CLASS: XII

SUBJECT: HISTORY

CYCLE No. 2 (5th April ’21 to 30th April ’21)

Part I - Chapter 1: The Harappan Civilisation: Bricks, Beads and Bones.

Part II-Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns (Early States and Economies)

Key concepts in nutshells:

1. Periodisation of Harappan Civilisation:-

(i) Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE

(ii) Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE

(iii) Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE

(iv)Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE

Extent of Harappan civilisation:-

1. Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary- Daimabad

2. Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics of the

Harappan Civilisation.

Subsistence strategies:-

1. The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products.

2. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.

3. The bones of wild species found suggest the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

4. Agricultural technologies:-

Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.

Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali. Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan has also been found.

Traces of irrigation canals have been found at Shortugahi in Afghanistan. Traces of rainwater harvesting found in Dholavira in Gujarat through water reservoirs.

2. MOHENJODARO: A planned urban city.Two sections of settlement:-

(i) The Citadel:-

These were constructed on mud brick platforms and were walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower Town

These include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain.

The upper portion, probably of wood, was – the Great Bath. It was a large rectangular tank in courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. Due to the uniqueness of the structure, scholars suggest that it was meant for some kind of special ritual bath.

Figure: The warehouse

(ii) The Lower Town:-

It had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern. The streets were 30 feet wide and they cut each other at right angles.

It provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centered on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.

Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the walls to the street drains.

The Great Bath

3. Social differences:-

Burials: At burials in Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made for the rich and the poor.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife.

Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.

Looking for “luxuries”:  The artefacts are classified as utilitarian and luxuries by the archaeologists. Utilitarian objects are of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Some articles of daily use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials such as faience were also found.

4. Craft Production

Chanhudaro is a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell- cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.

The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable. Techniques for making beads differed according to the material. Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira. Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects – including bangles,

ladles and inlay. Centres of production: Archaeologists identified centres of production by looking for raw

materials and tools used. Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up

to make smaller objects. These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also

undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

5. Strategies for procuring material:-

1) The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.2) Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of

transporting goods and people across land routes.3) Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions,

which established communication with local communities.4) Contact with distant lands: archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably

brought from Oman, on the southeastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula.5) Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a

region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.6) Other archaeological finds include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads which suggest

contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.

7) It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of ships and boats on seals.

6. Seals, Script and Weights:-

8) Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. The sealing also

conveyed the identity of the sender.

9) An enigmatic script: Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner. Scholars have also suggested that the motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.

ENIGMATIC SCRIPT

10. Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. The script was written from right to left.

11. Weights: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called Chert and generally cubical, with no markings.

12. Metal scale-pans have also been found.

Figure: Metal scale pans with weights found in Mohenjodaro

7. Ancient Authority:-

There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society.

Palaces and kings: A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”.

Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, whereas other archaeologist feels that there was no single ruler but several rulers, Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another. While some believe that there was a single state.

8. The End of the Civilisation:-

o There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

o Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilisation are climatic changes, migration, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers. Some also believe that the civilization was forced to move out of their region due to Aryan Attacks from Central Asia.

o The end was evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline and abandonment of cities.

9. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation:-

When Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all about them.

Cunningham’s confusion: The first Director-General of the ASI, Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.

A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. It is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.

A new old civilisation: In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.

Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together.

New techniques and questions: Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology.

Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly working at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap of available evidence. These explorations promise to yield interesting results in the future.

10. Problems of Putting Together the Past:-

The Harappan script does not help in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc.

Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in tropical regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.

Classifying finds: One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second is in terms of function. Archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.

Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.

Problems of interpretation: Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance.

Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.

Some seals with plant motifs indicate nature worship. Several reconstructions remain speculative at present.

Questions to be discussed as classwork. Chapter -1: The Harappan Civilisation: Bricks, Beads and Bones.

1 MARK QUESTIONS:

1. Ancient Mesopotamian texts refer to copper coming from a place called ‘Magan’. Which place were they referring to?

2. In which state of India is Kalibangan site of Harappan civilisation located?3. In which state of India is the Lothal site of Harappan civilization located?4. Name the author of the story of Indian Archaeology.5. In which state of India is the Dholavira site of the Harappan civilization located?6. Name the organisation of India which is trying to identify Harappan ruins through

archaeological excavations.7. Why were the seals and sealings used by the Harappan people?

3 MARK QUESTIONS:

1. Mention some of the features of Early Harappan culture.2. Differentiate between Archaeo- botanists and Archaeo- zoologists.3. Mention any three methods adopted by the Harappans for increasing agricultural production.4. The domestic architecture of Mohenjadaro was unique. Explain the statement with examples.5. Discuss briefly the main features of the Great Bath constructedby the Harappans on the citadel.6. Explain the exclusive features of the craft production in Chanhudaro.7. Explain the strategies for procuring materials by the Harappans for the craft production.8. Describe the trade relations of the Harappans with West Asia.9. Mention three features of Harappan writing.10. How were weights regulated in the Harappan civilization?

8 MARK QUESTIONS:

1. Describe the townplanning and drainage system of the Harappan Civilisation.2. Explain the strategies adopted to identify social differences among the Harappan people .3. Dicuss the contribution of Cunningham, John Marshall, R.E.M. Wheeler in Harappan

archaeology.4. How do archaeologists reconstruct the Past?

Passage Based Questions: The most ancient system yet discovered.

About the drains, Mackay noted: “It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered”. Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while wastewater flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that ‘little heaps of material, mostly sand, has frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows….. that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared”.

FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948.

(i) Enumerate one reason, why, Mackay states that it is certainly the most complete ancient systems yet discovered”. 1

(ii) Define the term ‘grid pattern’ of the Lower town and state one of its features. 2 (iii) Describe the features of the domestic drainage system. 2

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CHAPTER-2: Kings, Farmers and Towns (Early States and Economies)

Developments between 1900 BCE and 600BCE:- 1) During the period between 1900 BCE and 600 BCE the Rig-Veda was composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries. 2) During this period Agricultural settlements and pastoral populations emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including north India, the Deccan and parts of Karnataka. 3) During this period new modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone Structures known as megaliths, emerged in central and south India. In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons.

Sources to understand early Indian history(600 BCE to 600 BCE):- i) Range of sources – inscriptions, texts, coins etc ii) Visual materials --- fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history as it was an era of:- Associated with early states, cities. Associated with the growing use of iron. Associated with the development of coinage. Growth of diverse systems of thought (Religions) including Buddhism and Jainism. Associated with emergence of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas.

How were Brahmi and Kharosthi Inscriptions Deciphered? From the late eighteenth century, European scholars aided by Indian pundits worked backwards

from contemporary Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts, comparing their letters with older specimens.

James Princep (an officer in the mint of the East India Company) deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi which were used in the earliest inscriptions and coins:-i) Kharosthi the script used in inscriptions and coins in the north western part of India by Indo-Greek kings. ii)Indo-Greek coins contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.

James Prinsep (could read the Greek script) compared the letters and identified the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as older form of Prakrit.

He found that Brahmi script is older form of Devanagari script. He found that most of these scripts in coins and inscriptions mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to behold”.

There were a few inscriptions which also referred to the king as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from Buddhist texts.

European and Indian scholars used inscriptions and texts composed in a variety of languages to reconstruct the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled the subcontinent by the early decades of the twentieth century.

This gave a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history as European and Indian scholars used inscriptions and texts composed in a variety of languages to reconstruct the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled the subcontinent by the early decades of the twentieth century.

KHAROSTHI SCRIPT BRAHMI SCRIPT DEVANAGARI SCRIPT

INDO-GREEK COINS

The important Mahajanapadas:

Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti were amongst the most important mahajanapadas.

The main features of sixteen   mahajanapadas:- While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings some were oligarchies. Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. Each mahajanapada had a well maintained standing army and regular bureaucracies for

administration. E.g. most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.

Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas. In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively.

Dharmasutras, written by Brahmans laid down norms for rulers. Rulers were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas.

Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans. They were allowed to raid on neighbouring states which was a legitimate means of acquiring

wealth.

Janapada, meaning the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its foot or settles. It is a word used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit. It meant a ‘village’.

Mahajanpada – means ‘great realm’ in Sanskrit. Maha- great Janapada- foothold of people (village)controlled by oligarchies( government of

military men or royalty) So Mahajanpada means many Janapadas were conquered together to form a

mahajanapada(kingdom) Two Mahajanpadas formed a Ganatantra or a Republic

WATCH THE VIDEO ON MAHAJANPADAS BY USING THE GIVEN LINK:

https://youtu.be/Mi7X9vCJVUw

How did   Magadha become the most powerful   mahajanapada ? Agriculture was especially productive in Magadha region. In Magadha iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons. Elephants (an important component of the army) were found in forests of this region. The Ganga and its tributaries provided cheap and convenient means of communication. Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power. Ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and

their ministers, who helped implement their policies.

Sources to understand Mauryan Empire:-

Sources include archaeological finds, especially sculpture, buildings, monasteries etc

The account of Megasthenes- (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya), called Indica , which survives in fragments.

The Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya (minister of Chandragupta).

Later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature & Sanskrit literary works have written about Mauryas.

Inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231BCE) on rocks and pillars.

Fragment Translated From The Indica

KAUTILYA AND CHANAKYA WAS THE SAME PERSON

What was the extent of Mauryan Empire?

Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the empire (c. 321 BCE), extended control as far northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and his grandson Asoka, the most famous ruler conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa).

Administration system of Mauryan Empire: There were five major political centres in the empire – the capital Pataliputra and the

provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions.

It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centres. These centres were carefully chosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on important long-distance trade routes.

Megasthenes mentions a committee with six sub-committees for coordinating military activity. Of these, one subcommittee  looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants

Asoka also tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, the principles which were simple and universally applicable. This would ensure the well-being of people in this world . Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.( Dhamma Policy included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly, and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.)

Asoka appointed Pativedakas to collect people’s needs and report to the king directly.

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The emergence of the Mauryan Empire - a major landmark in early Indian history:-

         1) Indian historians found the emergence of the Mauryan Empire in early India as both challenging and exciting.         2) Archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone sculpture, were considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of Indian Empires.         3) Asoka was more powerful, industrious and humble than later rulers. So the nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded Asoka as an inspiring figure.

How important was the Mauryan Empire? Mauryan Empire ruled India for about 150 years. It extended from northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the south up to Andhra

Pradesh. Administrative system was not uniform in all the regions of Mauryan Empire. New Notions of Kingship in Early Indian History

Chiefs and kings in the south:-

The chiefdoms that emerged in the south, Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas proved to be stable and prosperous under the control of chiefs, who performed special rituals, leadership in warfare, and settling disputes.

The Satavahanas & the Shakas:-

Many kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and central India and the Shakas, rulers of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western parts of the subcontinent claimed social status through religious rituals and marriage alliances.

The Kushanas: Colossal statues of Kushana rulers were found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura. Some

historians feel that the Kushanas considered themselves god like. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”.

Samantas in the Gupta Empire:- Rulers of the Gupta Empire depended on samantas, governors who maintained land and army

and they offered homage and provided military support to rulers. Later Gupta rules became subordinates to powerful Samantas.

Prashastis by court poets:-

Prashastis is a special kind of inscription meaning "in praise of". They were composed in praise of the rulers. An important example is a prashasti of Samudragupta. It is a poem in Sanskrit, composed by his court poet Harisena, nearly 1700 years ago

Guptas encouraged poets to compose poems in praise of them. While historians often attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, they found that rulers were compared equal to Gods.

In the Allahabad Pillar inscription (Sanskrit prashasti by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta) Samudragupta was compared with Gods.

Changing Countryside (or) condition of villages in the Early Historic period:-

1. Popular perceptions of kings:-

Historians have tried to reconstruct life in the country side with the help of the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Many of these stories probably originated as popular oral tales that were later committed to writing.

One story known as the Gandatindu Jataka describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king.

When the king went in disguise to find out what his subjects thought about him, each one of them cursed him for their miseries, complaining that they were attacked by robbers at night and by tax collectors during the day. To escape from this situation, people abandoned their village and went to live in the forest.As this story indicates the relationship between a king and his subjects, especially in the countryside.

Kings frequently tried to fill their coffers by demanding high taxes, and peasants particularly found such demands oppressive.

2. Strategies for increasing agricultural production:-

One such strategy to increase agricultural production was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE.

The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall. In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the

introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer. Areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan and those living in hilly

tracts in the north-eastern and central parts of the subcontinent practiced hoe agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.

Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of artificial irrigation, through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals, which were constructed by kings and village communities.

3. Differences in rural society:-

There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture. They were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies.

In the country side of Northern India people were divided into three groups - landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landholders.

The term GAHAPATI was often used in Pali texts to designate the small peasants, as well as large landholders.

Early Tamil Sangam texts also mention different categories of people engaged in agriculture in south India.

In south India people who were divided into three groups– large landowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.

Questions to be discussed as classwork.1 MARK:

1. Name any three Mahajanapadas of the 6th century B.C.2. Name the most important diety of the Mathura region.

Gahapati A gahapati was the owner, master or head of a household, who exercised control over the women, children, slaves and workers who shared a common residence. He was also the owner of the resources – land, animals and other things – that belonged to the household. Sometimes the term was used as a marker of status for men belonging to the urban elite, including wealthy merchants.

3. Who was James Prinsep?4. What was the contribution of James Prinsep in the development of Indian epigraphy?5. How did Kushana rulers exemplify themselves with the high status?6. What are Prashastis?7. Who composed Allahabad Pillar Inscription?8. Who issued the first gold coins in the c. first century CE?9. What were the titles adopted by Asoka?

3 MARKS:

10. Why is the sixth century BCE regarded as a turning point in early Indian history ?11. Mention any three features of the Mahajanapadas.12. Describe how Magadha became the most powerfulfulMahajanapada.13. Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan

empire.Explain.14. Mention the main principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma.15. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post Mauryan period .16. Describe the economic and social conditions of the people living in rural areas from C.

600 BCE to 600 CE.17. Mention any three features of urban population in the 6th century BCE.18. Describe any three features of the trade in the Indian subcontinent from the sixth

century BCE.19. Explain how Brahmi script was deciphered?

8 MARKS:

20. Explain the main features of the Mauryan administration.21. What information do land grants throw on the economy of the 6th century BCE?22. Explain the agricultural practices followed by the cultivators to increase productivity

from C. 600 BCE to 600 CE.23. What light do coins throw on the economy of the 6th century BCE?

Passage Based Question:In Praise of Samudragupta.

This is an excerpt from the Pragya Prashasti:

He was without an antagonist on earth: he by the overflowing of the multitude of (his) many good qualities adorned by hundreds of good actions, has wiped off the fame of other kings with the soles of (his) feet; (he is) Purusha (the Supreme Being), being the cause of the prosperity of the good and the destruction of the bad (he is) incomprehensible; (he is) one whose tender heart can be captured only by devotion and humility; (he is) possessed of compassion; (he is) the giver of many hundred thousands of cows; (his) mind has received ceremonial initiation for the uplift of the miserable, the poor, the forlorn and the suffering; (he is) resplendent and embodied kindness to mankind; 9he is) equal to (the gods) Kubera(the god of wealth), Varuna (the god of the ocean), Indra (the god of rains) and Yama (the god of death).

(i)What are Prashastis? 1

(ii) Which qualities of the king have been described? To which god has he been compared to? 2

(iii) Why is the king known as the Indian Napoleon? 2

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