2301 african scramble
TRANSCRIPT
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The Scramble for Africa was the process in which unclaimed parts of the
continent were carved up into European colonies. Africa was seen as an open frontier by
Europeans in the 19th
century, with each power looking to stake their claim. By the turn
of the century, only two African nations i.e. the Republic of Liberia and Ethiopia were
not under direct European rule.1
In an attempt to avoid the possibility of an open conflict amongst rival nations,
the Berlin Conference (November 1884-February 1885), which was convened, by
German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and every major European power including the
U.S. had given international acknowledgement to a situation that already existed.
2
It was
to lay down rules to govern the race for colonies. Therefore this essay will attempt to
explain whether the statement without the occupation of Egypt, there is no reason to
suppose that any international scrambles for Africa, either west or east, would have
begun when they did. is valid on the scramble and partition of Africa in the later 19th
century.
The statement above suggests that British occupation of Egypt in 1882 was the
event, which set off the scramble for and later partitioning of Africa. When the British
entered Egypt on there own the Scramble began; and as long as they stayed in Cairo, it
continued until there was no more of Africa left to divide.3
The authors R. Robinson and
J. Gallagher, of Africa and the Victorians, propagated this notion. They claimed the
collapse of the Khedival regime, due to the inability to repay the foreign debt which had
risen from 3 million to nearly 100 million by 1876 based on Ismail's modernization
policy, and the growing threat of Egyptian nationalist feelings had caused the British to
1 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved2
CROWDER, M. West Africa and Colonial Rule (London: Hutchinson, 1970) pp.62-633McEWAN, P.J.M.Nineteenth-Century Africa (Oxford University Press, London, 1968) p.259
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intervene militarily and establish formal control there, in order to protect both their
creditors and the Suez Canal Zone.4
The Suez Canal built by the French and financed by British (1869), was main line
of communication to India and the Far East for the British. Although both the French and
British had agreed on a joint-intervention in Egypt, it was the British who acted alone
since the French parliamentary refused to sanction such military intervention. They also
argued that this intervention initiated a chain reaction, in that rival powers began to
acquire colonies and establish protectorates on the continent. For e.g. within months of
the occupation, French parliament ratified treaties made by de Brazza in the Congo in
1882 and King Leopold II of Belgium likewise set up paper protectorates to secure his
interests along the Congo region.
On the other hand, Sanderson argues that Robinson and Gallaghers argument
have been proven wrong in its single-minded emphasis on the British occupation of
Egypt in 1882 as the starting pistol for the scramble of the African continent. 5 There are
other explanations, factors and events, which undoubtedly played an important part in the
determining the scramble for and later partition of the African continent. One of such was
the phase of New Imperialism, which had occurred around the 1870s.
New Imperialism was characterized by a sudden change from previous European
policies. In the years after 1870, Western nations came to control over 10 million square
miles and 150 million people1/5 of the world's land area. Late 19th
imperialist were
not interesting in settling in the colonies in great numbers, or alternately in establishing
4KLEIN, M. Perspectives on the African Past(Little, Brown and Company, Canada, 1972) p.3265
SANDERSON, G.E. & ROLAND, O. The Cambridge History of Africa Vol.6 c.1870-1905 (Cambridge
University Press, London, 1985) pp.692-693
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trading posts. Rather, they sought to transform the entire economy and culture of a
dominated area for economic reasons; and they were willing to establish political and
legal control to do so.6Under this new imperialism, competition grew increasingly
hostile as European powers fought over areas of dubious areas of economic value in
Africa and the Pacific.
The economic factor was also a part of the reason for European powers to
appropriate the entire African continent. In other words the partition occurred at a time
when the economic outlook was particularly gloomy. According to Boahen, European
powers sought the acquisition of colonies whose markets that she could dominate, since
they were unable to locally absorb the surplus manufactured goods caused by the
Industrial revolution.7
New imperialism of 1870-1915, according to Lenin was the highest stage of
capitalism. He argues that European powers wanted to secure colonies for surplus capital.
According to the accumulation theory by Hobson-Marx-Lenin, the accumulation of
capital in Western Europe with no scope for investment opportunities at home drove
financial interests to seek more profitable investments in less-developed lands with lower
labor costs, unexploited raw materials and little competition.8
However, this view was
criticized by Western scholars on the grounds that very little surplus capital went to
Africa, but instead was invested in other parts of Europe, North America and Latin
America (Brazil).9
6 http://www.eveWW1.html7
BOAHEN, A. ADU Topics in West African History (Western Printing Services Ltd, Bristol, Great Britain,
1966) p.1298
http://www.w3.org/New Imperialism- Biocrawler.html9
BOAHEN, A. ADU Topics in West African History (Western Printing Services Ltd, Bristol, Great Britain,
1966) pp.129-130
http://www.w3.org/Newhttp://www.w3.org/New -
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The other factor involved in the new imperialism, which both Robinson and
Gallagher deny, is that of Nationalism. Nationalism gave rise to the partition in Africa
during the latter 19th
century, because colonies became the symbol of a nations greatness
or power just as atomic bombs, sputniks and moon satellites. The more colonies a nation-
state had, the more powerful she was considered to be.
According to Crowder, in France the political pressures for expansion were very
strong. Expansion was seen as a means to compensate for the loss of the Alsace-Lorraine
province and humiliating defeat at the hands of the Germans in 1871.10
Africa was
regarded, as a hopeful starting point for a French recovery due to its long-standing
connections with France and it was largely unclaimed. This national self-respect was
initiated when explorer de Brazza drew attention to the new and fertile lands. There he
had evoked the national emblems in the heart of Africa.
However, with British occupation of Egypt in 1882 the French government,
within a few months, with not much alternative accepted the Makoko treaties, which laid
claim to the whole Congo basin and also set in motion the program of annexation along
the Nigerian coast.11The ratification of the treaties had therefore cited King Leopolds II
of the Belgians ambitions of establishing a colony in the Congo for his country and more
importantly directly affected Portugal, since she also laid claim to the whole Congo
Region. 12 As a result, this in turn led the British government to join the race for the
Nigerian territory. In earnest the scramble for West and West-Central had thus begun.
10CROWDER, M. West Africa and Colonial Rule (London: Hutchinson, 1970) pp.60-61
11OLIVER, R. & ATMORE, A. Africa since 1800 (Cambridge University Press, 1967) p.109
12McEWAN, P.J.M.Nineteenth-Century Africa (Oxford University Press, London, 1968) p.282
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Another factor of new imperialism, which led to the scramble, and later partition
of Africa is that of prestige. According to Sanderson, prestige had played its part in
German Chancellor, Bismarcks colonialism. Bismarck had moved from rather hazy
projects of informal trading spheres to outright territorial annexation largely in reaction to
the affront to German self-esteem.13
By the 1870s the new Germany was able to rival
France militarily and Britain industrially. This new nation-state was looking for a place in
the imperial sun. She needed an overseas empire to keep her new world power status.
Germany from 1883-85 had declared four protectorates in East Africa and South-
West Africa. Bismarcks scramble for colonies was just a simple assertion of her new
position among the world powers as well as to dominate the international politics of the
European powers and to satisfy the appeals of the Chambers of Commerce, merchants
and bankers As a result of this German presence, both Britain and France regarded her as
a threat to their own West African interest, since they feared that any forward move by
her might lead to the exclusion of their trading firms from the unclaimed markets of
Africa. Thus the Berlin Conference was convened to settle claims to colonies.14
By end of the 19th century, various parts of the world were far more linked to
Europe and each other than they had ever been before. The Scramble and later
partitioning of Africa in the latter 19th
century culminated as a result of intensified rivalry
amongst European powers for the new territories successfully discovered by its explorers
within the interior. These parts had remained relatively untouched by Europeans during
13SANDERSON, G.E. & ROLAND, O. The Cambridge History of Africa Vol.6 c.1870-1905 (Cambridge
University Press, London, 1985) p.13814
OLIVER, R. & ATMORE, A. Africa since 1800 (Cambridge University Press, 1967) pp.110-111
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the mid-19th
century, since they were prevented by the high death rates from Malaria and
Yellow Fever and as a result settled in selected mainly along the coast.
With the technological advances made in transportation such as the steamboat,
firearms like the gattling and communication in terms of railways due to the Industrial
Revolution, these Western Europeans were therefore able to penetrate and spend longer
periods in the tropics free of illness. Trade was no longer exclusively a coastal trade;
European trade began to penetrate the interior.
However, with such expansion each power feared that its rivals would keep the
trade of their colonies to themselves by enclosing them with tariff barriers instead of
promoting free trade and proclaiming protectorates; so in order to reserve the largest
possible sphere for its own future activities, each power thus felt compelled to enter the
scramble.15
On the other had another explanation to rebuttal the Egyptian-occupation
statement for the scramble for and later partitioning of Africa can be based on the
activities surrounding the Niger Delta. According the flash point theory, the initiation of
protectorates created the pivotal moments for the scramble for colonies on the continent.
According to Crowder, French traders had interested themselves in the Niger
Delta, which hitherto had been an exclusive preserve for the British these French trade
saw the Niger as a highway to commerce with the interior.16In order to secure their
commercial advantage, the French re-established in January 1882 a protectorate at Porto-
15
OLIVER, R. & ATMORE, A. Africa since 1800 (Cambridge University Press, 1967) p.10816CROWDER, M. West Africa and Colonial Rule (London: Hutchinson, 1970) p.53
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Norvo. As a result, this had alarmed the British and further intensified the rivalry between
them. Therefore, in the second region of Africa the scramble had already begun. 17
In conclusion, the statement on the occupation of Egypt is not totally valid on the
scramble and later partition of Africa in the later 19 th century since it focused on one
European power and the political aspects of the event instead of looking at the other
factors such as New Imperialism like nationalism and prestige, economics and the
establishment of protectorates as a means for the scramble of the African continent.
17McEWAN, P.J.M.Nineteenth-Century Africa (Oxford University Press, London, 1968) pp.276-279
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