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Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update

Biology 233

Anatomy and Physiology III

Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, Table of Contents

Anatomy and Physiology III

Biology 233

Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide

Table of Contents Lab Topic

Marieb Lab Exercise

PCC Lab Guide Page

Safety Guidelines 1

Disposal Guidelines 2

Respiratory System 36, 37A 3

Digestive System 38 7

Digestive Enzymes 39A 10

Surface Anatomy Roundup 46 12

Urinary System 40 14

Urinalysis 41A 16

Fluids and Electrolytes (PCC Handout) 18

Reproductive System Anatomy 42 25

Gametogenesis 43 27

Principles of Heredity 45 29

Embryology Lab 44 33

Human Development (PCC Handout) 36

Biology 233, Anatomy and Physiology III, Sylvania Laboratory Survival Guide Spring 2005 Update, p. 1

PCC-Sylvania Bi 233 Laboratory Supplement 1. Upon entering the laboratory, please locate the exits, fire extinguisher, eyewash station, and

clean up materials for chemical spills. The location of fire blanket, safety kit, and showers will be demonstrated by your instructor.

2. Read the general laboratory directions and any objectives before coming to lab. 3. Food and drink, including water, is prohibited in laboratory. This is per Federal laboratory

guidelines and per College Safety Policy. Do not chew gum, use tobacco products of any kind, store food or apply cosmetics in the laboratory. No drink containers of any kind may be on the benches.

4. Please keep all personal materials off the working area. Store backpacks and purses at the rear of the laboratory, not beside or under benches. Some laboratory spaces have shelving in rear for this purpose.

5. For your safety, please restrain long hair, loose fitting clothing and dangling jewelry. Hair ties are available, ask your instructor. Hats and bare midriffs are not acceptable in the laboratory. Shoes, not sandals, must be worn at all times in laboratory. You may wear a laboratory apron or lab coat if you desire, but it is not required.

6. We do not wish to invade your privacy, but for your safety if you are pregnant, taking immunosuppressive drugs or who have any other medical conditions (e.g. diabetes, immunological defect) that might necessitate special precautions in the laboratory must inform the instructor immediately. If you know you have an allergy to latex or chemicals, please inform instructor.

7. Decontaminate work surfaces at the beginning of every lab period using Amphyl solution. Decontaminate bench following any practical quiz, when given, and after labs involving the dissection of preserved material.

8. Use safety goggles in all experiments in which solutions or chemicals are heated or when instructed to do so. Never leave heat sources unattended: hot plates or Bunsen burners.

9. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids or when touching items or surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids such as saliva and urine. (NOTE: cover open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.) Wash hands immediately after removing gloves.

10. Keep all liquids away from the edge of the lab bench to avoid spills. Immediately notify your instructor of any spills. Keep test tubes in racks provided, except when necessary to transfer to water baths or hot plate. You will be advised of the proper clean-up procedures for any spill.

11. Report all chemical or liquid spills and all accidents, such as cuts or burns, no matter how minor, to the instructor immediately.

12. Use mechanical pipetting devices only. Mouth pipetting is prohibited.

Students who do not comply with these safety guidelines will be excluded from the Laboratory


Safe Disposal of Contaminated Materials

• Place disposable materials such as gloves, mouth pieces, swabs, toothpicks and paper toweling that have come into contact with blood or other body fluids into a disposable Autoclave bag for decontamination by autoclaving. This bucket is not for general trash.

• Place glassware contaminated with blood and other body fluids directly into a labeled bucket of 10% Bleach solution. ONLY glass or plastic-ware is to be placed in this bucket, no trash.

• Sharp’s container is for used lancets only. It is bright red. When using disposable lancets do not replace their covers.

1. Properly label glassware and slides, using china markers provided. 2. Wear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids or when touching items

or surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids such as saliva and urine. (NOTE: cover open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.) Wash hands immediately after removing gloves.

3. Wear disposable gloves when handling or dissecting specimens fixed with formaldehyde or stored in Carosafe/Wardsafe.

4. Wear disposable gloves when handling chemicals denoted as hazardous or carcinogenic by your instructor. Read labels on dropper bottles provided for an experiment, they will indicate the need for gloves or goggles, etc. Upon request, detailed written information is available on every chemical used (MSDS). Ask your instructor.

5. No pen or pencil is to be used at any time on any model or bone. The bones are fragile, hard to replace and used by hundreds of students every year. To protect them and keep them in the best condition, please use pipe cleaners and probes provided instead of a writing instrument. Probes may be used on models as well. The bones are very difficult and costly to replace, as are the models and may take a long time to replace.

6. At the end of an experiment: • clean glassware and place where designated. Remove china marker labels at this time. • return solutions & chemicals to designated area. Do not put solutions or chemicals in

cupboards! 7. You cannot work alone or unsupervised in the laboratory. 8. Microscopes should be cleaned before returning to numbered cabinet. Be sure objectives are

clean, use lens paper. Place objectives into storage position, and return to the storage cabinet. Be sure cord has been coiled and restrained. Your instructor may require microscope be checked before you put it away. Be sure it is in assigned cupboard.

9. Please replace your prepared slides into the box from which they came (slides and boxes are numbered), so students using them after you will be able to find the same slide. Clean slide with Kimwipes if dirty or covered with oil, before placing back in box. If you break a slide, please, inform you instructor so the slide can be replaced. Please be aware that there are hundreds of dollars worth of slides in each box and handle the boxes with care when carrying to and from your work bench.

10. Be sure all paper towels used in cleaning lab benches and washing hands are disposed of in trash container provided.

Students who do not comply with these safety guidelines and directions will be excluded from the Laboratory.


Respiratory System Exercises 36, 37A

Gross Anatomy

1. Nose: a. external nares b. superior, middle, and inferior turbinates (nasal conchae)

2. Auditory tube 3. Tonsils

a. palatine, pharyngeal, and lingual 4. Pharynx

a. Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx 5. Larynx: (click here for some cool cases)

a. Thyroid cartilage (“Adam's apple”) and cricoid cartilage b. cricothyroid ligament (site of emergent cricothyrotomy) c. tracheal cartilage, hyoid bone d. epiglottis (elastic cartilage) and glottis e. vestibular folds (=false cords) and true vocal cords

6. Airways: a. trachea b. carina c. right and left primary (=mainstem) bronchi (right is more vertical and larger

diameter) d. secondary bronchi (one per lobe) e. tertiary bronchi f. bronchioles

7. Lungs: a. parietal pleura and visceral pleura b. pleural cavity filled with pleural fluid c. apex, base, and hilus d. pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

8. Right lung: a. upper (superior), middle, and lower lobes, horizontal fissure, oblique fissure

9. Left lung: a. left upper and lower lobes, cardiac notch, oblique fissure

10. Mediastinum 11. Diaphragm


Histology:

1. Trachea: identify trachea, C-shaped hyaline cartilage, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, cilia, goblet cells

2. Lung with bronchioles: a. Bronchioles: no cartilage in wall, large ones lined with either ciliated simple

columnar epithelium, small ones lined with simple cuboidal epithelium. Outside epithelium, note smooth muscle.

b. Alveoli: simple squamous epithelium. On 40x, note may see areas where red cells are arranged single file within capillaries. What is the name for the membrane created by the simple squamous cells of alveoli & capillaries, plus the basement membranes in between?

Respiratory Histology: Review adapted from JayDoc Histoweb Trachea

• ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial lining

• Goblet cells

• Sero-mucous glands

• Cartilage rings

• smooth muscle

Bronchi

• Pseudostratified columnar, ciliated epithelium (shorter)

• Goblet cells (fewer)

• Sero-mucous glands

• Cartilage

• Smooth muscle – in spirals, not rings

• Bronchi are lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells

• Between the smooth muscle layer and the (discontinuous) cartilage is the submucosa, which may contain seromucous glands

• Arterial branches accompany the branching respiratory tree all along the way.

Bronchioles

• simple columnar epithelium

• low columnar epithelial lining


• Simple columnar or cuboidal & ciliated epithelium

• ciliated epithelium … ok

• No (diminishing, at least) goblet cells

• no glands

• NO cartilage plates

• prominence of smooth muscle fibers in the lamina propri

• Smooth muscle (relatively abundant)

• Clara cells

Respiratory Bronchiole

• low columnar to low cuboidal. Cilia present in the larger tubes only

• Simple cuboidal, ciliated epithelium (shorter)

• Clara cells

• Alveolar openings (lined with squamous epithelium)

• smooth muscle

Alveolar Duct

• thin squamous (Pneumocyte type I) and cuboidal epithelium (Pneumocyte type II).

• smooth muscle

Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli

• Type I Pneumocyte

o flattened for gas exchange

o covers 95% of alveolar surface (but only accounts for about 40% of pneumocyte population)

• Type II Pneumocyte

o cuboidal

o produces surfactant

o constitutes about 60% of the pneumocytes (but only 5% of the surface area)


Spirometry: Define and be able to calculate from any spirogram (not just the one in manual):

Tidal Volume Inspiratory Reserve Volume Expiratory Reserve Volume Residual Volume Vital Capacity Total Lung Capacity FEV1 FEV1/FVC ( FEV1%); ratios is over 76% in normal individuals, ratio is

decreased in obstructive airway disease Sketch a spirogram. Label the X- and Y-axis. Estimate the volumes and capacities listed above. Buffers: What is a buffer: What is the importance of the carbonic acid buffer? Write the reaction that is facilitated by carbonic anhydrase. List several factors that shift the equilibrium of the reaction. What happens to pH of water when one exhales into it? How was this made evident in lab? What happens to pH of a buffered solution when one does the same maneuver? How was this made evident in lab? How does carbonic acid buffer deal with excess acid or base? Click here to learn about pulmonary embolus!


Digestive System Exercises 38

Histology Notes: You will not identifying the submucosal and myenteric plexuses; review your text and learn their locations. Learn the secretory products of the various mucosal and glandular cells. Esophagus

1. Mucosa a. Non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium b. Lamina propria: loose areolar CT c. Muscularis mucosa

2. Submucosa a. Esophageal glands b. Blood Vessels c. Submucosal plexus

3. Muscularis Externa a. Upper 2/3: voluntary, striated skeletal smooth muscle b. Lower 2/3: smooth muscle c. Myenteric plexus

4. Adventitia (no serosa) Click Here to learn about esophageal carcinoma! Stomach

1. Mucosa a. Simple columnar epithelium b. Gastric pits leading into gastric glands c. Mucous neck cells d. Parietal cells e. Chief cells f. not visible: G cells in antrum, a type of enteroendocrine cell

2. Lamina propria: loose areolar CT 3. Muscularis mucosa 4. Submucosa

a. Blood Vessels b. Submucosal plexus (just know exists…not identify)

5. Muscularis Externa: don't need to be able to identify each different layer of smooth muscle

a. Inner oblique layer b. Middle circular layer c. Myenteric plexus d. Outer longitudinal layer

6. Serosa Small Intestine:


1. Mucosa a. Simple columnar epithelium folded into villi b. luminal surface of cells’ membranes: microvilli c. deeper parts: crypts of Lieberkuhn


a. Blood Vessels b. Submucosal plexus c. Submucosa & mucosa folded as plicae circulares d. Duodenal glands e. Distal small intestine: lymphoid nodules called Peyer’s patches

5. Muscularis Externa a. Inner circular layer b. Myenteric plexus c. Outer longitudinal layer

6. Serosa Large Intestine

1. Mucosa a. Simple columnar epithelium b. No villi or microvilli c. Deeper parts: crypts of Lieberkuhn d. Lots of goblet cells


a. Blood Vessels b. Submucosal plexus

5. Muscularis Externa a. Inner circular layer b. Myenteric plexus c. Outer longitudinal layer: on model, note this exists as the 3 strips called Teniae

coli 6. Serosa

Liver:

1. hepatocytes in cords 2. central vein 3. portal triad:

a. bile duct b. branch of hepatic artery c. branch of portal vein

Pancreas:

1. acinar cells 2. pancreatic duct


3. Islets of Langerhans Gross Anatomy:

1. Tongue 2. Teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, molars 3. Salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, sublingual 4. Esophagus: (click here for endoscopic photos) upper esophageal sphincter, body, lower

esophageal sphincter 5. Stomach: (click here for photos) cardia, fundus, body, antrum (text calls this the pyloric

region, but physicians usually call it the antrum), greater curvature, lesser curvature, angulus, rugae

6. Pyloric Sphincter, also called pylorus 7. Small Intestine: 8. Duodenum: (click here for photos) bulb, C-loop, major papilla (papilla of Vater), minor

papilla 9. Jejunum 10. Ileum: (click here for photos) region just before ileocecal valve called terminal ileum 11. Ileocecal valve 12. Large Intestine:

a. Cecum b. appendix (click here to learn about laparoscopic appendectomy) c. colon (click here for photos)(ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid) d. rectum (click here for photos) e. anal canal f. Important bends in colon: hepatic flexure, splenic flexure g. Haustra and teniae coli

13. Biliary tree: Sketch: a. right and left hepatic ducts b. common hepatic duct c. gall bladder d. cystic duct e. common bile duct f. sphincter of Oddi

14. Pancreas: a. head, body, tail; b. pancreatic ducts: duct of Wirsung (main duct which leads to major papilla) and

duct of Santorini (smaller duct which leads to minor papilla) 15. Liver:

a. right lobe, left lobe (containing caudate and quadrate lobe) b. hepatic artery c. portal vein d. hepatic vein

16. Membranes: Describe each of the following: a. parietal and visceral peritoneum b. mesentery, mesocolon c. greater omentum, lesser omentum d. falciform ligament, ligamentum teres


Digestive Enzymes Exercises 39A

This week, read through the lab exercise and complete as much as you can before coming to lab.

macromolecule enzyme building block(s) source Calories / gram

proteins

meat, soy beans 4

carbohydrates

potatoes, rice 4

triglycerides (fats)

glycerol and adipose, oils 9

In the third column, list the building blocks of each of the organic molecules. In the second column, write an enzyme that speeds the breakdown of each macromolecule

into its subcomponents.

Assays:

You will use the following assays to detect organic molecules. starch + IKI blue-black color sugar + Benedict’s solution + heat green-orange precipitate BPNA + active trypsin yellow color litmus cream + base blue color litmus cream + acid pink color

Assessing enzyme activity:

Proteins Pepsin comes from the ____________ (in the presence of HCl.) Proteins are digested by pepsin into _______________ Pancreatic enzymes such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase break large

polypeptides down into _______________ Dipeptidases on the brush border and inside intestinal epithelial cells digest dipeptides into

_______________ What is trypsin? What does it do?

________________________________________________________________ What is BAPNA?

________________________________________________________________ How does BAPNA work to indicate protein digestion? What color does the solution change

to? ________________________________________________________________


Starch Amylase comes from __________________ and ___________________ Amylase digests starch to ______________________ and ____________________ Lactase, maltase, and sucrase are ____________ border enzymes of the small intestine. Lactose is digested by lactase to _________________and _______________ Maltose is digested by maltase to _______________ and _______________ (careful!) Sucrose is digested by sucrase to _______________ and _______________ _______________salts are amphipathic, and emulsify fats so that they can be digested by the

enzyme _______________ Which reagant tests for starch? _______________ What color does it turn if starch is present? _______________ If starch has been digested, will you see this color? _______________ What enzyme digests starch? _______________ If starch is digested, what disaccharide is formed? _______________ Which reagant tests for this disaccharide? _______________ What color is this reagant in the bottle? _______________ What color will it change to if maltose is present and the reagant and maltose are heated to an

extremely high temperature? _______________ List conditions that will slow starch digestion. Examples of conditions include temperature,

pH changes (if mentioned in the lab-if not, think this through. Enzymes function the best in the pH of the fluids in which they are secreted.), enzymes, etc._______________

Name a condition or conditions that can speed starch digestion ________________________________________________________________

Triglycerides Pancreatic lipase breaks triglycerides down into monoglycerides and _______________ What does bile do to speed triglyceride digestion?

________________________________________________________________ What fat-digesting enzyme is in pancreatin?

______________________________________________________________ What color does litmus cream change to when fat digestion has occurred?

________________________________________________________________ What pH range specifically makes the litmus turn this color?

__________________________________________________________________ What product of fat digestion creates this pH?

________________________________________________________________ What conditions speed fat digestion?

________________________________________________________________ What conditions slow fat digestion?

________________________________________________________________


Surface Anatomy Exercises 46

Head and Neck:

1. Temporalis Muscle 2. External Occipital Protuberance 3. Superficial Temporal Artery 4. Auricle 5. Mastoid process 6. Angle of Mandible 7. Superciliary Arch 8. Temporomandibular joint 9. Ramus of Mandible 10. Facial Artery 11. Frontalis muscle 12. Lacrimal fossa 13. Ala of nose 14. Bridge of nose 15. Dorsum nasi 16. Apex of nose 17. Philtrum 18. Hyoid bone 19. External jugular vein 20. Laryngeal prominence 21. Cricothyroid ligament 22. Sternocleidomastoid: sternal and clavicular heads 23. Subclavian artery: feel pulse 24. Clavicle 25. Jugular notch 26. External carotid artery 27. Trapezius 28. Posterior triangle of neck 29. Anterior triangle of neck: note carotid arteries and internal jugular vein here

Arm:

1. Deltoid 2. Triceps 3. Medial and lateral epicondyles of humerus 4. Olecranon process 5. Biceps 6. Cephalic vein 7. Median cubital vein 8. Basilic vein 9. Brachial artery 10. Brachioradialis


Wrist/Hand

1. Styloid process of radius 2. Styloid process of ulna 3. Radial artery 4. Pisiform bone 5. Ulnar artery 6. Dorsal venous network on hand 7. Hypothenar eminence 8. Thenar eminence

Leg

1. Three sites of intramuscular injections (See lab manual.) a. deltoid b. gluteus medius c. vastus lateralis

2. Greater trochanter 3. Patella 4. Vastus medialis 5. Rectus femoris 6. Vastus lateralis 7. Patella 8. Medial malleolus 9. Lateral malleolus 10. Tibialis anterior muscle 11. Tibia 12. Hamstrings muscles: know biceps femoris, semitendinosus tendons 13. Medial condyle of femur 14. Medial condyle of tibia 15. Patellar tendon (ligament) 16. Tibial tuberosity 17. Lateral condyle of femur 18. Lateral condyle of tibia 19. Dorsalis pedis artery 20. Popliteal fossa 21. Lateral and medial heads of gastrocnemius 22. Soleus 23. Calcaneal tendon=Achilles' tendon 24. Calcaneus


Urinary System Exercises 40

Gross Anatomy:

Note the position of the kidneys compared to the peritioneum. What term describes its relationship?_____________________________

What is the "casing" around the kidney called? It contains adipose tissue. _____________________________

What endocrine glands are on the superior pole of the kidneys? ________________________________________________________________

What is the medial border of the kidneys called? ________________________________________________________________

Name three structures that enter or leave the kidneys at this area. ________________________________________________________________

What is the relationship between the kidneys and the ribs? major calyces

Internal Anatomy: Identify the cortex, columns, and pyramids. Which of these structures is equivalent with the

renal medulla? ________________________________________________________________

What is the tip of the pyramid called? ________________________________________________________________

What part of the calyceal system is next to this tip? ________________________________________________________________

Identify the minor calyces (singular=calyx), major calyces, renal pelvis, and ureter. ________________________________________________________________.

Identify the renal artery and vein. ________________________________________________________________

Histology:

1. A nephron includes a glomerulus plus a _____________________________ 2. A renal corpuscle includes a glomerulus plus Bowman's capsule. 3. What is the glomerulus?

________________________________________________________________ 4. What is contained inside it?

________________________________________________________________ 5. The cells of the glomerulus are __________________________(starts with letter f),

meaning they have tiny holes in them. 6. The visceral layer of Bowman's capsule has podocytes. The outer layer of Bowman's

capsule is the parietal layer. What fluid is in between these two layers? How is this different from the fluid inside the glomerulus? ________________________________________________________________

7. Identify the proximal convoluted tubule, the descending limb of the loop of Henle, the ascending limb of loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule.


8. The distal convoluted tubule contains the macula densa, which monitors NaCl in the filtrate and feeds this information to the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which can adjust the glomerular filtration rate via a process called autoregulation (see lecture text).

9. Most regions are made of simple cuboidal epithelium. However, the thin segment of the descending limb of the loop of Henle is made of simple ____________________ epithelium.

10. Multiple nephrons drain into a single __________________duct. 11. These __________________ducts drain urine into the minor calyx through the

___________________ (region) of the renal pyramid. 12. Contrast the afferent and efferent arteriole. Which supplies the glomerulus, and

which drains the glomerulus? ________________________________________________________________

13. What pressure(s) cause filtration volume to increase in the glomerulus? ________________________________________________________________

14. The ______________________capillaries are near the convoluted tubules; the ___________________________ are looping vessels near the long loops of Henle in the renal medulla.

15. Describe the conceptual difference between filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

16. What is the difference between the macula densa and the juxtaglomerular cells? (Review lecture notes.) ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

17. Which of these monitors the filtrate passing through the distal convoluted tubule? ________________________________________________________________

18. Which of these secretes renin? ________________________________________________________________

19. What is the action of renin? ________________________________________________________________

20. Urinary bladder: Identify the following: a. trigone and the ureteral orifices b. internal urethral orifice c. internal urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter d. detrusor muscle.

21. What is the difference in length between the male and female urethra? ________________________________________________________________

22. What is one consequences of this difference? ________________________________________________________________

23. What is transitional about transitional epithelium? Explain when transitions would occur. ________________________________________________________________


Urinalysis Exercises 41A

1. What makes urine yellow?

________________________________________________________________ 2. What can cause an ammonia-like odor to urine?

________________________________________________________________ 3. What does the urine smell like if a diabetic is suffering from ketoacidosis?

________________________________________________________________ 4. Urine pH: What is the average, as well as the normal range?

________________________________________________________________ 5. How does diet influence urinary pH?

________________________________________________________________ 6. What is the medical term for a kidney infection?

________________________________________________________________ 7. What is the medical term for a kidney stone?

________________________________________________________________ Define the following: , , , , , , and. List the cause(s) of each. Pay special attention to the differences between the causes of hematuria and hemoglobinuria. 8. glycosuria

________________________________________________________________ 9. albuminuria

________________________________________________________________ 10. ketonuria

________________________________________________________________ 11. hematuria

________________________________________________________________ 12. hemoglobinuria

________________________________________________________________ 13. bilirubinuria

________________________________________________________________ 14. pyuria

________________________________________________________________

15. Specific gravity is the relative weight of a specific volume of liquid compared to an equal volume of ________________________________________________________________

16. What is the normal range for the urine specific gravity? ________________________________________________________________

17. What conditions would lead to a specific gravity near 1.001? ________________________________________________________________

18. How about a specific gravity of 1.030? ________________________________________________________________


The most important nitrogenous wastes to enter the urine are urea, uric acid, and creatinine. 19. Urea comes from

________________________________________________________________ 20. Uric acid comes from

________________________________________________________________ 21. Creatinine comes from

________________________________________________________________

22. What is the usual cause of high urine sodium: high sodium intake or dehydration? Explain. ________________________________________________________________

23. Is there any significance to seeing epithelial cells in the urine?

________________________________________________________________ 24. How about white blood cells?

________________________________________________________________ 25. How about red blood cells?

________________________________________________________________ 26. What is a cast? Describe examples of different casts.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Electrolyte Lab Handout

Intravenous(IV) Solutions: Normal Saline

1. Make up a normal saline IV solution (0.9% NaCl solution.) 0.9% means that for every 100ml of solution, 0.9 grams will be NaCl. Therefore, you need to dissolve 0.9 grams (=900 mg.) sodium chloride in enough water to make a 100 ml. solution.

2. Calculate how many millimoles and milliequivalents of sodium and chloride are

present in the 0.9%NaCl solution.

Overview of the calculations: a. Express the concentration of each ion in millimoles/L

i. Figure out how much a mole of the substance weighs (in grams ii. One mole of a substance is the molecular weight expressed in grams.

iii. The molecular weight of NaCl is 58.4; its molecular weight expressed in grams is 58.4g.

b. You need to figure out how many grams NaCl are in a Liter of the above solution, instead of the 100 ml that you learned about above

i. There are 1000 ml in a liter. ii. The solution has 0.9grams NaCl per 100 ml, or 9 grams per 1000 ml.

c. Convert the weight of the NaCl to moles i. Convert 9 grams to moles: 9 grams x 1 mole/58.4 grams = 0.154 moles

d. Convert moles to millimoles i. 0.154 moles x 1000 millimoles/mole = 154 millimoles NaCl

ii. NaCl splits apart (since it is held together by ionic bonds) iii. There are thus 154 millimoles of sodium and 154 millimoles of chloride

ions. e. Convert millimoles to milliequivalents.

i. multiply #millimoles/L times the charge of the ion. ii. The charge of the sodium ion and chloride ion is 1 (Ignore the sign of the

charge.) iii. In this case, the #millimoles/L equals the # milliequivalents/L. iv. There are 154 mEq/L of sodium ions, and 154 mEq/L of chloride ions. v. Note: 1 millimole Ca++/L equals 2 mEq Ca++/L because Ca++ has a

charge of two. Notes: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. What is the total osmolarity of the solution? 1 millimole of sodium ions does not

dissociate any further, so 1 millimole = 1 milliosmoles. However, if you were talking about a molecule that breaks apart in solution, such as NaCl: 1 millimole/L of NaCl = 2 milliosmoles/L, since each sodium chloride molecule breaks apart to form two osmotically active ions.


2. Change each constituent's concentration from millimoles to milliosmoles.

154 millimoles NaCl 154 milliosmoles/L of Na+ plus 154 milliosmoles/L of Cl-

3. Add up the total milliosmoles/L to get the total osmolarity: 154 + 154 = 308

milliosmoles/L. Alternatively, you knew that the NaCl concentration was 154 millimoles/l and that this would break apart into two osmotically active ions, so 154 x 2 = 308 milliosmoles/L

4. If you give this IV to a patient, what space, or combination of spaces will sodium

readily enter? Intravascular, and/or interstitial, and/or intracellular? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Will this cause water to be drawn out of cells? Is the sodium concentration outside

cells what is important, or is it the total osmolarity of the interstitial fluid? Why? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IV Solutions: 25% Albumin Solution

Make up a 25% albumin solution by adding 25-g albumin plus water to make a 100-ml. solution. It contains 25% albumin.

Albumin should not be used as an IV nutrient, because of the slow breakdown & unfavorable composition with respect to essential amino acids. Two main reasons for its use:

Plasma or blood volume deficit. Since the oncotic pressure of 25% albumin is four times higher than that of normal human plasma, it will expand the plasma volume if interstitial water is available for inflow through the capillary walls. However, many patients suffering from an acute volume deficit also have some degree of interstitial dehydration. In these patients, albumin should also be given with an isotonic electrolyte solution.

Oncotic deficit resulting from hypoproteinemia. The 25% albumin concentration is oncotically equivalent to approximately 5 times its volume of normal plasma.

Maintenance IV therapy Minimum daily water & electrolyte requirements can be provided IV to a patient who is temporarily unable to ingest food & fluids. This assumes normal renal function is present, & does not address any water or electrolyte imbalances. Minimum water requirements for fluid balance can be estimated from the sum of the urine output necessary to excrete the daily solute load: 500 ml/day (obligatory minimal urine output) & the


insensible loss of water from skin & respiratory tract (700 ml/day) minus the amount of water being produced in the body from endogenous metabolism: 250 ml/day.

1. What is the minimum water requirement per 24 hours? ___________________________________________________________________

2. How many ml/hour does this represent? ___________________________________________________________________

It is customary to administer 2000ml-3000 ml/day to produce a urine output of 1000-1500ml/day, since there is usually no advantage to minimizing the urine output.

3. How many ml/hour does this IV infusion rate of 2000-3000ml/day represent?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Weighing the patient daily is the best means of assessing net gain or loss of fluid,

since the GI, renal, and insensible fluid losses of hospitalized patients are unpredictable. Does a loss of two pounds indicate a loss of 1 liter of water, or could there be other factors causing the weight loss? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

The electrolytes that are usually administered during maintenance IV fluid therapy are sodium, chloride, and potassium. The kidneys are normally capable of compensating for wide variations in sodium intake. For example, in absence of sodium intake, urinary sodium excretion can be reduced to less than 5 mEq/day. It is customary to supply 50-150 mEq of sodium daily. Some potassium supplementation is also given, due to its obligatory renal potassium excretion. Usually 20-60 mEq/day is given if renal function is adequate. Carbohydrates: 100 to 150 g. /day of glucose is necessary to minimize protein catabolism and to prevent ketosis. An adequate maintenance IV fluid regimen is 2000 ml/day of 0.45% NaCl (“1/2 normal saline”) with 5% dextrose and 20 mEq KCl/liter. Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamins, and protein replacement are necessary after 1 week of parenteral (IV) therapy.

5. If the fluid rate is 2000 ml./day, what is the IV rate in ml/hour?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. How many milliequivalents of Na+ ions is the person receiving per day?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


7. If the person is receiving more than their minimal needs, how are they dealing with the excess? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. How many milliequivalents of K+ ions is the person receiving per 24 hours? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. If the person is receiving more than their minimal needs, how are they dealing with

the excess? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. If their serum potassium increases, what hormone will help them secrete more potassium?____________________________

11. How many grams of carbohydrates is the person receiving?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

12. How many Calories is in that? ___________________

IV Replacement of abnormal water and electrolyte losses: Insensible water losses average 500-1000 ml/day and depend on respiratory rate, temperature, humidity, and body temperature. Water losses increase by 125 ml/day for each degree of body temperature over 37. If a person has a temperature of 103, how much extra fluid loss are they suffering from?

___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

First, convert from Fahrenheit to Centigrade: (5/9) x (Degrees F - 32) = Degrees Centigrade ___________________________________________________________________

Then calculate the extra water loss:

___________________________________________________________________ Note: insensible water losses from the skin would best be corrected with hypotonic saline: sweat is hypotonic, and the sodium concentration ranges from 5-50 millimoles/L

13. The sodium concentration of sweat is about 35 mmol/L in your patient. Convert this sodium concentration from mmol/L to mEq/L.

___________________________________________________________________


14. Assuming the person's sweat has a sodium concentration of 35 millimoles/L, which IV solution would be most appropriate to correct these losses? 1/4 normal saline, 1/2 normal saline, or normal saline? _______________________________________________________________________

Fluid losses from sweating can vary enormously: from (0-2000 ml/hour) and depend on physical activity, body temperature, and outside temperature.

Gastrointestinal losses vary in composition & volume depending on the source. Note: The following table values are approximate, and have been adjusted a bit for ease of learning.

Fluid Lost [Na+]

mEq/L [K+] mEq/L [H+] mEq/L [Cl-] mEq/L [HCO3-]

mEq/L Sweat 35 5 50 Gastric Juice

50 10 90 120

Diarrhea 35 45 35 35 Don't worry about memorizing the above, but remember these key points:

Sweat causes loss of a hypotonic saline solution.

Vomiting and nasogastric suction causes loss of fluid that is a hypotonic saline solution containing a small amount of potassium, but very rich in HCl.

Diarrhea causes loss of fluid that is a hypotonic saline solution very rich in potassium.

15. If you lose hypotonic saline, and do not drink fluids, what will happen to your serum

sodium level: will it go up, stay the same, or decrease? (Hint: pretend you are just losing water. You are actually losing relatively more water than salt.) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

16. If you lose hypotonic saline and replace it by drinking pure water, what will happen to your serum sodium level: will it go up, stay the same, or decrease? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Calculations for your own body: 1. Calculate your own total body water (TBW): 2. Convert your weight in pounds to kilograms: # pounds x 1kg/2.2 pounds = #kg. 3. Multiply wt. x 55% if female, 60% if male to get TBW:

___________________________________________________________________ 4. What is your intracellular fluid volume?

___________________________________________________________________ 5. What is your extracellular fluid volume?

___________________________________________________________________ 6. What is your interstitial fluid volume?

___________________________________________________________________ 7. What is your plasma volume?

___________________________________________________________________ 8. What is your blood volume?

___________________________________________________________________

Acid-Base disorders: Normal arterial blood gasses: pH7.35-7.45, PO2 90-100, pCO2 38-42, HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L Describe the primary acid-base disturbance and the compensatory mechanism that would occur in a person who: 1. Overdoses on heroin (which depresses respirations)

___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

2. Chronically hypoventilates, and is hypoxic & retains CO2 ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

3. Suffers from an anxiety attack and acutely hyperventilates ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________


4. Has a renal disorder where they lose excessive bicarbonate into the urine ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

5. Has suffered from repeated vomiting, losing HCl. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

Hypernatremia: elevated serum sodium above 145 (normal = 135-145). Usually due to a water deficit rather than a sodium excess.

If someone has volume depletion and a pure water deficit as the cause of hypernatremia, they should be treated by mouth and /or an IV solution of 5% dextrose in water. This is because they lack mainly water; they usually do not have a sodium excess if they are volume depleted. (Your volume status is often a better clue to your total body sodium level than your serum sodium.) The benefit of giving D5W is that it provides some tonicity to the solution (D5W has an osmolarity of 252 mOsm/kg) and thus won't burst their red cells when given IV, and you avoid giving the person any sodium.

Hypernatremia should be corrected slowly; no more than half the water deficit should be replaced in the first 12-24 hours.

If a person has severe volume depletion causing hemodynamic instability (such as orthostatic

hypotension, very low urine output, shock), saline solutions should be infused to restore the volume status; then D5W can be given to help correct the hyponatremia.

Hyponatremia: very complicated; does not imply a sodium deficiency, can be due to water excess. Can result from:

Primary sodium loss, water gain, or both combined. Associated with volume depletion: lose sodium via diarrhea and replace fluid loss with pure

water. Treat with isotonic saline Associated with normal (or slightly elevated) volume status: syndrome of inappropriate ADH

secretion = SIADH: causes water retention. Treat with fluid restriction. Other causes, such as hyperglycemia may lower the serum sodium.


Reproductive System Anatomy Exercises 42

Gross Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System External Anatomy: Scrotum, shaft of penis, glans penis, foreskin (prepuce), perineum, inguinal region, external urethral meatus Internal Anatomy: Corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum. Which is contiguous with the glans penis? Testes, seminiferous tubules, rete testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands. How does the prostate change with aging? ________________________________________________________________ What are the consequences of this? ________________________________________________________________ Urinary bladder, prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, penile urethra. What spongy tissue does the penile urethra travel through? ________________________________________________________________ List some major components of seminal fluid. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ List some major components of the spermatic cord. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ From your text, what is the difference between the cremaster muscle and the dartos muscle? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Discuss the course of the vas deference from the scrotum to the back of the bladder. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Histology of the Male: Penis: Do you notice the spaces for blood in the corpora carvernosa and the corpus spongiosum? ________________________________________________________________ How does erection occur? ________________________________________________________________ Histology of the seminiferous tubules: Discuss the difference between the locations of spermatogonia and more mature spermatozoa. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________


What is the function of Leydig (interstitial) cells? Where are they located compared to the seminiferous tubules? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ From lecture, what hormone stimulates them? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What are some functions of Sertoli cells? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Where are they located? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What is the difference between the epididymis and the seminiferous tubules (in terms of location and function) ?________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ External genitalia of the female: Perineum, mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, prepuce, clitoris, head of clitoris, vestibule, external urethral orifice, vaginal orifice, hymen. Internal anatomy: Vagina, posterior fornix, cervix, endocervical canal, external os, internal os, uterus, body of uterus, fundus, endometrium, fallopian tubes (=oviducts), fimbriae, ovaries. Which of these structures is not retroperitoneal? ________________________________________________________________ Breasts: areola, nipple, mammary glands, lobules, alveoli, lactiferous ducts, lactiferous sinuses. What muscle is deep to the breast tissue? ________________________________________________________________ From lecture text, which lymphatics drain the breasts? ________________________________________________________________ Why would a cancer surgeon need to know about this? ________________________________________________________________ Histology of the Female: Click here


Gametogenesis Exercises 43

Define gametogenesis ________________________________________________________________ Click here to review Mitosis, which you should learn well before learning meiosis. Click here for a comparison between mitosis and meiosis. Meiosis: Differentiate between the terms haploid and diploid. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What is another word for a zygote? ________________________________________________________________ What are homologous chromosomes? ________________________________________________________________ How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are in humans? ________________________________________________________________ What process occurs in the gonads to form a haploid number of chromosomes? ________________________________________________________________ What phase of meiosis does synapsis occur in? ________________________________________________________________ Define synapsis. ________________________________________________________________ What is another word for crossing over? ________________________________________________________________ What is a half of an x-shaped chromosome called? ________________________________________________________________ When chromatids pull apart during anaphase, what are they called? ________________________________________________________________ Male spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis: To help you understand spermatogenesis, sort the following in the correct order, from least mature to most mature: spermatids, primary spermatocyte, functional sperm, secondary spermatocyte, spermatogonium. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Which are 2n (46 chromosomes) and which are 1n? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What are some functions of Sertoli cells? Where are they located? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What are some functions of interstitial (Leydig) cells? Where are they located? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________


What is the difference between the terms spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Describe the contents of the head, midpiece, and tail of a spermatozoa. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Be able to identify seminiferous tubules, spermatozoa, spermatogonia, interstitial cells from a microscope slide. Ovaries: Sort the following in the correct order: Mature ovum, oogonium, secondary oocyte, primary oocyte ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ When is meiosis I? Meiosis II? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ How primordial follicles are present at birth? ________________________________________________________________________ What is a polar body? ________________________________________________________________________ Describe and identify (from microscope) a primordial follicle, primary follicle, secondary follicle, mature=vesicular=Graafian follicle, and corpus luteum. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Note the fluctuations of the pituitary hormones, ovarian hormones, ovaries, and endometrial changes during the menstrual cycle. See illustrations at the end of your lab exercise.


Principles of Heredity Exercises 45

Karyotypes: allow one to visually see the chromosomes of a person, and detect abnormalities such as an abnormal number of chromosomes. Obtained by taking fetal lymphocytes obtained during amniocentesis. Cells are stimulated to divide & grow in culture, which will increase the chance of obtaining cells with visible chromosomes (recall most cells usually in interphase, where chromosomes not visible). A drug is applied which arrests cells in metaphase. At this phase: each chromosome is a double structure: two chromatids connected by centromere. Then cells are harvested & treated with a solution to make their chromosomes spread out, & prepared for microscopy. Chromosomes are photographed; photo is entered into a computer for arrangement into homologous pairs. The first pair is the largest & the pairs get progressively smaller. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes. To assist you in preparing your karyotype: Pairs 1-3: Centromere in middle Pairs 4-5: centromere slightly closer to one end than the other, so each chromatid has short arm & long arm Pairs 6-12: some centromeres in middle, some closer to one end Pairs 13-15: short arms extremely short; tiny masses of chromatin called satellites are attached to short arms. Pairs 16-18: No satellites, centromere central or slightly closer to one end Pairs 19-20: The two smallest chromosomes that have centromeres in middle Pairs 21-22: The two smallest chromosomes that have extremely tiny short arms; have satellites Pair 23: the sex chromosomes. Y chromosome: extremely tiny short arms; no satellites X chromosome: looks similar to chromosome #6. The only way to discern it is to use banding, which is the use of special stains to differentiate between chromosomes. The sequence of nucleotides will determine the bands; since the DNA in X chromosome is different from pair 6, it will have different banding. Exercise 1: Obtain a photocopy of human chromosomes, and perform a karyotype analysis by cutting out the chromosomes and pasting them on the form. Queues. A: What is the sex of the individual? __________ Ques. B: What is the chromosomal abnormality that you found?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Hint: it is either Normal Female, Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), 47xxy (Klinefelter syndrome), normal male, 47xyy male, 45,xo (Turner Syndrome) or 47, xxx (Superfemale) Ques. C: From your text, how would this abnormality manifest itself. In other words, what would the phenotype be?_____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Exercise 2: Terminology From your lab notebook, define the following: 1. Homozygous -

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Heterozygous

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Dominant gene (allele)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Recessive gene (allele)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Genotype

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Phenotype

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 3: Punnett Squares, Complete Dominance: see lab notebook; construct the Punnett squares & answer the questions regarding the crosses between tall parents & dwarf parents, rough & smooth coat guinea pigs. Exercise 4: Punnet Squares, codominance: Draw a punnett square, showing the offspring produced by crossing a person who is AB with a person who is A0. Now do one crossing a person who is AO and BO. Is the O allele codominant with the others, or recessive? Which blood group alleles are the codominant ones? Exercise 5: Punnett Squares, Incomplete Dominance: see lab notebook; construct the Punnett squares & answer the questions regarding the crosses between red, white, & pink snapdragons; sickle cell anemics.


Exercise 6: Probability. Remember: probability of event A occurring OR event B occurring = (probability of event A) + (probability of event B). Probability of event A occurring AND event B occurring = (probability of event A) x (probability of event B); if you ask the question before either A or B has occurred. BE CAREFEL! If event A has already happened when you ask about the probability of event B, and A & B are two independent events, then you may need to ignore A's probability when asking about B. See #C Do the coin problems in the lab notebook, than complete the following: What is the probability of a mother having a girl? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is the probability of a mother having a boy or a girl? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ If a mother has given birth to a girl for her first child, what is the probability of her having a girl as her second child? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Say a mother has a genetic disease and there is a 25% chance of her offspring having the disease. Say she intends to have three kids. What is the probability of all three kids having the disease? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Say a mother has a 50% chance of having a blue eyed child and 50% chance of having a brown-eyed child. If she has had six kids, all blue-eyed, what is the probability that her seventh kid will be blue eyed? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ In the above question, what is the probability that her seventh kid will be a brown-eyed boy? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ If a woman is planning on having six children, what is the probability that they will all be boys? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Exercise 7: Pedigrees. In pedigrees, the male is represented as a square & the female as a circle. Say albinism is homozygous recessive. A= normal allele; a=albino. Construct a pedigree showing a normal male crossing with a normal female and producing three children: one daughter has albinism, one daughter does not, and one son does not. Determine the phenotype & genotype of each of the three offspring.


Color blindness is X-linked recessive. Say XC = Normal color x chromosome; Xc= Color blindness x chromosome. Say a normal visioned man marries a normal visioned woman. Their two children are a color-blind boy and a normal visioned girl. Draw a pedigree and shade in the box or circle of color blinded individuals. What is the genotype of each individual?


Embryology Lab Exercises 44

Summary of Germ cell layers: Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm Nervous system Muscle Epithelial lining of gut &

lower respiratory tract Epidermis bone, cartilage all ducts entering gut lining of mouth, anus blood, kidneys, ovaries,

testes, lining of body cavities

sense organs such as eyes Human Embryologic Events Click here for some cool embryo images; also here for more . Click here for a nice review of week 1-3 Month

Day Event

1 1 Fertilization 2 2,4 cell stages 4-6 In uterus 7 Implantation of blastula 8 embryo beneath uterine surface 24 implantation complete 31 all major organ systems begin to form, though not functional 2 1.25 inches long; distinct limbs, head, ears, nose; lidless eyes; placenta

functional; reproductive organs form; bone forming 3 to end of first trimester

After 8 weeks called a fetus. 3 inches long. Breathing in amniotic fluid, swallowing amniotic fluit, body movements possible. Behavior becomes individualized. Excreted urine into amniotic fluid.

4 Reacts to stimuli, blood formed in bones, eyes light sensitive 5 Kicking & turning. Loss of ancestral tail. 6 to end 2nd trimester

1.5 Lbs. May be able to survive (25 wks record). Skeleton formation most active (mother must increase calcium intake)

7 Mother’s blood volume 30% greater than normal. Fetus has 10% survival chance if born prematurely. (70% if lives to 8th, 95% if to ninth). 84% of calcium consumed by mother goes to fetal skeleton. Antibodies (IgG) passed to fetus-may protect for up to about 6 months.

9 Uterus has increased to 60 times original size. Birth: 20 inches long, 6-8 lbs.


Click here to learn about the development of the brain Models: Model #, Description Structures to Identify Significant events 1 Fertilized ovum in fallopian tubes, minutes old

Spermatozoa, Nucleus of Fertilized Ovum

Spermatozoa just penetrated ovum; male & female pronuclei have not fused, some don't consider fertilization to have occurred until pronuclei fuse & zygote formed.

2. Two cell stage in fallopian tubes, 1.5 days old

Cleavage furrow, blastomeres

Cleavage=mitotic divisions, cells do not enlarge: as cells divide, offspring cells become smaller

3,4 : 4, 8 cell stage in fallopian tubes, 1.5-3 days old

Cleavage furrow, blastomeres

5. Morula stage in fallopian tubes, 3 days old

Morula (=solid ball of 16 or more cells); cleavage furrows, blastomeres

6. Blastocyst stage in uterus, 5 days old

Blastocyst Trophoblast; Inner cell mass (=embryoblast) Blastocyst cavity

Trophoblast becomes placenta; Inner cell mass becomes embryonic disc; Blastocyst implants day 6

7. Blastocyst in endometrium, 7 days

Blastocyst, Trophoblast, Bilaminar germ disc: ectoderm (yellow) & endoderm (orange) Blastocyst cavity


Syncytiotrophoblast Cytotrophoblast Ectoderm (yellow) Endoderm (orange) Amniotic cavity (cavity inside yellow) Primitive yolk sac

Syncytiotrophoblast: invades endometrium Cytotrophoblast: becomes chorion (part of placenta) Amniotic cavity: eventually surrounds embryo; yolk sac will shrink


Syncytiotrophoblast (dark grey) Cytotrophoblast (light grey) Bilayered embryonic disc: Ectoderm (yellow) Endoderm (orange) Amnion


(con't) Yolk sac (yellow) Extraembryonic coelom (light grey with dark grey network)

10. 16 day old embryo, in endometrium

Chorionic villi Amniotic cavity Body stalk Ectoderm Small amount mesoderm Endoderm Yolk sac Chorionic cavity (light grey)

Gastrulation: formation of mesoderm

11. 4.5 week old embryo, in wall of uterus

Chorionic villi Umbilical vessels Yolk sac Amniotic cavity Pharyngeal arches Lens placode Heart bulge Umbilical cord Limb ridge Somites

Amniotic cavity trivia: model mistake: should not be obliterating chorionic cavity until 12 weeks old Lens placode gives rise to eye Somites become muscle, bone, & dermis

12. 5 week embryo Chorionic villi Umbilical cord Yolk sac Amniotic cavity Pharyngeal arches Eye Heart bulge Umbilical cord Limb buds Somites


Human Development Handout

Ask your instructor if you are required to complete this handout. You will need to visit OMSI to view the Human Development Exhibit! Development of the human embryo and fetus begins at fertilization of the egg by the sperm within the fallopian tube. Over the next four or five days the fertilized egg (zygote) will begin dividing and prepare for implantation into the endometrium of the uterus. In this exercise you will have the opportunity to observe the human embryo and fetus at its various stages of development. Pay attention to the details and the changes that you see. Relative to the changes we see after a fetus is delivered things change very quickly. Use the informational signs and observations of the embryo and fetus to answer the following questions. 1. In the 38 weeks from zygote to parturition the single cell of the zygote will go from a single cell to approximately _____________________cells. 2. The zygote will begin to divide by mitosis after approximately ________________hours, this first division will take 12 hours to complete. The next division only takes 12 hours to complete. 3. The zygote will reach the uterus in __________ days. As the zygote divides it will move through the stages of morula (a solid ball of cells that begins at the 16 cell stage approximately 96 hours after fertilization) and will continue to divide and in less than a day it will become a hollow ball of cells called the blastula or blastocyst consisting of about 132 cells. 4. The _____________________ is the stage that implants into the endometrium of the uterus. 5. Of all the eggs that become fertilized only about ______________% survive the development process to reach parturition. Most of these “pregnancies” end without the mother even knowing. 6. The first system to develop within the embryo is the _________________ system. 7. The heart will begin beating in the __________ week of pregnancy. 8. The structures that will give rise to the vertebral column and muscles that develop during the fourth week are

called the ___________________. Where in the embryo do you see these structures?

_________________________________________________.

9. The beginning of the fingers and toes can be seen by day ___________.

10. Blood development began in the ____________________, by week 5 this job has been moved to the

_____________________ and by week 10 is moved again to the ______________________. At this point the

______________________ will begin making the leukocytes immunocompetent.

11. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands begin to form by day __________________.


12. By day 43 the central nervous system has kicked into high gear producing about ______________________

new cells per minute.

13. The fingers and toes have separated and the eyelids have begun to develop by day ________.

14. By day _______ all the organs are present (although not fully developed, some development will continue for the first

few years following birth).

15. At day 57 the embryo graduates and becomes the fetus. By this time the eyelids have formed, but will stay closed until

week __________. What other epidermal appendage will have formed by now? ____________________________.

16. By 9 weeks the fetus will begin to form ______________and the fetus begins reflexive movement (but as you may note

from the size, nothing the mother will be able to detect). Note the fuzzy appearance of the placenta, what do you think the

function of this form is? __________________________________________________.

17. By the 10th week the __________________________gland will begin to function, producing hormones to stimulate the

growth and development of the gonads and other glands.

18. By the 11th week the muscles of the stomach begin contracting, the fetus is swallowing amniotic fluid that contains hair

and shed fetal cells. The digestion products will remain in the colon until after birth when they are released as the first fecal

matter called the _________________________. Thumb sucking may start and the permanent tooth buds are beginning to

form.

19. The sex of the fetus can be determined at week ____________.

20. At what stage can the fetus begin to detect and respond to sounds? ____________________

21. The white pasty substance that can be seen covering the fetus protects the skin from the constant bath of amniotic fluid.

This substance is called the ____________________________ and is produced by the sebaceous glands. Most bones and

joint cavities are now distinct.

Imagine what you would look like after soaking for 9 months.

22. The fetus becomes large enough that the mother can feel it “kicking” in the ___________ week.

23. In the female fetus the ovaries will already be producing oocytes by week ___________.

By 18 weeks the fetus has its own set of fingerprints.

24. By the 19th week the fetus is covered by a fine downy hair called the ______________, which is thought to help

________________________________________________. The hair will be shed during the _________________ month.


25. By the 20th week a special form of adipose develops called _________________ which is used in

____________________________.

26. By the __________________ week the lungs of the fetus begin to produce _______________________, which reduces

the surface tension of water preparing the fetus for its first breath in a non-aquatic environment, though the amount is

inadequate to allow independent breathing at this time.

27. Development of the brain which began during the _____________ week will, during the 25th week, change from a

smooth structure to the folded structure we are familiar with in the adult. The grooves are the _________________ and the

ridges are the ______________________.

28. By the 26th week the lungs can function properly and the CNS can control breathing and body temperature, at this point

the fetus weighs about ______________pounds.

29. By the 27th week the _____________ of the fetus begin to respond to stimuli.

30. The bones of the skull, although formed will continue to grow together for the first _______ years after birth.

31. The number of Brain cells will continue to increase until the age of ___________.

32. The lungs will continue to develop until the age of ____________.

33. The vertebral column will continue to develop until the age of __________.

34. The nose and ears will continue to grow until __________

Extra credit. They will continue to cause you trouble until___________________________.

233 lab survival guide fall05 - portland community...

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