21. louis xivmrsjrees.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/8/8/14886094/versailles.pdf · luxury and extravagance...

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“L’état c’est moi.” (I am the state.)

Louis XIV

Not only does France become the leading world power inthe 17th century, but she also replaces Italy as artisticleader of Europe. Versailles, the grandest French Baroqueexpression, dazzles all of Europe and sets new standards forluxury and extravagance in architecture, interiors, and fur-nishings. The palace exemplifies French Baroque planningconcepts, design language, and intent. New factories ariseto satisfy the demand for beautiful and expensive luxuriesin court interiors.

HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL

When Louis XIV ascends the throne in 1643 at the age offive, France has established her position as a great Euro-pean power with a tradition of art patronage. DuringLouis’s early years, the country is governed by Anne ofAustria, his mother who is of Spanish nobility, and Cardi-nal Mazarin, his godfather who is a protegé of the powerfulCardinal Richelieu. Louis marries Marie Thérèse, thedaughter of Philip IV of Spain and his first cousin. Thisconnection enhances relationships between France andSpain and contributes to Louis’s power. His second wife isMadame de Maintenon, who previously served as a courtgoverness. After Mazarin dies in 1661, Louis rules Francealone with the assistance of his economic minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert. With Colbert’s aid, Louis more firmlyestablishes the divine right of the monarchy begun previ-ously under Richelieu and Mazarin. Louis regards himselfas the greatest ruler in Europe and desires to impress otherswith the magnificence of court life.

To educate people to his greatness, Louis promotes fes-tivals, fireworks, statues, fountains, books, and palaces. Tovisually support his claims, he demands surroundings thatembody the power and grandeur of the Sun King, his court,and court life. He reinstitutes a rigid etiquette system pro-moting formal rules to govern court relationships and fur-ther glorify himself as king. The court overflows with anentourage of nobles and Louis’s relatives, descendants, andtheir attendants, so appropriate housing is needed. This

leads to the building of the Palais de Versailles, numerousroyal châteaux nearby, and the establishment of the sur-rounding city. Through this building activity, architec-ture, painting, sculpture, furniture, and the decorative artsunite to create drama and to inspire awe. Court policy, asestablished under Henri IV, supports the use of art andarchitecture as tools of the state, thereby ensuring a suit-able climate for Louis to accomplish his goals. Italianartists imported into France aid in this endeavor by con-tributing their skills and expertise. The result produces aunified national art expression, numerous cabinetmakingworkshops, and expanded decorative arts factories.Although this has little impact outside of royalty becauseof its lavishness and expense, it does establish France as aworld leader in artistic taste.

CONCEPTS

French Baroque seeks to awe and inspire, not to the gloryof the church as in Italy, but to the absolutism of theSun King, Louis XIV. As the first indigenous example ofFrench decoration, French Baroque projects grandeur andluxury embedded within an overall unity of composition—a standard of beauty totally integrating the landscape,

21. Louis XIV1643–1715, France

21-1. Louis XIV, 1701; by Hyacinthe Rigaud.

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Architecture and Interior Design Through the 18th Century: An Integrated History, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, and Curt Sherman.Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

architecture, interiors, furniture, and decorative arts intoan elaborate statement of court taste. Developed by artistsand architects influenced by the Baroque style of Rome,French Baroque rejects Italian exuberance and excessesand embraces the principles of reason, restraint, order, andformality. At times dramatic and exciting, French Baroqueexhibits dignity and masculinity. Its ornament, though vig-orous, is restrained. The French build on the notion ofinteriors composed of unified elements that begins in Ital-ian churches, extending this idea more fully to secular inte-riors. This Baroque style marks France as the new artisticleader of Europe.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

Like Italian examples, French buildings reflect an expan-sive universe by integrating city, dwelling, and landscape.Versailles is the supreme example of this comprehensiveplanning. French structures are as extravagantly plannedinside and out as Italian ones. Exteriors and interiors dis-play classical design principles and language, symmetricalcompositions, monumental scale, bold ornamentation,rich surface details, and costly materials. Facades, which donot undulate in the Italian manner, remain relatively flat,although projecting units, especially toward the center, arecommon. A classical vocabulary organizes, restrains, anddefines compositional elements. Distinctive French fea-tures from earlier include end pavilion, a projecting fron-tispiece with a pediment or a separate roof and sculpturalornament, and the tall hipped or mansard roof (twopitches on all four sides). Inside, architecture, sculpture,and painting unite to transport and overwhelm. Defined byclassical ordering and motifs, the overall interior imagecomplements the exterior design even though interiors arefar more sumptuous than the more restrained exteriors.Pattern books and engravings spread the French aestheticto the rest of Europe.

Motifs. Exterior facades display classical architecturalfeatures (Fig. 21-6, 21-7, 21-8, 21-10, Color Plate 50, 21-15,21-16) such as columns, pediments, arches, balustrades,draped figures, niches, quoins, swags, and cartouches.Motifs at Versailles include intertwined Ls (Fig. 21-4), sunface (Fig. 21-3, 21-4), musical instruments (Fig. 21-4), mil-itary symbols, fleur de lis, and crowns. Other details (Fig.21-3, 21-4, 21-5) are acanthus leaves, cherubs, classical

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21-2. Louis XIV, mettant le cordon bleu à Monfieur de Bourgognepère de Louis XV, Roi de France, 1684–1721; engraving byAntoine Watteau.

21-3. Motifs with sun face.

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statues, cartouches, dolphins, Chinoiserie (pseudo-Chi-nese), singerie (monkeys in human activities), pagodas, andlandscapes.

ARCHITECTURE

Baroque Classicism defines the architectural image inFrance—symmetry, classical ordering, monumental scale,and center focus. The image borrows selectively from themore conservative Italian Baroque of Bernini instead ofthe more plastic, expressionist style of Borromini. Com-positions made of clearly defined and repeated unitsfeature a horizontal emphasis delineated through stringcourses, cornices, or balustrades. Bays defined by pilasterscreate a regular rhythm and may increase in projection orbe replaced by engaged columns toward the center. Aseries of stepped or curving walls and a concentration ofornament also emphasize centers and entrances. Urbanand rural buildings are integrated with the environmentand/or landscape.

The early 17th century is a period of great buildingactivity in France with numerous châteaux and hôtels (townhouses) built for the nobility. While the power of thenobility declines during this period, the middle classincreases its wealth and importance and requires appropri-ate housing. The architectural design of hôtels exerts muchinfluence on domestic buildings throughout Europe.

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21-4. Panel designs with sun face, musical instruments, intertwining L motif.

21-5. Panel design showing Baroque scale and geometry withacanthus leaves, swags, and cartouche.

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Public and Private Buildings

Types. The main building types are hôtels, chateaux, andthe Palais de Versailles. Only a few churches are con-structed, as dwellings are more important.

Site Orientation. Heavily influenced by Italian urbanplanning concepts, buildings are integrated with the urbanand natural environment and are situated along a longitu-dinal axis that directs progression toward a series of goals orfocal points (Fig. 21-12, 21-13). The path typically beginsin an urban context, the city, and continues through aforecourt to the building’s entrance. Once inside, the pathproceeds through an important interior, usually a grandstaircase or salon, to the rear gardens and park. Gardens arealso organized along a main longitudinal axis with smallertransverse axes and radiating patterns. French urbanpalaces are more expansive than Italian palaces; this ismost exemplified by the cour d’honneur (open forecourt).

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21-6. East front, Louvre, 1667–1670; Paris, France; by ClaudePerrault, Louis Le Vau, and Charles Le Brun.

21-8. Frontispiece, Château de Maisons (Maisons-Lafitte).

Tall chimney

Typical plan with central court and wings or pavilions

CorniceSteep roof pitch

Rectangular bays articulated by pilasters

Symmetrically balanced entry

String course emphasizes horizontal

Center emphasis defined by projecting frontispiece with separate roof, pediments, medallions, and swagsDormer windows

21-9. Floor plan, Château de Maisons (Maisons-Lafitte).

21-7. Château de Maisons(Maisons-Lafitte), 1642–1646;near Paris; by FrançoisMansart.

Floor Plans. Plans (Fig. 21-9, 21-11, 21-14) strive forsymmetry along at least one axis, if not two. Rooms gener-ally are rectangular, although a few have oval salons or stairhalls. There are no interior hallways. Within this context,French architects carefully plan the distribution of rooms

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to support formality, rank, ceremony, and the attributes ofan aristocratic life. Plans are organized around public andprivate appartements (suites of rooms). Doorways to roomsin state apartments are on the same side of the wall to cre-ate an enfilade (vista), and each is magnificently decorated.A visitor’s status determines how far he or she may go.State appartements are usually located on the garden side ofthe house, and husbands and wives have their own. Moreintimate and less formal spaces occur near or behind stateappartements, sometimes alongside them in a double row.Toward the end of the period, rooms with specialized func-tions become more common. This change reflects theimportance of gaming and conversation, as well as the ben-efit of heating smaller spaces.

Materials. Typical building materials are stone, withbrick used for lesser structures, and wood and plaster incor-porated in vernacular examples.

Facades. Superimposed pilasters divide walls into baysand define the overall ordering as well as the edge of a unit(Fig. 21-6, 21-7, 21-8, 21-10, Color Plate 50, 21-15, 21-16,21-17). Traditional elements, such as rustication, stringcourses, and quoins, organize and unify facades. A series ofstepped planes that define interior spaces leads to the cen-ter of the composition and the entrance. Planes may con-nect at right angles or, less often, in curves. A frontispiececomposed of superimposed orders and a pediment marksthe entrance as well as the most important reception room,the salon. Pavilions mark the ends of exterior compositions,as well as indicating the placement inside the state bed-chamber in the appartement.

Windows and Doors. The proportion of window to wall(Fig. 21-8, 21-17) is greater than in Italy as windows arelarger to admit more light. French windows (Fig. 21-16,21-17), a French invention, extend to the floor and open

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21-10. Château Vaux-le-Vicomte,1657–1661, near Paris; by Louis Le Vau,André Le Nôtre, and Charles Le Brun.(Color Plate 50)

Oval salon

Main entrywith templefront facade

Vestibule

Garden side

Ante-room

Ante-room

Bedroom

Bath

BedroomCloset

21-11. Ground floor plan, ChâteauVaux-le-Vicomte, 1657–1661, near Paris.

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as doors onto porches or balconies. Their use on groundand important floors creates spectacular illumination thatadds to the magnificence of interior spaces. Sash windowswith heavy, simple moldings are also common.

Roofs. Roofs include mansard, hipped, and flat, usuallycovered in slate with cresting at the apex. Roofs pitchsteeply as before. Each unit may have its own roof.

Later Interpretations. Besides some imitation by the Eng-lish and other Europeans in the 17th century, the LouisXIV image for exteriors and interiors reappears during thelate 19th and the early 20th centuries in France and Amer-ica (Fig. 21-18, 21-19, 21-20). Wealthy American aristo-crats seek to establish an identity of social prominencebased on European opulence, as reflected in their elaboratemansions and furnishings.

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Design Practitioners

Crown patronage elevates the status of Frencharchitects during the period. The Royal Academy ofArchitecture opens in 1671 and trains architects inthe rules of classicism based on mathematical rela-tionships and design principles as taught by Vitruvi-ous, Vignola, and Palladio.

Although architects often design interior details,such as chimneypieces, they typically do not coordi-nate interiors. Instead, upholsterers supply textilesand some furniture and generally coordinate decora-tion. Charles Le Brun sets the precedent for one per-son who controls all interior design.

Furniture may be designed by a menuisier, a crafts-man who works in solid wood with carving, or by anébéniste (cabinetmaker), who produces furniture withveneers.

Jean Bérain, architect and engraver, designs furni-ture combining motifs of antiquity with decorativedesigns, in the workshop of André Charles Boulle.His style of Renaissance arabesques and grotesquesevolves into the more delicate, lighthearted Rococoin the early 18th century.

André Charles Boulle, chief ébéniste to the king,becomes recognized for his intricate tables with mar-quetry decoration. He develops a special marquetry intortoise shell and brass known as “Boullework” that ismuch copied. Only two documented pieces by himexist, although his workshops in the Louvre producemany excellent pieces in this period and the next.

Charles Le Brun, chief decorator for Vaux-le-Vicomte, is hired as the primary coordinator at Ver-sailles and principal painter to the king. His studiesin Rome familiarize him with Italian planning anddesign concepts. During the years 1671 through1681, Le Brun decorates the grand appartements atVersailles. The concept derives from Italy and fea-tures a series of rooms named for planets and mytho-logical figures. The rooms culminate in the Salon ofApollo. Trained as a painter, Le Brun recognizes no

difference between the fine and decorative arts.Endeavoring to unite them, he believes in designingevery detail to create a harmonious scheme. Le Brunis a founding member of the Academy of Paintingand Sculpture.

André Le Nôtre, who succeeds his father as land-scape gardener at the Tuileries in Paris, designs thegarden plans at Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles. Fol-lowing Baroque concepts of integration, expansion,and dynamism, Le Nôtre plans the magnificent set-tings at Vaux and Versailles. He sets new standardsfor gardens and the integration of structure and land-scape, which are much copied in Europe.

Jean Le Pautre, Le Brun’s greatest disciple, designsmagnificent tables, consoles, torchères, and other fur-nishings for the nobility. A highly prolific designerand engraver of ornament, Le Pautre popularizes LeBrun’s designs.

Louis Le Vau is one of the most successful archi-tects of the 17th century and heads a large workshopof designers and painters. Although he designs manyimpressive public and private structures, he is bestknown for his design of Vaux le Vicomte and the firstextension to Versailles.

François Mansart, a young protegé of Colbert andarchitect to the king and bourgeoisie, is the leadingadvocate of Italian classicism during the 17th cen-tury, although he never visits Italy. Pediments, super-imposed orders, and the mansard roof (double pitchon all four sides) characterize his work. A designer ofhôtels, châteaux, and churches, his masterpiece isChâteau de Maisons.

Jules Hardouin-Mansart greatly enlarges Versaillesbeginning in 1678. Additions include north andsouth wings, the chapel, and enclosing Le Vau’s ter-race on the rear, which creates the Galerie desGlaces. Nephew of François, Jules’s work is amongthe most Baroque in France. His huge workshoptrains many architects of the next generation.

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21-12. Aerial view, Palais de Versailles, 1678–1699, near Paris.

21-13. Landscape plan, Palais deVersailles, late 17th century; engravingby Pierre Le Pautre; designed by AndréLe Nôtre.

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348 BAROQUE

North minister’s wing

Royal opera

South wingRoyalcourt

Statue ofLouis XIV

Minister’scourt

North wing

South arcade

Marble courtChapel

South minister’s wing

North arcadeAssembly hall

1631–1634Le Roy

1662–1670Le Vau

1678–1708J. Hardouin-Manstart

1770–1772A.-J. Gabriel

Galerie de glaces(Hall of mirrors)

21-14. Floor plan, Palais de Versailles,1678–1699, near Paris.

Balustrade at roof line

Heavy cornice

French doorsRepetitive arches

Walls divided into bays by pilasters

Classical details

Entry symmetrically on center and defined by projection out

21-15. Palais de Versailles; byJules Hardouin-Mansart.

Design Spotlight

Architecture: Palais de Versailles. Designed by chiefarchitect Louis Le Vau, landscape designer André LeNôtre, and architect Jules Houdoin-Mansart, with inte-riors by Charles Le Brun, this building (Fig. 21-12,Color Plate 51, 21-13, 21-14, 21-15, 21-16, 21-22,Color Plate 52, 21-24, 21-25, 21-26, 21-27, 21-28) isthe most important architectural statement of theperiod. It is a completely planned building complexintegrating landscape, architecture, interiors, furnish-ings, and decorative arts into a unified composition.Built on the site of Louis XIII’s hunting lodge not farfrom Paris, it gradually expands to house about 10,000people and becomes the center of the Western artworld. A satellite city develops around it. The threemain avenues of the city terminate in the center of thepalace in the king’s state chamber. André Le Nôtre’s

landscape plan unites château and landscape while pro-viding for every activity in which the king might wishto engage. A principal axial vista extends from the entrycourt through the building into rear gardens thatprogress from the formal parterres to less formal sur-rounding gardens to the natural forests beyond. Louis LeVau’s exterior shows Italian Baroque influence withsymmetry, classical ordering, monumental scale, andcenter focus. The composition features a horizontalemphasis delineated through string courses and cor-nices; bays defined by pilasters create a regular rhythm.Typically French are the frontispiece and steppedwalls leading to the center of the courtyard facade.Beginning in 1678, Jules Hardouin-Mansart enclosesthe rear terrace, adds rooms to each end, and designsthe chapel.

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21-16. Facade elevation with French doors, Palais de Versailles.(Color Plate 51)

21-17. Grand Trianon, 1687; Versailles; by Jules Hardouin-Mansart.

21-18. Later Interpretation: Opera House, 1861–1874; Paris,France; by J. L. C. Garnier; Beaux Arts.

21-19. Later Interpretation: Court of Honor, World’sColumbian Exposition, 1893; Chicago, Illinois; Beaux Arts.

21-20. Later Interpretation: Rosecliff, 1901–1902; Newport,Rhode Island; by McKim, Mead, and White; Beaux Arts.

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INTERIORS

Baroque interiors illustrate symmetry, formality, grandeur,large scale, rich decoration, vivid color, and luxuriousmaterials appropriate to the rituals of court life. With thedevelopment of the French Royal Academy of Paintingand Sculpture in 1648, many talented artists are availableto embellish interior spaces. Interiors at Versailles presentthe supreme example of sumptuous embellishment. Theirgrandeur and magnificence form the setting for the daz-zling ceremonies glorifying the king and enhancing hisabsolute power. Expanding on principles of unity fromItaly, Charles Le Brun plans and coordinates the interiordesign. Furniture, statues, tapestries, and decorative artsare executed by others under his direction. Le Brun, whopossesses great power and influence, virtually creates theLouis XIV style.


Types. Ceremonial interiors (Fig. 21-21, 21-22, 21-24,21-25, 21-27) are the most lavishly appointed and the

most formal. However, most dwellings, even Versailles,have less formal, private spaces that will proliferate in thenext period. Appartements may include an antichambre foreating and waiting; a chambre de parade for receiving andentertaining; a chambre à coucher for receiving and sleep-ing; a cabinet for conducting business; and a garderobe fordressing, storage, and housing servants. No room is setaside primarily for dining yet, although spaces identified assalle à manger appear during the period. Several rooms typ-ically hold dining furniture so that people can eat wherethey please.

Relationships. Rectilinear spaces arranged symmetricallyreflect the organization of facades so there is a strong rela-tionship between the exterior and interior—somethingnew in France with this style. Important spaces align withthe main, usually longitudinal, axis in the Italian manner.The frontispieces and end pavilions denote important inte-rior spaces.

Materials. Rich and costly materials delineated in classi-cal details dominate interiors. Interior architectural details(Fig. 21-21, 21-22, Color Plate 52, 21-27, 21-28) include

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Important Buildings and Interiors

Paris:Château de Maisons, 1642–1646, Fançois

Mansart.Church of the Sorbonne, 1635–1642, Jacques

Lemercier.Church of the Val-de-Grâce, 1645–1667,

François Mansart, Jacques Lemercier.Hôtel Lambert, 1640, Louis Le Vau.Hôtel de Soubise, 1705–1709, Germain

Boffrand.Palais du Louvre, east facade, 1667, Louis Le

Vau, Claude Perrault, and Charles Le Brun.S. Gervais, 1616–1621, Salomon de Brosse.Place Vendome, 1698, Jules Hardouin-Mansart.Saint Louis-des-Invalides, 1708, Libéral Bruant

and Jules-Hardouin Mansart.

Seine-et-Marne: Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte,1645–1661, Louis Le Vau, André Le Nôtre, andCharles Le Brun. (Color Plate 50)

Versailles:Grand Trianon, 1687, Jules Hardouin-Mansart.Palais de Versailles, 1661–1715, Louis Le Vau,

Jules Hardouin-Mansart, André Le Nôtre, andCharles Le Brun (interiors). (Color Plates 51and 52) 21-21. Oval salon, Château Vaux-le-Vicomte, 1657–1661,

near Paris; by Louis Le Vau.

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niches with classical figures and pilasters dividing wallsinto bays, which repeat the exterior design. Balustradesand daises subdivide and separate spaces to support eti-quette and ritual.

Color. The typical palette includes white, gold, crim-son, cobalt, purple, and deep green. Paintings, materials,and particularly, textiles, supply rich, saturated colors.

Lighting. Candles serve as the primary source of illumi-nation with the quality enhanced through prisms and mir-rors. Important lighting fixtures (Fig. 21-36) of the period

include an appliqué (wall sconce), flambeau (candlestick),candelabra (branching candlestick), torchère (floor candle-stick), and lustre à cristeaux (crystal chandelier). They aremade of gilded and carved wood, ormolu (gilded bronze),and silver. Designs repeat the character of the interiorornamentation. Elaborate guéridons (candle stands) mayhold either a candelabra or large flambeau.

Floors. Floors are of wood, marble (Fig. 21-21), or othermasonry, often in complicated patterns. Use of parquetincreases throughout the period. The French favor lozenge

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Bronze trophies, military symbols

Barrel vault and compartmented ceiling with painted decorationHeavy entablature

Parquet de Versailles flooring

French door

Corinthian capital

Round arch with mirror reflects light from French doors/windows

Red marble pilasters divide wall into bays

Large scale: 240′0′′ L × 33′0′′ W × 40′0′′ H

21-22. Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), Palais de Versailles, near Paris, 1678–1687; begun by Charles Le Brun and completedby Jules Hardouin-Mansart. (Color Plate 52)

Design Spotlight

Interiors: Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), Palais deVersailles. Begun 1678, the concept for the grand space(Fig. 21-22, Color Plate 52) is by Jules Hardouin-Mansart and the decoration is by Charles Le Brun.Here, classical vocabulary supports Baroque intent asarchitecture, light, sculpture, and painting unite toastound, awe, and glorify Louis XIV. Light pours intoand illuminates the vast space (240′ long, 33′ wide, 40′high) from 17 arched windows separated by red marblepilasters. Mirrors on the opposite wall reflect and multi-ply the light in a manner previously unimagined.Numerous gilded surfaces throughout the space alsoreflect light and create glittering effects that heightenthe dramatic impact. A tripartite rhythm of three

arched and mirrored bays separated by red marblepilasters defines the walls. Bronze trophies delineate theend bays, while niches of classical sculpture highlightthe center ones. The bases and capitals of the pilastersare gilded; the capitals are Corinthian combined withfleur-de-lis. A gilded, modillioned cornice supportsgilded trophies carried by cherubs. The barrel-vaultedceiling features painted scenes glorifying the reign ofLouis XIV. The wood floor is parquet de Versailles. Tall,arched doors flanked by columns lead to the salons ofPeace and War on either end. Originally, the space hadsolid silver furniture, three rows of crystal chandeliers,numerous guéridons (candle stands), upholstered stools,Savonnerie rugs, and various marble and alabaster vases.

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shapes in oak. Parquet de Versailles (Fig. 21-22, ColorPlate 52) is a special design composed of a diamond pat-tern with centers of interwoven planks. Oriental, Savon-nerie, and Aubusson rugs in harmonious designs add tothe interior richness. Plain or patterned straw mattingcovers many floors, especially in summer. Piled rugs maylie on top of matting, although some are still used to covertables and cabinet tops.

Walls. Walls retain classical proportions and details withan emphasis on the chimneypiece (Fig. 21-25, 21-32)placed on the wall opposite the entrance or the windowsand ornately accented above. Marble and wood mantelsconsist of either a bolection molding or pilasters and acornice. A trumeau (the area above a mantel or door;Fig. 21-26, 21-28, 21-29) usually includes an elaboratelyframed mirror or a painting. The French use boiserie

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21-23. Detail of carving.

21-24. Salon dela Paix (DrawingRoom of Peace),Palais de Versailles.

21-26. Doorways, Palais de Versailles; by Jules-HardouinMansart.

21-25. Salon de l’Oeil de Boeuf (Bulls-eye Room), Palais de Versailles.

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(carved wood paneling; Fig. 21-23) in important rooms aswell as lesser ones, unlike the Italians. Boiserie typically ispainted (21-25, 21-26, 21-27, 21-28); white with goldaccents dominates, especially late in the period. Symmet-rically arranged wall paneling (Fig. 21-30, 21-34, 21-35)consists of a dado, shaft (or fill), and an elaborate entabla-ture with a decorative frieze and modillioned cornice. Thehorizontal portion may have regularly sized and spaced rec-tangular panels and three-dimensional moldings arounddoors and windows. Walls in some rooms in Versailles arecovered in polychrome marble (Fig. 21-24) in rectilinearpatterns. A few rooms in aristocratic houses featurepainted polychrome grotesques and arabesques or land-scapes (Fig. 21-31) in panels. Designers will exploit theseforms in the subsequent Rococo style. Textile wall cover-ings include damasks, plain and patterned velvets, andembossed leather. Combinations of fabrics, trims, fringe,and occasionally valances add richness and variety. Tapes-tries, the most valuable wall coverings, usually hang onlyin important rooms. Pictures, which hang over fireplaces,doors, and inside panels, create symmetrical arrangementsof form and color instead of being organized by style orsubject. Mirrors become important accessories during the

period. They hang over fireplaces, on piers opposite win-dows, or on opposite ends of the room with a table beneaththem. Some people place pictures or mirrors on top ofexpensive tapestries. Mirrors and pictures have carved

LOUIS XIV 353

21-27. Louis XIV’s Bedchamber, Palais de Versailles, 1701; by Louis Le Vau.

21-28. Wall detail, Louis XIV’s Bedchamber, Palaisde Versailles, 1701.

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and gilded frames and hang at an angle (canted) fromcords and tassels.

Windows and Doors. Windows in ceremonial rooms,bedchambers, and dining parlors feature draperies in velvetor silk in panels or festoons that draw up with tapes (liketoday’s balloon shades), a style newly introduced in the1670s. Most rooms have interior wood shutters (Fig.21-28) to block light. Jalousies à la persienne (Venetianblinds with wooden slats) appear in the early 18th century.

Many rooms, particularly important ones, have double-entry doors. Doors (Fig. 21-26, 21-34, 21-35) match bois-erie when present, but otherwise are paneled. Paintingshang above doors, and grand rooms often have portières(door curtains) that help prevent drafts and add to interioropulence. Portières sometimes have their own curtains toprotect them.

Ceilings. Ceilings (Fig. 21-22, 21-33) are rectangu-lar, heavy in scale, and very elaborate. They may be flat,

354 BAROQUE

21-29. Doorways, 17th century; byJean le Pautre.

21-30. Wall elevations, 17th century; by Jean le Pautre. 21-31. Panel designs, 17th century; by Daniel Marot.

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LOUIS XIV 355

21-32. Chimneypieces, 17th century; by Jean le Pautre. 21-33. Ceilings, 17th century; by Jean le Pautre.

21-34. Wall elevation, Hôtel de Sully, Paris. 21-35. Wall elevation, Palais de Justice de Rennes.

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compartmented (divided by three-dimensional moldingsinto rectangular sections), coffered, coved (rounded at thejuncture of the wall and ceiling), or vaulted with gilded orpainted plasterwork. Paintings featuring illusionistic archi-tecture and complex iconography are common in impor-tant rooms, as in Italy. French paintings are less exuberantthan Italian paintings, however.

356 BAROQUE

21-36. Lighting fixtures: Guéridons (candle stands) and candelabra.

21-37. Later Interpretation: Grand staircase, Opera House,1861–1874; Paris, France; by J. L. C. Garnier; Beaux Arts.

21-38. Later Interpretation: Mrs. Bradley Martin’s Drawing-Room; from Artistic Houses, attributed to G. W. Sheldon, NewYork: D. Appleton, 1883–1884; Beaux Arts.

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Later Interpretations. The Beaux Arts style of the late19th and early 20th centuries in France, England, andAmerica revives the ornate and lavish interiors of Ver-sailles and other French dwellings (Fig. 21-37, 21-38,21-39). The wealthy in these countries do this as a way toestablish European elegance and status. Some importFrench rooms to install in their own homes, a practice evi-dent in the Newport “cottages” of Rhode Island as well asin the exuberant estates of Palm Beach, Florida, andDetroit, Michigan.

FURNISHINGS ANDDECORATIVE ARTS

Furniture of the Louis XIV period harmonizes with theinteriors, and through the influence of Charles Le Brun,becomes an integral part of the room decoration, especiallyat Versailles. Furniture supports ceremony, rank, and status,so appearance is more important than comfort. At court,people often stand, so there is an absence of seating and anabundance of cabinets, tables, and storage pieces.

Numerous factories are built to produce goods for thecourt, the nobility, and the middle class. In 1663, CharlesLe Brun helps establish and then directs the ManufactureRoyale de Meubles de la Couronne at Gobelins, which pro-duces tapestries, paintings, sculpture, silverwork, and fur-niture. In 1668, vast requirements of glass for Versaillesinitiate the creation of a royal glass factory nearby. In1685, Louis XIV forbids public worship of all religionsexcept the Roman Catholic faith, which stifles religiousfreedom and results in the revocation of the Edict of

Nantes. Consequently, Huguenot (Protestant) craftsmenleave the country causing a setback in decorative arts pro-duction in France.


Types. Furnishing types, numbers, and design reflect theformality of life. Cabinets, tables, and storage pieces aremore common than other types.

Distinctive Features. Baroque furniture is symmetrical,rectangular, and often accented with large curves (Fig.21-42). Proportions are massive, and the decoration lavish.Carving, marquetry (veneer patterns), and gilding aremore important than in previous periods. Legs vary (Fig.21-43), but generally are in the form of a scrolled bracket,tapered square pedestal (Fig. 21-40), or round pedestal.Feet are bun, paw, carved, or turned. Many pieces incorpo-rate heavy, ornate H or X (saltire) stretchers, and seatingmay have curved arms with heavily carved volutes.

LOUIS XIV 357

21-39. Later Interpretation: Dining room, Marble House,1892; Newport, Rhode Island; by Richard Morris Hunt.

21-40. Gilt fauteuil, late 17th century.

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Relationships. Most furniture pieces, designed to beplaced against the wall, exhibit a direct relationship to thewall paneling in overall rectilinear shape and the use ofmoldings and/or columns.

Materials. Principal woods for construction are beech,oak, walnut, and ebony. Many pieces are gilded and featuremarquetry or parquetry (geometric decoration of the samewoods with different grains). André-Charles Boulle devel-ops a special marquetry in tortoise shell and brass known asBoullework that is much copied. Ormolu decoration accentsall cabinet pieces, especially on points of strain (Fig. 21-46,21-48, 21-49). Some Oriental influence is evident in lac-quered furniture with Chinoiserie motifs rendered on ablack background (Fig. 21-47). Tables have richly grainedmarble tops.

Seating. Sets of upholstered chairs and sofas are veryfashionable. Typical pieces, rectangular with high backs,include a chaise (side chair), fauteuil (upholstered openarmchair; Fig. 21-40), bergère (upholstered closed arm-chair), and canapé (sofa; Fig. 21-41). Upholstered seats fea-ture fancy trims and gilded nails. Seating has a specialetiquette at court. Only the king and queen may sit in arm-chairs. A royal child may sit in a chair with a back and noarms. Others of high rank may be honored by being per-mitted to sit on stools.

Tables. Tables (Fig. 21-45, 21-47) support a variety ofactivities including gaming, conversation, and entertain-ment. The most common are console tables (attached tothe wall; Fig. 21-42), the bureau plat (table desk; Fig.21-44), occasional tables, and gaming tables.

Storage. Rooms are built without closets so clothes andother items usually are stored in armoires (large cupboardswith doors; Fig. 21-48, 21-49) or newly introduced com-modes (low chests with drawers or doors; Fig. 21-46).

Beds. Beds (Fig. 21-27, 21-50) are monumental, recti-linear, and completely surrounded with costly fabrics.Hangings, which may match or contrast with other textiles

in the room, are embellished with fringes and trims addingto the richness of effect. Most beds have four to six maincurtains that may be tied up, drawn up by rings and tapeson the back, or pulled open or closed. Grand beds usuallyhave additional cantonnières and bonnegrâces (smaller cur-tains to close gaps around posts). The French prefer rec-tangular valances and testers, unlike the English and

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21-41. Gilt canapé at Fontainebleau,late 17th century.

21-42. Console.

21-43. Legs of console tables, late 17th century.

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Dutch who use shaped ones. Testers vary in size from thehalf-tester used by children and others of secondary impor-tance to full-size ones called lit à duchesse (supported byposts) or lit d’ange (suspended by chains from the ceiling).Finials or vases filled with ostrich feathers may top thetester. The canopy bed has an oval or round dome sus-pended from the ceiling from which hangings fall. To pro-tect their valuable hangings, grand beds may haveadditional curtains hanging from iron rods outside the bed.Other bed types include portable field beds and trundlebeds. In state bedchambers, a balustrade separates the bedfrom the rest of the room. Some chambers, even importantones, have niches in which to place a bed.

Textiles. The more important the room, the more tex-tiles it has. French textiles (Fig. 21-53), produced mainlyin Lyons, develop from Italian Renaissance influences witha predominance of brocades, velvets, and silks. Plain andpatterned velvets typically come from Italy. Stylized flow-ers in urns surrounded by scrolls and garlands of fruits andflowers with large repeats are common patterns. Towardthe end of the century, imported chintzes and muslinsbegin replacing heavier fabrics. Most chairs have slipcoversor furniture covers to protect their upholstery. Textiles alsocover cushions and tabletops or shelves. People of highrank often sit beneath cloths of estate that resemble bedhangings in form and embellishment.

Decorative Arts. Types of decorative arts include clocks,lighting, tapestries, rugs, ceramics, fireplace furniture, firescreens, paintings, mirrors, and vases. This is France’s goldenage in decorative arts because of the scope, diversity, and

LOUIS XIV 359

21-44. Bureau plat, late 17th or early 18th century; by CharlesCressent.

21-45. Table, late 17th century.

21-46. Commode, late 17th century; byAndré-Charles Boulle.

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360 BAROQUE

21-47. Chinoiserie cabinet on Baroque table, Chinese import,17th century.

Heavy entablature with classical motifs

Straight line emphasis

Ormolu decoration

Large scaled rectangular panel

Heavy base

Painted, inlaid, or marquetry design is typical

Acanthus leaf

21-48. Armoire, late 17th century; attributed to André-Charles Boulle.

21-49. Armoire, late 17th century; by Charles Le Brun.

Design Spotlight

Furnishings: Armoires. Massive in scale, designsinterpret the important characteristics of the stylethrough symmetry, rectangular panels, classical motifs,marquetry gilding, and ormolu decoration. Armoiresused as storage are a particular focus for lavishembellishment (Fig. 21-48, 21-49).

21-50. Lit à duchesse, late 17th century.

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detail of the overall designs. Accessories become morenumerous and contribute to the dazzling display in rooms.Objects are often in pairs or symmetrical arrangements andconform in design to the overall opulence of the interiorsto complement the unified composition. Continuing tradewith the Orient provides prized pieces and stimulates newconcepts in decoration, such as lacquerwork.

Tapestries. In 1662, the Gobelins tapestry works (Fig.21-51, 21-52) are developed under the influence of LeBrun and produce exclusively for the French government.Le Brun designs three series of tapestries called “The His-

tory of the King” illustrating the life of Louis XIV. In 1664,Colbert starts the Beauvais factory as a private enterpriseunder the control of the government to supply items forthe public.

Rugs. In 1618, the Savonnerie rug factory near Parisbegins producing hand-tufted rugs with dark, rich colorsand a velvet-smooth piled surface. Designs, which featurea central oval, flowers and foliage, and complex borders,complement Baroque interiors (Color Plate 53). Savon-nerie competes with the Aubusson factory—a companybegun in the Middle Ages that manufactures carpets in

LOUIS XIV 361

21-51. Tapestry commemorating thevisit of Louis XIV to the Gobelinsfactory in 1667.

21-52. Tapestry, Gobelins factory; byCharles Le Brun.

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lighter colors with a coarse tapestry weave. Open slitswhere colors meet distinguish Aubusson carpets, which areflat woven.

Ceramics. Faience (French ceramics of tin-glazed earth-enware) is especially admired because its white bodyresembles porcelain. The Crown’s support of the industryincreases its importance. Chinese porcelain imports, par-ticularly blue and white designs, continue to be vastly pop-ular. Delftware from Holland competes with French andChinese wares.

Later Interpretations. Because of the elaborate richnessand production expense of Louis XIV furniture, it is notinterpreted much in later periods. Boullework revives inthe Louis XVI (neoclassical) period. In the late 19th cen-tury, some Louis XIV furniture and rugs (Fig. 21-54) arecopied for wealthy interiors.

362 BAROQUE

21-53. Textiles.

21-54. Later Interpretation: Savonnerie rug, 1990s.

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