwash: water flowing down a slope in a thin layer at the surface. lMhUrTwktamRsTab;Twk ³ TwkEdlhUrcuHCRmalmYy CaRsTab;

esþIg²enAÉépÞdI. shield volcano: broad, gently sloping cone constructed of solidified basaltic lava flows.

PñMePøIgExl ³ ekaNCRmalBMuecat ehIyTUlay EdlekIteLIgBIlMhUr kMEGrPñMePøIg)asal;Edlkkrwg.

short-wave radiation: electro-magnetic energy emitted by the sun at wavelengths below 3 µm.

famBlrlkxIø ³ famBleGLicRtUm:aej:Tic EdlbeBa©jedayRBH-GaTitü nUvCMhanrlkeRkam 3 mIRkUEm:Rt.

silicate: group of minerals that have crystal structures based on a silica tetrahedron (SiO4).

Er:sIulIkat ³ RkumEr:Edlmanrcnasm<½n§RKIsþal; edayEp¥kelIctumux sIulIs ¬SiO4¦.

sill: thin, horizontal planes of igneous rock, parallel with the country rock. RcksIul ³ pÞaMgsilam:ak;m:aepþk ehIyesþIg RsbnwgsilaenACMuvijva. simulation: the use of physical, mathematical or computer models to imitate a process.

karcmøg b¤karbnøMeFVI ³ kareRbIR)as;nUvKMrUrUb KNItviTüa b¤kMuBüÚT½r edIm,IcmøgtamdMeNIrkarmYy.

sinuosity: the degree of curvature of a path, such as a river channel. PaBRkgikRkgk; ³ kRmiténkMeNagrbs;pøÚv dUcCapøÚvTwkTenøCaedIm. slab pull: the concept that subducting plates are pulled along by their dense leading edges.

bnÞHRkas;²Taj ³ bBaØtiEdlpøakFøak;cuH RtUv)anTajtambeNþay edayCaynaMmuxd¾F¶n; ¬mantg;sIuetx<s;¦ rbs;va.

slide: a landslide process or landform. Movement of a coherent mass of soil or rock material along a shear surface.

karrGil ³ dMeNIrkarrGildI b¤sNæandI. clnarbs;m:asdI b¤smas-FatusilaEdlCab;Kña tambeNþayépÞrGilmYy.

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slope decline: a model of slope evolution in which slope gradient decreases through time as a result of reduced stream erosion at the slope foot.

karfycuHénmMuCRmal ³ KMrUénkarvivtþCRmal EdlPaBeTrrbs; CRmalfycuHtameBlevla CalT§plénsMNwkTanø enAÉeCIgCRmal.

slope failure: mass movement involving shearing of soil or rock. kar)ak;Føak;énCRmal ³ clnacuHCRmalénrUbFatu Edlrab;bBa©Úl

karrGildI b¤sila. slope (hillslope) form: the shape of a slope either in long-profile or plan. TRmg;énCRmal ³ sNæanénCRmalkñúgTRmg;Evgk¾)an b¤kñúgTRmg;bøg;

k¾)an. slope replacement: a model of slope evolution in which the slope gradient decreases through time as a result of replacement from below by gentler slopes.

karCMnYsénCRmal ³ KMrUénkarvivtþCRmal EdlPaBeTrrbs;CRmal fycuHtameBlevla CalT§plénkarCMnYsBIeRkam edayCRmalminsUv ecat.

slope retreat: a model of slope evolution in which the slope gradient and form remain constant as it is eroded.

kardkfyénCRmaltamépÞRsb ³ KMrUénkarvivtþCRmal EdlPaB-eTr nigTRmg;;CRmalrkSalMnwg xN³eBlvaRtUvrgsMNwk.

slope unit: a segment or part of a hillslope, with a characteristic form. cMENkCRmal ³ mYycMENk b¤EpñkmYyénCRmalPñM EdlmanTRmg;Pin

PaK. snow avalanche: the sudden and rapid movement of snow or ice down a slope. Gav:aLg;himH ³ clnaPøam² nigy:agelOnénRBil b¤TwkkkcuHCRmal. soil creep: Slow mass movement of soil downslope. Occurs where the stresses on the slope material are too small to create a rapid failure.

kareRCcuHyWt²éndI ³ clnacuHCRmaly:agyWt²éndI. vaekIteLIgenA kEnøgEdlkmøaMgsgát;eTAelIsmasFatuCRmal KWmankmøaMgtUcNas; min GacbegáItkar)ak;Føak;y:agrh½senaHeT.

soil degradation: the erosion and reduction in soil quality associated with nutrient decline and contamination.

karxUcKuNPaBdI ³ sMNwk nigkarbnßyKuNPaBdIedaymankarfycuH nUvsarFatucBa©wm nigCatikxVk;kñúgdI.

soil infiltration capacity: the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil surface.

smtßPaBCRmabTwkrbs;dI ³ GRtaEdlTwkGacRCabcUleTAkñúgépÞdI )an.

soil science (pedology): the study of soils. dIviTüa ³ karsikSaBIdI. solar energy (insolation): electro-magnetic radiation that originates from the Sun. Most of the Sun’s radiation is emitted at wavelengths between 1.0 and 0.1 microns (µm).

famBlRBHGaTitü ³ famBleGLicRtUm:aej:Tic Edlcab;kMeNItBI RBHGaTitü. famBlrbs;RBHGaTitüPaKeRcIn KWRtUv)anbeBa©jnUvCMhan rlkenAcenøaH 1/0 nig 0/1 mIRkUEm:Rt.

solifluction: the slow downslope movement of soil under conditions of seasonal freezing and thawing.

lMhUryWt²éndIEdlesImeCak nigrlay ³ clnacuHCRmal yWt²éndI eRkamlkçxNÐkMNk nigrlaytamrdUv.

solute (dissolved) load: material in solution transported by a river. bnÞúkrlay ³ smasFatuenAkñúgsUluysüúg EdlRtUv)andwkCBa¢Ún

edayTenø. solution: type of chemical weathering where rocks and minerals are dissolved by a solvent (often water).

sUluysüúg b¤ l,ay ³ RbePTénrbicKImI Edlsila nigEr: RtUv rlay edaysarFaturMlay ¬CaerOy²KW Twk¦.

space-time substitution: a method-ological approach in which differences in form are interpreted to represent

karykeBlevlamkCMnYsTItaMg ³ eKalviFIénviFIsa®sþ Edlbk-

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differences in time (development). RsayPaBxusKñaénTRmg; bgðajBIPaBxusKñatameBlevla ¬karvivtþ¦. spilling wave: a form of wave where the seafloor is nearly flat, with the wave crest spilling down the face of the wave.

rlkkMBb; ³ RbePTrlkmYy Edl)atsmuRT KWesÞIrEtrabesµI edaymankMBUlrlk kMBb;cuHeTAmuxénrlk.

spit: long and narrow accumulation of sand and/or gravel that extends into the sea. They form as the result of the deposition of sediments by longshore drift.

s<It ³ karRbmUlpþúMxSac; nig¼b¤RKab;RkYsEvg nigceg¥ót EdlelccUl smuRT. BYkva ekIteLIgCalT§plénkarcak;bgÁrrbs;kemÞckMN edaykar rsat;tambeNþayExSeqñr.

spring: a natural flow of water from the sub-surface to the surface. Usually occurs when the water table intersects the Earth’s surface.

TwkpuseRkamdI ³ lMhUrTwktamlkçN³FmµCati BIeRkampÞdIeTAépÞdI. CaFmµta ekIteLIgenAeBlkRmitTwk Cab;nwgépÞEpndI.

spring tide: unusually high and low tides that occur every 2 weeks because of the position of the Earth, moon and sun. Contrasts with neap tide.

CMenar-lMnacx<s;CagFmµta ³ CMenar-lMnacx<s;-TabCagFmµta Edl ekIteLIgerogral;BIrs)þah_mþg edaysarTItaMgrbs;EpndI RBHc½nÞ nig RBH GaTitü. pÞúyBICMenar-lMnactUcCagFmµta.

stock: a small discordant intrusive igneous rock. sþúk ³ silam:ak;m:aeRCottUc² EdlminRsbnwgsilaenACMuvijvaeT. storage: the stores of water in the hydrological cycle. sþúkTuk ³ karsþúkTwkTukenAkñúgvdþTwk. storm surge: changes in sea level caused by storm winds pushing water towards land.

rlkxül;BüúH ³ bERmbRmYlnIv:UTwksmuRT EdlbgáeLIgedayxül;BüúH EdlrujRcanTwksmuRTeTAelIépÞdI.

straight channel: single river channels with sinuosity less than 1.5. pøÚvTwkRtg; ³ pøÚvTwkTenøEtmYy edaymanPaBRkgikRkgk; ticCag

1/5. strata: The layers or beds found in sedimentary rock. RsTab;kemÞckMN ³ RsTab; b¤)at EdlmanenAkñúgsilakemÞckMN. stream order: identification of the links in a stream network. lMdab;pøÚvTwk ³ GtþsBaØaNkmµénTMnak;TMngkñúgbNþajpøÚvTwk. stress: a force acting on an object that tends to cause strain (deformation). kmøaMgsgát; ³ kmøaMgEdleFIVeLIgenAelIvtßúmYy EdlTMngbgá[karxUc

RTg;RTay ¬kMhUcRTg;RTay¦. strike-slip fault: a fault in which movement is parallel to the fault line. bMNak;RsutrGilEbk ³ bMNak;RsutEdlclnaRsbeTAnwgExSbMNak;

Rsut. subduction: the sliding of the sea floor beneath a continent or island arc. karFøak;cuH ³ karrGilén)atsmuRTeRkamTVIb b¤kMeNagekaH. subduction zone: long region in which subduction takes place. tMbn;énkarFøak;cuH ³ tMbn;d¾Evg EdlkarFøak;cuH ekItmaneLIg. submergent coast: a coast in which former land has been recently drowned, by land subsidence or sea-level rise.

eqñrEdlmuCcuH ³ eqñrEdldIBIGtItkal RtUv)anlicTwkCafµI² edaykar-RsutcuHéndI b¤karekIneLIgénnIv:UTwksmuRT.

subsidence: sinking or downwarping of a part of the Earth’s surface. karRsutcuH ³ karliccuH b¤karekagcuHénEpñkmYyrbs;épÞEpndI. Sundaland: former continent in SE Asia, exposed when sea-level fell during glacial periods. Now flooded continental shelf.

sugdaEln ³ TIVbBImunenAtMbn;GasIuGaeKñy_ Edlbgðaj[eXIjenAeBl nIv:UTwksmuRTFøak;cuH enAkMLúgeBlsm½yTwkkk. bc©úb,nñ CaCayTI Vblic Twk.

surf zone: coastal zone where longshore drift currents develop, between the breaker tMbn;BBuHrlk ³ tMbn;eqñrEdlcrnþrsat;tambeNþayExSeqñr vivtþeLIg

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and swash zones. enAcenøaHrvagtMbn;rlkbMEbk nigtMbn;rlkRbedj. surface creep: rolling and sliding move-ment of surface particles by the wind. karlUnénépÞdI ³ clnaremol nigrGilénPaKl¥itelIépÞdIedaycrnþ

xül;bk;. surface uplift: the upward movement of the land surface with respect to sea level. karegIbeLIgénépÞdI ³ clnasÞúHeLIgelIénépÞdI FabnwgnIv:UTwksmuRT. surging wave: wave form on the steepest beaches. The wave crest is smooth, and the wave base slides up the beach as swash.

rlkeRTaleLIg ³ RbePTrlkelIeqñrxSac;d¾ecatbMput. kMBUlrlk KW manlkçN³relag ehIy)atrlk rGilelIeqñrxSac;CarlkRbedj.

suspended load: part of the stream load that is carried almost permanently suspended in flowing water.

bnÞúkGENþt ³ EpñkénbnÞúkTenø EdlRtUvdwkCBa¢ÚnesÞIrEtCaGcié®nþy_ Edl)anGENþtkñúglMhUrTwk.

swash: a thin sheet of water that moves up the beach face after a wave of water breaks on the shore.

rlkRbedj ³ RsTab;esþIgénTwkEdleFIVclnaeLIgelImuxeqñr bnÞab;BI rlkTwk EbkenAelIeqñr.

swash zone: the part of the coastal foreshore where swash is active. tMbn;rlkRbedj ³ Epñkéneqñrxagmux EdlrlkRbedj. swell (sea) wave: an oscillatory rise and fall in the sea surface pushed by wind energy.

rlkeXøgeXøag ¬rlksmuRT¦ ³ karegIbeLIg nigkarFøak;cuHeday eyal²énépÞsmuRT EdlRtUvrujRcanedayfamBlxül;bk;.

syncline: a fold in rock layers that forms a trough-like bend. saMgKøINal; ³ pñt;enAkñúgRsTab;silaekIteLIgekagdUcsñÚk. system: a set of objects or characteristics which are related to one another and operate together as a complete entity.

RbB½n§ ³ Rkuménvtßú b¤lkçN³EdlTak;TgKña ehIyRbRBwtþeTARBmKñaCa lkçN³eBjelj.

system input: energy or material which enters a system. pøÚvcUlRbB½n§ ³ famBl b¤smasFatuEdlcUlkñúgRbB½n§. system output: energy or material which leaves a system. pøÚvecjRbB½n§ ³ famBl b¤smasFatu EdlcakecjBIRbB½n§. system throughput: energy or material which is transmitted through a system. pøÚvxagkñúgRbB½n§ ³ famBl b¤smasFatuEdleFVIeTAtamRbB½n§.

T

talus cone: cone-shaped accumulation of rock debris at the foot of a cliff gully. ekaNénkemÞckMTIfµ ³ karRbmUlpþúMénkemÞckMTIsilaEdlmanrag

ekaN enAÉeCIgcg¥ÚrénRcaMg. talus (scree) slope: an accumulation of angular, weathered rock debris at the foot of a cliff.

CRmalénkemÞckMTIfµ ³ karRbmUlpþúMénkemÞckMTIsilaRsYcEdlrgrbic enAÉeCIgRcaMg.

tectonic geomorphology: geomorph-ological study of the processes and products of tectonism.

PUmisNæanviTüatictUnic ³ karsikSaPUmisNæanviTüaGMBIdMeNIrkar nigplitplénskmµPaBtictUnic.

tectonism: the large-scale processes of uplift, movement or deformation of parts of the Earth’s crust.

clnatictUnic ³ dMeNIrkarénkaregIbeLIg clna b¤kMhUcRTg;RTay énEpñkrbs;sm,kEpndItammaRtdæanFM.

tensile (extensional) stress: a stress due to a force pulling away on an object. kmøaMgRbTaj ³ kmøaMgsgát;edaysarEtkmøaMgTajecjelIvtßúmYy. terrace: an elevated surface above the existing level of a floodplain or shore that represents a former floodplain or coastal

l,ak; ¬Tenø¦³ épÞEdlegIbeLIgBIelIkRmitbc©úb,nñénTMnablicTwk b¤ eqñr EdltMNag[TMnablicTwk b¤épÞeqñrBImun RtUve)aHbg;ecaledaykar-

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surface, abandoned by a fall in base level. Føak;cuHén kRmitmUldæan. terracette: small (less than 0.5 m) terrace or step extending across a slope, formed by soil creep or animal tracks.

CeNþIrdI ³ l,ak; b¤CMhantUc² ¬tUcCag 0/5 m¦Edlsn§wgqøgkat; CRmal EdlRtUvbegáIteLIgedaykareRCdIcuHyWt² b¤smøakstV.

tetrahedron: a polyhedron with four triangular faces. Symmetrical geometric shape with four vertices and equal bond angles. The silicate tetrahedron (SiO4) is a silicon atom joined by four oxygen atoms.

etRtaEGt b¤ctumµx ³ BhumuxEdlmanmuxRtIekaNbYn. TRmg; FrNImaRtsIuemRTI manExSQrbYn nigmanmMusm<½n§esIµKña. ctumuxsIulIs ¬SiO4¦ CaGatUmsIulIsüÚmmYy EdlCab;nwgGatUmGuksIuEsnbYn.

texture: the general character of a rock, including the size and shape of its particles or crystals.

vaynPaB ³ lkçN³TUeTAénsila rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgTMhM nigrUbragrbs; PaKl¥it b¤Rkamrbs;va.

theory of evolution: the theories concerning the processes of biological and organic change in organisms such that descendents differ from their ancestors.

RTwsþIkarvivtþ ³ RTwsþIGMBIdMeNIrERbRbYlCIvsaRsþ nigsrIragÁrbs;Pavrs; dUcCa Éktþ³CMnan;eRkayxusBIbuBVCMnan;rbs;va.

threshold: the magnitude or intensity that must be exceeded for a certain reaction, phenomenon, result, or change to occur.

kRmitkMNt; ³ TMhM b¤GaMgtg;sIuet EdlRtUvelIssRmab;Rbtikmµ )atuPUt lT§pl b¤bERmbRmYlxøH² EdlekItmaneLIg.

throughflow: the approximately horizontal flow of water through soil. lMhUrTwkenAkñúgdI ³ lMhUrrbs;TwktamTisedktamry³dI. tidal flat: area of muddy sediments that are influenced by the rise and fall of tides. Often form in lagoons or estuaries.

TMnabCMenar-lMnac ³ tMbn;kemÞckMNPk; EdlRtUv)anrg\Ti§Bleday karegIbeLIg nigkarFøak;cuHénCMenar-lMnac. CaerOy² ekItmaneLIgenA kñúgbwgTwkéRb b¤édsmuRT.

tidal range: the vertical distance between tidal low water and high water. cenøaHCMenar-lMnac ³ cm¶aytamTisbBaÄrrvagCMenarx<s; nigCMenar

Tab. tide: cyclical rise and fall of the surface of the oceans, caused by the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon on the Earth.

CMenarlMnac ³ karelceLIg nigkarFøak;cuHCavdþénépÞmhasmuRT Edl bgáeLIgedayTMnajRBHGaTitü nigRBHc½nÞ eTAelIEpndI.

tombolo: a coastal bar that connects a former island or stack and the mainland. fuMb:ULÚ ³ pñÚkeqñrEdltP¢ab;rvagekaH b¤ssrBImun nigdIeKak. toppling (slab) failure: a type of rock-slope failure characterized by overturning of a column of rock as it falls from a cliff.

kardYlRsuténfµ ¬kar)ak;Føak;énpÞaMgfµ¦ ³ RbePTénkar)ak;Føak; CRmalsila EdlkMNt;lkçN³edaykarRkLab;énssrsila enAeBlva Føak;cuHBIRcaMg.

trailing-edge (passive margin) coast: coast along a tectonically passive continental margin, marking the zone of rifting along a former divergent plate boundary.

eqñrmanEKmtamBIeRkay ³ eqñrtambeNþayCayTIVbGskmµ Edl kMNt;tMbn;énkarrsat;tambeNþayRBMEdnpøakEbkKñaecj BImun.

transfer: movement of energy or material from one part of a system to another. karepÞr ³ clnafamBl b¤smasFatuBIEpñkmYyénRbB½n§eTAEpñkmYy

eTot. transform (conservative) boundary: boundary between two tectonic plates that are sliding past each other.

RBMEdnpøas;bþÚr ¬RBMEdneLIgcuH¦ ³ RBMEdnrvagpøaktictUnicBIr Edl rGilelIKña.

transform fault: continental-scale strike-slip fault that marks a transform plate boundary.

bMNak;Rsutpøas;bþÚr b¤ bMNak;RsutrGil ³ bMNak;RsutrGilEbk

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maRtdæanTIVb EdlkMNt;RBMEdnpøakpøas;bþÚr. transform orogen: a mountain range along a convergent, oblique-slip fault, formed as a result of folding and uplift.

ExSRkvat;PñMpøas;bþÚr ³ CYrPñ MtambeNþaybMNak;RsutrGilBIelIKñaeRTt EdlTajKñacUl kekIteLIgCalT§plénBMenIgpñt; nigkaregIbeLIg.

transgression: a landward advance of the coast-line caused by a relative rise in sea level.

karedIreTAmuxénExSeqñr ³ karekIneLIgeTAmuxénExSeqñrec<aHeTAkan;dI eKak EdlbgáeLIgedaykarekIneLIgeFobénnIv:UsmuRT.

transport: the movement of eroded material in the medium of air, water or ice. kardwkCBaöÚn ³ clnaénsmasFatuEdlrgsMNwk enAkñúgxül; Twk b¤

Twkkk. transport-limited slope: slope where erosion is controlled by the capacity of the transport processes, rather than the availability of erodible material.

CRmalkMNt;edaykardwkCBa¢Ún ³ CRmalEdlsMNwk RtUvRtYtRta edaysmtßPaBéndMeNIrkardwkCBa©Ún CaCagvtþmanénsmasFatuEdlGac rgsMNwk.

transportability: the ability of a material to be transported. PaBGacRtUvdwkCBa¢Ún ³ smtßPaBénsmasFatuEdlRtUvdwkCBa©Ún. tsunami: large ocean wave created from an earthquake or volcanic eruption. When entering shallow coastal waters, wave height may exceed 15 meters.

rlkrBa¢ÜydI b¤s‘UNami ³ rlkmhasmuRTFM² )anbegáIteLIgBIkar rBa¢ÜyEpndI b¤bnÞúHPñMePøIg. enAeBlrlkrBa¢ÜydIcUldl;Twkeqñrrak;² enaH km<s;rlk GacelIsBI 15 Em:Rt.

tuff: a volcanic rock formed from fine-grained pyroclastic particles (ash). RKab;fµPñMePøIg ³ silaPñMePøIg EdlbegáIteLIgBIPaKl¥itbMENkPñMePøIgRKab;

m:dæ ¬epH¦. turbulent flow: eddying, swirling flow of water within a stream, caused by channel topography and friction.

lMhUrkYc ³ lMhUrTwkkYc ehIyvilenAkñúgGUr b¤eRCaH bgáeLIgeday sPaBTabx<s;énpøÚvTwk nigkarkkit.

U

unconformity: a surface that represents a break in the geological record, with the rock unit immediately above it being much younger than the rock beneath it.

épÞcenøaHsila ³ épÞEdltMNag[cenøaHenAkñúgkMNt;RtaPUKBÖsa®sþ edaymanRsTab;silaBIelIva EdlekµgCagsilaenABIeRkamvaeRcIndg.

underfit (misfit) stream: a stream which appears too small for its valley, caused by river capture or climatically related reduction in discharge.

ExSTwkminsmrmü ³ GUr b¤TenøtUcCagRClgrbs;vaeRcIndg Edl bgáeLIgedaykarcab;ykrbs;Tenø b¤karbnßycMNuHTwkEdlTak;Tgnwg GakasFatu.

Uniformitarianism: principle that natural phenomena should be explained by the simplest explanation which is consistent with the evidence and with the operation of scientific laws. According to James Hutton (1788), the simplest explanation for the nature of the Earth’s surface and rocks was the operation of processes of erosion, lithification and uplift similar to those whose operations could be observed in the modern world, over immensely long periods of time.

RTwsþIÉksNæanniym ³ eKalkarN_fa )atuPUtFmµCati KYrRtUvBnül; edaykarBnül;samBaØbMput EdlRsb;nwgPsþútag nigkarRbtibtþitamc,ab; viTüasa®sþ. edayeyageTAtamelak James Hutton ¬1788¦ kar-Bnül;samBaØbMput cMeBaHlkçN³énépÞEpndI nigsila KWCadMeNIrkarsMNwk dMeNIrkøayCasila nigkaregIbeLIgkñúgkMLúgeBlevlad¾yUr RsedogeTAnwg karRbtibtþiéndMeNIrkarTaMgenaH EdlRtUv)aneFIVkarsegáteBlbc©úb,nñ.

uplift: the upward movement of part of the Earth’s surface. karegIbeLIg ³ clnasÞúHeLIgelIénEpñkmYyrbs;épÞEpndI.

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V

vent: an opening on a volcano through which lava is released and rock fragments and ash are ejected.

rn§PñMePøIg ³ cMNucRbehag b¤cMhenAelIPñMePøIg EdlkMEGrPñMePøIg bMENk silanana nigepH RtUv)anbeBa©j.

ventifact: a loose stone that has been polished smooth by wind transported particles. Common in arid environments.

dMufµrlIgqijedayxül;bk; ³ fµFUrrlugEdlRtUv)anxat;[relag edayPaKl¥itepSg² EdlRtUv)andwkCBa¢Únkñúgxül;. manenAbrisßanhYt Ehg.

viscosity: the amount of the resistance to flow in a fluid due to intermolecular friction.

PaBxab;Gn§il ³ brimaNéner:sIusþg;cMeBaHlMhUrenAkñúgsnÞnIy eday-sarEtkarkkitrvagm:UelKulepSg².

volcanic: of, or relating to a volcano. énPñMePøIg ³ én b¤EdlTak;TgeTAnwgPñMePøIg. volcanic (extrusive): an igneous rock which erupts at the Earth’s surface before cooling.

silaPñMePøIg ¬silam:ak;m:axageRkA¦ ³ silaPñMePøIgEdlpÞúHenAelI épÞEpndI muneBlcuHRtCak;.

volcanic bomb: a lump of lava or pyroclastic debris thrown out by a volcano.

kemÞcRKab;GMEbgPñMePøIg ³ KMnrénkMEGrPñMePøIg b¤kemÞckMTIPñ MePøIg Edl pÞúHecjBIPñMePøIg.

volcanic eruption: the act of a volcano erupting. bnÞúHPñMePøIg ³ skmµPaBénbnÞúHPñMePøIg. volcanic geomorphology: the study of volcanic landforms and landscapes. PUmisNæanviTüaPñMePøIg ³ karsikSaBIsNæandI nigeTsPaBsNæan

PñMePøIg. volcanic island arc: an arcuate line of explosive, andesitic island volcanoes which form as a result of hydration and partial melt of subducting oceanic crust.

kMeNagekaHPñMePøIg ³ ExSekagénekaHPñMePøIg ¬bnÞúHrMesv nigGg;edsIut¦ EdlbegáIteLIgCalT§plénGIuRdatkmµ nigkarrlayedayEpñkénsm,k mhasmuRTEdlkMBugFøak;cuH.

volcanism: volcanic activity or phenomena. skmµPaBPñMePøIg ³ skmµPaB b¤)atuPUtPñMePøIg. volcano: an elevated area of land created from the release of lava and ejection of ash and rock fragments from a volcanic vent.

PñMePøIg ³ tMbn;dIx<s; RtUvbegáIteLIgBIkarbeBa©jénkMEGrPñMePøIg epHPñMePøIg nigbMENksilaBIrn§PñMePøIg.

W

warping (epeirogeny): uplift of large areas of crust without much deformation, in contrast to orogeny.

karekageLIgéntMbn;FM ¬eGeprU:CwnI¦ ³ karegIbeLIgnUvtMbn;FM²én sm,kEpndI edayKµankarxUcRTg;RTayeRcIneT EtxusBIkaregIbeLIgén Rkvat;PñM ¬GUr:UCwnI¦.

wash load: the finest part of a river’s suspended load, consisting of small clay- sized material, which remains in suspension as long as water is flowing.

bnÞúkrsat; ³ Epñkm:dæbMputénbnÞúkGENþtrbs;Tenø EdlmansmasFatu TMhMb:undI\dætUc² EdlbnSl;TukenAkñúgkarGENþtd¾yUrenAeBlTwkkMBugEt hUr.

Water (Hydrological) Cycle: the global stores and transfers of water in its liquid, solid and gas phases.

vdþTwk ³ karsþúk nigkarepÞrTwkelIEpndI kñúglkçN³CasarFaturav rwg

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nig]sµ½n. water table: top surface of groundwater. ClsþarkñúgdI b¤ kRmitTwkkñúgdI ³ épÞxagelIénTwkeRkamdI. water-layer weathering: rock weathering in the inter-tidal zone by hydration and salt weathering enhanced by regular, cyclic, wetting and drying.

rbicRsTab;Twk ³ silargrbicenAtMbn;cenøaHCMenar edayGIuRdakmµ nigrbicedayRkamGMbil EdlRtUvbEnßmedayPaBesIm nigPaBs¶Üt y:ag eTogTat; begáIt)anCavdþ.

waterfall: a location in the long profile of a stream where water flows vertically. A knickpoint.

TwkFøak; ³ TItaMgmYyenAkñúgTRmg;d¾EvgénTanø CakEnøgEdlTwkhUrtam TisedAbBaÄr. cMNuckaM RbePTmYy.

watershed (drainage divide): the boundary of a drainage basin. TICRmal ¬ExSEckTwk¦ ³ RBMEdnénGagbgðÚr. wave refraction: the bending of the wave front as water depth decreases, caused by a reduction in wave velocity.

cMNaMgEbr ¬kMeNagénrlk¦ ³ karbt;EbnénRBMrlk edaysar CeRmATwkfycuH Edl)anbgáeLIgedaykarfycuHénel,Ónrlk.

wave-cut notch: a rock groove at the foot of a sea cliff where the energy of water waves is concentrated.

sñamlak;kat;rlk ³ sñamlak;kat;silaenA)atRcaMgsmuRT CakEnøg EdlfamBlénrlkTwkRtUv)anRbmUlpþúM.

wave-cut platform: a flat or slightly sloping bedrock surface that forms in the tidal zone. Caused by wave erosion.

pÞaMgsilakat;rlk ³ épÞsilaRTnrEdlmanCRmalrab b¤minecat EdlekItmanenAtMbn;cenøaHCMenar. bgáeLIgedaysMNwkénrlk.

weathering: the in situ disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals at or near the Earth’s surface by mechanical, chemical or biological processes.

rbic b¤dMeNIrBukpuy ³ karEbk)ak; nigkarbMEbkFatuenAkEnøgEtmYy énsila nigEr: enAÉ b¤enAEk,répÞEpndI edaydMeNIrkaremkanic KImI b¤CIv³.

weathering mantle (regolith): loose layer of weathered rock material and soil overlying bedrock.

KRmbrbic ¬rC¢Hsila¦ ³ RsTab;FUrrlugénsmasFatusila nigdI Edlrgrbic EdlRKbelIsilaRTnr.

weathering-limited slope: slope where erosion is controlled by the availability of erodible, weathered material, not the capacity of the transport processes.

CRmalkMNt;edayrbic ³ CRmalEdlsMNwk RtUv)anRtYtRtaeday vtþmanénsmasFaturgrbic EdlGacTTYlrgsMNwk)an minEmnsmtßPaB éndMeNIrkardwkCBa¢ÚnnanaenaHeT.

wedge failure: failure of a rock wedge bounded by two intersecting joints. kar)ak;Føak;énRCugfµ ³ kar)ak;Føak;énRCugsilaragRtIekan EdlRtUv

kMNt;RBMxNÐ edaysñameRbHkat;KñaBIr. Wilson cycle (Supercontinent cycle): the periodic coalescence and rifting of supercontinents, driven by plate tectonics over c. 500 million year time scales.

vdþvIlsun ¬vdþTIVbFM¦ ³ karbBa©ÚlKña nigkarEbkecjBIKñaénTIVbnana EdlekIteLIgCavdþ tammaRtdæaneBlevlaRbEhl 500 lanqñaM nigbgá-eLIgedayclnapøaktictUnic.

wind-generated wave: sea waves produced by the blowing of wind over the ocean surface.

rlkekIteLIgedaysarxül;;bk; ³ rlksmuRTEdlbegáIteLIgeday karbk;énxül;enAelIépÞmhasmuRT.

Y

yardang: a rock surface abraded into a streamlined shape by wind-blown sand. The long axis is aligned with the dominant wind direction.

RTnugfµenAvallMh ¬y:adag¦³ épÞsilaEdlRtUv)answkeTACaRTg; RTayrelag edaysarPaKl¥itdIxSac;EdlRtUvxül;bk;. G½kSd¾Evgrbs;va

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RtUv)anQrCaCYr RsbnwgTisedAxül;bk;.

Z

zone of aeration (vadose zone): an underground zone in which rock pores are usually unsaturated and filled with air and some water. Above the water table.

tMbn;minEq¥tTwk ³ tMbn;eRkamdI Edlrn§ b¤Rbehagsila manPaBmin Eq¥tTwkCaFmµta ehIyRtUvbMeBjedayxül; nigTwkxøH². enAxagelIkRmit TwkkñúgdI.

zone of saturation: an underground zone in which all rock pores are filled with water. Below the water table.

tMbn;Eq¥tTwk ³ tMbn;eRkamdI Edlrn§silaTaMgGs; RtUvbMeBjeday Twk. enAxageRkamkRmitTwkkñúgdI.

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