· pdf file · 2017-06-24nature scope biology and of 1 biology (bios – life;...

NatureScope Biology

and

of

1

Biology (bios – life; logos – study) is the science, which deals with the

study of living organisms and their life processes. The term ‘Biology’

was introduced by GR Treviranus and Jean Baptiste de

Lamarck (1802). Aristotle placed all living things in a heirarchywith simplest organisms at the bottom and humans at the top in his

Scala Naturae hypothesis.

Since, plants and animals both are living organisms. Biology has two

main branches – Botany and Zoology. Botany is the study of plants

and Zoology is the study of animals.

Aristotle is called the Father of Zoology as well as the Father

of Biology. While Theophrastus has been designated as the

Father of Botany. Despite significant efforts of Aristotle, Biologydid not develop as a scientific discipline before the early sixteenthcentury. Nevertheless, since then the works of many scientists havegradually laid the strong foundation for the Emergence ofContemporary Biology.

Now-a-days, the term ‘Life Sciences’ or ‘Biological Sciences’ is usedin place of biology, because in various aspects of its study, biology isdependent upon other sciences. Thus, it has become broad based,multidisciplinary and multidimensional branch.

In The Snapshot

Branches of Biology

Emergence of Contemporary

Biology

Nobel Prize Winners in

Physiology and Medicine

Important Books and Authors

Biology : Indian Context

Misuse of Biology

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Branches of Biology

Table 1.1 Major Branches of Botany

1. Agriculture Cultivation of useful plants.

2. Agrostology Study of grasses.

3. Agronomy Study of crop cultivation and farm management.

4. Agrobiology Study of quantitative science of plant nutrition.

5. Agrology Study of soil science related to crop production.

6. Algology (Phycology) Study of algae.

7. Anthology Study of flowers.

8. Arboriculture Study of shrubs and tree cultivation.

9. Biochemical Taxonomy Study of taxonomy of related plants based on chemical reactions.

10. Bonsai Study of art and hobby of growing dwarf forms of trees and shrubsin pots.

11. Bryology Study of bryophytes.

12. Dendrology (Xylology) Study of trees.

13. Dendrochronology Counting and analysing annual growth rings of trees.

14. Economic Botany Study of commercially useful plants.

15. Edaphology (Pedology) Study of soil.

16. Ethnobotany Study of relationship between the primitive humans and plants.

17. Floriculture Cultivation of flower yielding plants.

18. Forestry (Silviculture) Study of development and conservation of forests and theirproducts.

19. Horticulture Development and management of orchards and gardens.

20. Hydroponics Soil less culture of plants.

21. Lichenology Study of lichens.

22. Limnology Study of freshwater ecology.

23. Mycology Study of fungi.

24. Olericulture Cultivation of vegetables.

25. Palaeobotany Study of plant life of past, based on fossil studies.

26. Palynology Study of pollen grains.

27. Pharmacognosy Use of plant and their parts in drug industry.

28. Phenology Recording and study of periodic biotic events like flowering, leaffall and migration.

29. Phytogeography Study of distribution of plants on earth.

30. Physiology Study of functions and processes of life.

31. Phytography Branch of botany dealing with descriptive features of plant parts.

32. Phytosociology Science of plant communities, their structure and composition.

33. Pomology(Carpology) Science dealing with fruits and fruit yielding plants.

34. Pteridology (Pterology) Study of pteridophytes / ferns.

35. Spermology(Seed Biology)

Study of seeds.

2 Exploring BIOLOGY • Vol 1



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Table 1.2 Major Branches of Zoology

1. Acarology Study of mites and ticks.

2. Aphidology Study of aphids (plant lice).

3. Apiculture Study of bee keeping for extracting honey and wax.

4. Araneology Study of spiders.

5. Carcinology Study of crustaceans.

6. Cetology Study of whales.

7. Cnidology Study of coelenterates (cnidarians).

8. Conchology Study of shells secreted by mantle as in molluscs.

9. Economic Zoology Study of useful and harmful activities of animals.

10. Entomology Study of insects.

11. Ethology Study of behaviour of animals in response to the environmental stimuli.

12. Eugenics Study of improvement of future human race.

13. Fishery Study of occupation of collecting and catching fish and other animals ofsea, lakes or rivers.

14. Helminthology Study of worms (round and flatworms).

15. Herpetology Study of reptiles and amphibians.

16. Ichthyology Study of fishes.

17. Lepidoteriology Study of moths and butterflies.

18. Malacology Study of molluscs.

19. Mammalogy Study of mammals.

20. Myremecology Study of ants.

21. Nematology Study of nematodes.

22. Odonatology Study of dragonflies.

23. Oology Study of eggs of birds.

24. Ophiology(Serpentology)

Study of snakes.

25. Ornithology Study of birds.

26. Palaeozoology Study of fossils of past animals which have been extincted and theirdistribution in time.

27. Parasitology Study of parasites.

28. Parazoology Study of sponges.

29. Piggery Study of keeping pigs for meat.

30. Pisciculture Cultivation (breeding and rearing) of fishes.

31. Protistology Study of protists (unicellular plants and animals).

32. Protozoology Study of Protozoans (acellular eukaryotes).

33. Saurology Study of lizards.

34. Sericulture Study of rearing silk worms for silk.

35. Taxidermatology Study of skin for stuffing and preservation of animals for museums.

36. Termitology Study of termites.

37. Zoogeny Origin and development of animals.

38. Zoogeography Deals with distribution of animals in different parts of the world on earth.

39. Zoonosology Study of handicapped animals.

40. Zoopathology Study of diseases of animals and their control.

41. Zoophytology Study of drifting organisms (zooplanktons) like diatoms.

42. Zootechny Science of breeding and domestication of animals.

43. Zootomy Dissection and anatomy of animals.

44. Zymology Study of zymoses (fermentation).

Nature and Scope of Biology 3



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Table 1.3 Branches Related to Medical Science

1. Anatomy Study of internal organs as revealed by dissection and observed byunaided human eyes.

2. Andrology Deals with disorders of male reproductive system. It is opposite ofGynaecology.

3. Angiology Study of blood vessels or circulatory system in animals.

4. Arthrology Study of joints.

5. Biomedical Engineering Designing and production of artificial body parts (like artificial limbs,valves, vessels, iron lungs, heart-lung machines, pace maker, artificialkidneys, etc) for man to overcome defects.

6. Carcinomatology Study of cancers.

7. Cardiology Study of heart functioning and diseases.

8. Chondriology Study of cartilage.

9. Craniology Study of skull.

10. Dactyology Communication system as for deaf using signs made by fingers.

11. Dactylography Science of finger prints for identification.

12. Dairy Science Maintenance of systematically bred milk producing animals,collection and preservation of milk and production of milk products.

13. Dentistry Study of teeth and its problems.

14. Dermatology Study of skin and its diseases.

15. Desmology Study of ligaments.

16. Dietetics/Sitology Study of nutrition/diet.

17. Endocrinology Study of endocrine glands and their secretions (hormones).

18. Epidemiology Study of infection by an organisms and its spread.

19. Forensic Science Application of scientific knowledge to questions of civil and criminallaw. Finger prints, blood typing, etc., are studied to detect crime.

20. Genetic Engineering Manipulation of genes at will.

21. Gene Therapy Removal of defective genes and their actual replacement.

22. Gerontology Study of ageing.

23. Gynaecology Study of female reproductive organs, diseases and hygiene of women.

24. Haematology Study of blood and blood disorders.

25. Hepatology Study of liver.

26. Hygiene Care for keeping good health.

27. Hypnology Study of sleep.

28. Immunology Study of natural and acquired resistance of body against diseases.

29. Kalology Study of human beauty.

30. Kinesiology Study of body movements.

31. Laryngology Study of larynx.

32. Leprology Study of leprosy.

33. Malariology Study of malaria.

34. Mastology Study of breasts (mammary glands).

35. Medicine Science of treating diseases with drugs or other curative substances.

36. Melanology Study of skin pigments.

37. Myology (Sarcology) Study of muscles.

38. Nephrology Study of kidney.

39. Neurology Study of brain/nervous system.

40. Nursing Care of ill and injured person.

41. Obstetrics Deals with care of women during pregnancy, childbirth and therecuperative period .




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42. Occupational Therapy The teaching and training of handicapped and disabled (bothphysically and mentally) persons to lead a normal life.

43. Odontology Study of teeth and gums.

44. Oncology Study of cancer/tumours.

45. Ophthalmology Deals with eyes.

46. Orthopaedics Diagnosis and repair of disorders of bones, joints and muscles.

47. Osphresiology(Oneirology)

Study of dreams.

48. Otolaryngology Study of ear and larynx.

49. Otology Study of ears.

50. Otorhinolaryngology Study of ENT (Ear, Nose and Throat).

51. Paediatrics Branch of medicine dealing with diseases of children.

52. Pathology Study of diseases, their symptoms, causes, spread and control.

53. Pharmacology Study of preparation of drugs and their effect on organisms.

54. Pharmacy Study of compounding and dispensing of drugs.

55. Physiotherapy Treatment of diseases, bodily weaknesses or defects by physicalremedies such as massage, yoga, exercises.

56. Prosthesis An artificial replacement or substitute for a loss in part or full of a limbdue to acquired or congenital cause.

57. Phrenology Study of feelings.

58. Psychiatry Science dealing with diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

59. Psychology Study of nature of behaviour and working of mind.

60. Radiobiology(Actinobiology)

Effect of radiations on body.

61. Radiology Deals with X-rays and imaging techniques for medical diagnosis.

62. Radiotherapy Treatment of diseases with X-rays and radioactive substances.

63. Rhinology Study of nose/olfactory organs.

64. Serology Study of serum/antigen-antibody reactions in theblood/immunological reactions.

65. Sonography Ultrasound imaging.

66. Sonology Study of hearing.

67. Sphygmology Study of arterial pressure and pulse.

68. Splanchnology Study of visceral organs.

69. Stomatology Study of foregut (buccal cavity and stomach).

70. Surgery Treating injuries, deformities and diseases by operations.

71. Syndesnology Study of joints and ligaments.

72. Tectology Study of structural organisation/functional anatomy of the body.

73. Teratology Study of malformation and abnormal growth in foetus due toteratogens during embryogenesis, e.g., phocomelia.

74. Therapeutics Science of treatment of the diseases.

75. Toxicology Study of toxic effects of drugs on body.

76. Torentology Study of diseases of embryo.

77. Traumatology Study of wounds.

78. Trichology Study of hairs.

79. Trophology Study of food and nutrition.

80. Urology Study of urinary disorders.

81. Venereology Study of VD (Venereal Diseases) and STD (Sexually TransmittedDiseases).

82. Veterinary Science Study of diseases of all domestic animals and their health care.




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Emergence of Contemporary Biology

Table 1.4 Some Historical Events in Biology

639-544 BC Thales ■ Considered as first theoretical biologist, who proposed that life originated inwater.

460-377 BC Hippocrates ■ Known as Father of medicine, he wrote fifty books. Hippocratic oath for graduatephysicians is being administered even today.

384-322 BC Aristotle ■ Father of Biology, Zoology and Embryology.

380-287 BC Theophrastus ■ A student of Aristotle, is considered as Father of Botany due to contribution inplant morphology.

131-200 AD Galen ■ Founder of anatomy of man. His book Anatomical Preparations remained standardmedical test for 1400 years (the longest run for any text book in the world).

1548-1621 Father Suarez(Spanish priest)

■ Theory of special creation.

1590 Z Jenssen and H Jenssen ■ Produced first operational microscope.

■ Proposed classification of insects, reptiles, quadrupads in 1693-1704.

1690 Leonardo da Vinci ■ Father of Palaeontology, who stated that fossils are evidences of past.

1707-1778 Carolus Linnaeus ■ Father of Taxonomy and Nomenclature and introduced system of Binomialnomenclature.

1755 Rosel von Rosenhoff ■ Discovered Amoeba proteus and called it as ‘Little proteus’ on the name ofSea-God.

1721-1797 Lazzaro Spallanzani ■ Rejected the Theory of Abiogenesis in 1765.

1802 Lamarck and Treviranus ■ Proposed the term ‘Biology’.

1809-1882 Charles Darwin ■ Proposed the Theory of Natural Selection, Theory of Pangenesis and Survival ofthe Fittest.

1813 AP Candolle ■ Introduced the term ‘Taxonomy’.

1804-1892 Richard Owen ■ Explained Homology and Analogy.

■ Discovered Trichinella in 1835.

1832 George Cuvier ■ Gave the Theory of Catastrophism (age of earth).

1838 TR Malthus ■ Suggested that human population increases much faster than its food supply.

1840-1935 Hugo de Vries ■ Proposed mutation Theory of Evolution. He worked on Oenothera lamarckiana(evening primrose).

1847 Meckel ■ First identified Plasmodium.

1861 Louis Pasteur ■ Proved biogenesis by experiments.Proposed Germ Theory of Disease.

1834-1919 Ernst Haeckel ■ Proposed Theory of Recapitulation in 1864. Coined the term ‘Protista’.

1875 Wallace ■ Described zoogeographical regions of the world.

1885 Francis Galton ■ Father of Eugenics.

1885 August Weismann ■ Proposed Theory of Germplasm.

1889 Sergei Winogradsky ■ Concept of chemolithotrophy.

1889 Marinus Beijerinck ■ Concept of virus.

1892 Dimitri Ivanovsky ■ Discovered virus.

1892 Eugene Dubois ■ Discovered Java ape man.

1908 Francis Rous ■ First cancer virus.

1924 AI Oparin ■ Chemical origin (synthetic evolution) of organisms.

1925 Raymond Dart ■ Discovered the fossil of African ape man.

1926 T Svedberg ■ Discovered ultracentrifuge.

1927 Hermann J Muller ■ Proved that the X-rays cause mutation, artificial mutation on Drosophila.

1929 Haldane ■ Proposed the theory of origin of life.

1929 A Fleming ■ Discovered penicillin from Penicillium notatum.

1932 Knoll and Ruska ■ Invented electron microscope.




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1935 A G Tansley ■ Proposed the concept of ecosystem.

1935 W M Stanley ■ Isolated TMV in crystals form.

1939 Gerhand Domagk ■ Discovered prontosil (a red dye) which is effective against Streptococcusinfections.

1942 Mayer ■ Described species as interbreeding individuals of population.

1944 Selman Waksman ■ Discovered streptomycin from Streptomyces griseus.

1946 HJ Muller ■ Discovered that the mutations are produced by X-ray irradiation.

1953 Urey and Stanley Miller ■ Explained the presence of organic elements in primitive atmosphere by anexperiment.

1954 Jonas Salk ■ Developed Polio vaccine.

1964 Sidney W Fox ■ Proposed the hypothesis of microsphere formation in origin of life.

1972 J Stephen Gould andN Elderdge

■ Concept of punctuated equilibrium. It states that the species remain virtuallyunchanged for long periods of time until a sudden spurt of rapid evolutionproduce a distinct species.

Table 1.5 Major Discoveries in Physiology and Anatomy

1570-1657 William Harvey ■ Father of circulatory system, who discovered circulation of blood in animals.

1628-1694 Marcello Malpighi ■ Discovered Malpighian capsule in kidney, Malpighian layer in skin, Malpighian tubulesin insects, blood capillaries and described plant anatomy for the first time.

1641-1712 N Grew ■ Described the anatomy of plants as well as description of flowers.

1627-1705 John Ray ■ Coined the term ‘genera’. Gave the concept of species.

1694 R Camerarius ■ Described sexual reproduction in plants (Ricinus communis).

1727 Stephan Hales ■ Father of Plant Physiology.

1769-1832 George Cuvier ■ Laid foundation of comparative Anatomy and Palaeontology in 1796.

1792-1876 Karl von Baer ■ Discovered ovum in mammals. Known as Father of Embryology. Proposed biogenetic law.

1801-1858 Johannes Muller ■ Laid down the foundation of comparative physiology in 1834-40.

1835 Felix Dujardin ■ Named the jelly-like living substance present within protozoans as sarcode.

1840 JE Purkinje ■ Discovered sweat glands in 1833.

1842 Mayer ■ Proposed that light energy convert into chemical energy during photosynthesis.

1842 William Bowman ■ Histological structure of nephron.

1842 Steenstrup ■ Explained alternation of generation (metagenesis).

1857 Louis Pasteur ■ Microbiology of lactic acid fermentation.

1860 Louis Pasteur ■ Role of yeast in alcoholic fermentation.

1867 Joseph Lister ■ Antiseptic principles in surgery.

1870 W His ■ Invented microtome for section cutting.

1878 Kuhne ■ Coined the term enzyme.

1878 B J Lister ■ Obtained pure cultures of bacteria for the first time.

1880 Sandstrom ■ Discovered parathyroid glands.

1880 Charles Laveren ■ Discovered Plasmodium in RBCs of patients suffering from malaria.

1881 Robert Koch ■ Methods for the study of bacteria in pure culture.

1882 Robert Koch ■ Discovery of cause of tuberculosis.

1882 Elie Metchnikoff ■ Phagocytosis.

1884 Robert Koch ■ Koch’s postulates.

1884 Eduard Strasburger ■ Described fertilisation in plants.

1885 Louis Pasteur ■ Rabies vaccine.




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1890 Emil von Behring andKitasato Shibasaburo

■ Diphtheria antitoxin.

1893 His ■ Described bundle of His in atrio ventricular node.

1894 Patrick Manson ■ Discovered that filaria is caused by Culex.

1896 Eijkman ■ Discovered that disease beri-beri is caused by the deficiency of vitamin-B1.

1897 Ronald Ross ■ Discovered oocytes of Plasmodium in stomach wall of female Anopheles.

1897 Buchner ■ Discovered enzyme.

1898 Nawaschin ■ Discovered double fertilisation and triple fusion in angiosperms.

1900 Karl Landsteiner ■ Discovered A, B and O blood groups and Rh factor.

1901 Emil von Behring ■ Developed antitoxin for tetanus.

1902 Alfred von Decastelloand Sturli

■ Discovered AB blood group.

1904 Ivan Pavlov ■ Showed conditioned reflex affect behaviour.

1904 Blackeslee ■ Discovered heterothallism in Mucor.

1912 Funk ■ Coined the term ‘vitamin’.

1914 EC Kendall ■ Isolated thyroxine (T3).

1917 Grassi ■ Discovered vivax sp. of Plasmodium and studied life cycle in Anopheles mosquito.

1917 McCollum ■ Discovered sexual form of Plasmodium and vitamin-A.

1920 Garner and Allard ■ Coined the term photoperiodism.

1922 Banting and Best ■ Isolated insulin from pancreas of animals.

1923 Houscay ■ Treatment of pancreatic diabetes by hypophysectomy

1926 Went ■ Carried out Avena curvature test.

1931 Karl Lohmann ■ Discovered ATP.

1931 Van Neil ■ Suggested the importance of light in photolysis during photosynthesis.

1931 W Lewis ■ Discovered pinocytosis.

1934 H Dam and E A Doisy ■ Discovered vitamin-K.

1937 HA Krebs ■ Proposed Krebs’ cycle or citric acid cycle.

1938 Yabuta and Sumiki ■ Isolated Gibberellin in crystalline form from Gibberella fujikuroi (fungus).

1941 Ruben and Kamen ■ Proved that the O2 released in photosynthesis comes from water.

1941 Fritz Lipmann ■ Discovered co-enzyme A.

1946 Lederberg and Tatum ■ Discovered sexual reproduction in bacteria.

1946 JB Sumner ■ Crystallised the enzyme urease and suggested enzymes to be proteins.

1948 Garnham and Short ■ Discovered pre-erythrocytic schizogony in Plasmodium.

1950 Elizabeth L Hagenand Rachel Brown

■ Discovered nystatin from Streptomyces noursei. It was the world’s firstchemotherapeutic antibiotic for fungal disease.

1951 T Dobzhansky ■ Gave Neo-Darwinism.

1954 Frederick Sanger ■ Discovered amino acid sequence of insulin.

1954 HE Huxley and AFHuxley

■ Proposed sliding filament theory of muscular contraction.

1954 D Arnon ■ Described photophosphorylation in chloroplast.

1957 Emerson and Arnold ■ Photosynthetic yield can be increased with brief flashes of light.

1959 Decker and Tijo ■ Coined the term photorespiration.

1959 Rodney Porter ■ Immunoglobulin structure.

1960 Rosalyn Yalow andSolomon Berson

■ Development of Radio Immuno Assay (RIA).

1961 Beevers ■ Discovered glyoxysomes in plant cells.

1961 M Calvin ■ Described CO2 fixation in photosynthesis.

1962 Kendrew and Perutz ■ Discovered the structure of proteins.




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1964 Park and Biggins ■ Isolated quantasomes.

1967 Hatch and Slack ■ Proposed dicarboxylic acid cycle (Hatch and Slack cycle).

1968 Tolbert et al. ■ Discovered peroxisomes.

1971 WY Cheung ■ Discovery of calmodulin. The calcium-binding protein interacts reversibly withintracellular calcium to form a complex that regulates a broad spectrum of cellularactivities.

1972 SJ Singer and GLNicolson

■ Fluid-mosaic model of biological membranes. This model remains the most widelyaccepted model of membrane structure.

1972 RB Woodward andA Eschenmoser

■ The synthesis of vitamin-B12.

Table 1.6 Major Discoveries in Cell Biology, Genetics and Biotechnology

1632-1723 A v Leeuwenhoek(an amateur lens grinder)

■ Discovered single lens high power microscope. Observed bacteria, Protozoa,spermatozoa, RBCs, etc. Father of Microbiology/Protozoology.

1665 Robert Hooke ■ Discovered cell, compound microscope. Father of Cytology.

1781 Fontana ■ Discovered nucleus although credit goes to Robert Brown.

1817 Pelletier and Caventou ■ Named chlorophyll.

1773-1858 Robert Brown ■ Described Brownian movement in 1831.Observed nuclei in flowering plant cell of Tradescantia in 1835.

1824 HJ Dutrochet ■ All plants and animals are composed of cells.

1828 Ehrenberg ■ Coined the term ‘bacterium’.

1837 JE Purkinje ■ Used the term ‘protoplasm’ for the first time.

1838-1839 Schleiden and T Schwann ■ Proposed cell theory which states that organisms are made up of cells.

1841 Robert Remak ■ Described the amitotic cell division for the first time.

1843 Claude ■ First recognised the ribosomes as basophilic granules rich in nucleic acids.

1846 Hugo von Mohl ■ Explained the significance of protoplasm.

1858 R Virchow ■ Stated that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, Omnis cellula e cellula.

1800-1885 Milne Edward ■ Explained the division of labour in cells of the body.

1866 GJ Mendel ■ Father of Genetics, proposed law of inheritance.

1868 Huxley ■ Proposed that protoplasm is the physical basis of life.

1869-71 Frederick Miescher ■ Isolated nucleoproteins from pus cells in 1870 and discovered DNA in 1897.

1873 H Fol ■ Described astral rays and nuclear spindle.

1879 W Flemming ■ Coined the term chromatin and described the splitting of chromosomes,described mitosis in 1882.

1881 Reinke and Rodewald ■ Chemically analysed protoplasm.

1884 Christian Gram ■ Gram staining method.

1887 Edovard Van Beneden ■ Discovered centrosome.

1887 Waldeyer ■ Used the term chromosome for the first time.

1888 T Boveri ■ Described the term centrosome.

1892 Ruckert ■ Named lampbrush chromosome.

1894 Altmann ■ Coined the term ‘bioplast’ for mitochondria.

1897 C Benda ■ Named mitochondria.

1898 Camillo Golgi ■ Described and named Golgi complex.

1900 Correns, Hugo de Vriesand Tschermak

■ Rediscovered the Mendel’s laws of inheritance.

1902 McClung ■ Discovered sex-chromosome and its importance in sex determination.

1902 Sutton and Boveri ■ Explained the importance of meiotic cell division, propounded chromosometheory of inheritance (genes are part of chromosomes).




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1905 Farmer and Moore ■ Called reduction division as meiosis.

1905 Wilson and Steneus ■ Discovered the difference in male and female chromosomes.

1906 Bateson and Punnet ■ Applied Mendel’s laws on animals and named the science of heredity asGenetics.

1908 Bar Mursay ■ Discovered Barr body in man.

1909 Johannsen ■ Coined the term gene, genotype and phenotype.

1910 TH Morgan ■ Discovered sex-linked inheritance in Drosophila and laid foundation of genetheory.

1914 Robert Feulgen ■ Described a stain for DNA and showed that chromosomes contain DNA.

1915 Twort and d’Herelle ■ Discovered bacteriophage virus.

1915 RM Willstatter ■ Described the structure of chlorophyll.

1928 F Griffith ■ Discovered transformation in bacteria.

1930 Kostoff ■ Discovered endomitosis.

1941 George Beadle andEdward Tatum

■ One-gene-one enzyme hypothesis.

1943 Max Delbruck andSalvador Luria

■ Inheritance of genetic characters in bacteria.

1945 KR Porter ■ Discovered endoplasmic reticulum in cell.

1949 L Pauling ■ Demonstrated that the protein structure is controlled by genes.

1950 Barbara McClintock ■ Discovered jumping genes or transposons in maize.

1950 E Chargaff ■ Studied that in DNA the purines and pyrimidines are in equal amounts.

1952 M Chase and AD Hershey ■ Suggested that the DNA is a carrier of genetic information in T2-phase.

1952 Lederberg and Zinder ■ Bacterial transduction.

1953 JD Watson and FH Crick ■ Proposed double helix model of DNA.

1954 Gamow ■ Suggested the triplet codon.

1954 F Jacob and J Monod ■ Demonstrated that the genetic expression is controlled by regulatory genesand proposed lac operon model of E. coli.

1955 Kornberg and S Ochoa ■ Biologically synthesised nucleic acid of E. coli (Nobel Prize in 1959).

1955 Fraenkel Conrat andRC Williams

■ Studied the nature of TMV virus and showed that it was made up of RNA andprotein-A.

1955 M Hoagland ■ Discovered tRNA.

1955 C de Duve ■ Discovered lysosome.

1956 Tjio and A Levan ■ Described 46 chromosome in man.

1956 H Fraenkel and Conrat ■ Showed that RNA is the genetic material in TMV.

1959 S Ochoa ■ Artificially synthesised RNA (in vitro).

1959 Robertson ■ Proposed unit membrane model of plasma membrane.

1961 Nirenberg and Methaei ■ Discovered the genetic code and its triplet nature.

1963 Nass and Nass ■ Discovered DNA in mitochondria.

1964 Osgood et al. ■ Suggested the multistranded model of chromosome.

1965 H Harris and JF Watkinds ■ Discovered first time protoplast fusion in cells of different species.

1970 HG Khorana ■ Discovered DNA ligase enzyme. Synthesised gene (DNA) artificially.

1970 Norman Borlaug ■ Developed rust resistant wheat varieties.

1975 JW Sanger ■ Chromosome migration on spindle fibres.

1981 A group of England’smedical research

■ Complete sequencing of human mitochondrial DNA. This landmark researchby a group at England’s Medical Research Council revealed that the humanmitochondrial genome contains 16,569 base pairs.




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Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology and Medicine

Table 1.7 Some Nobel Laureates in Physiology and Medicine

MW Nirenberg, HG Khoranaand R H Holley

1968 ■ Deciphering of genetic code and base sequence of tRNA by using alternatingcodons (CUC and UCU) in an artificial RNA chain.

Edelman Gerald M andRR Porter

1972 ■ Complete analysis of large gamma globulin molecule, which is made up of1320 amino acids and 19996 atoms, with a molecular weight of 150000.

HM Temin and D Baltimore 1975 ■ They independently found an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in RNAviruses.

AM Cormack andGN Hounsfield

1979 ■ Invention of computer assisted tomography (CAT scanner). Cormack andHounsfield each developed mathematical solutions to the problems.

P Berg, D Jackson andR Symons

1980 ■ Recombinant DNA. A DNA molecule from a bacterial virus and an animaltumour virus were opened with a restriction endonuclease, then splicedtogether.

W Gilbert and F Sanger 1980 ■ Methods for determining base sequence in DNA.

DH Hubel and TN Wiesel 1981 ■ Analysis of processing of images in eyes and brain opened a new field invision Physiology.

S Bergstrom, B Samuelsson and JVane

1982 ■ Characterisation of prostaglandins.

Cesar Milstein and G Kohler 1984 ■ Hybridoma technique and monoclonal antibodies.

M Brown and J Goldstein 1985 ■ Discovery of the LDL receptor on cell surface.

Tonegawa Susumu 1987 ■ Study of genetic aspects of antibodies.

Bishop, J Michael and Harold EVarmus

1989 ■ Discovery of oncogenes.

Sidney Altman and Thomas RCech

1989 ■ Discovery of RNA catalysis (ribozyme).

Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann 1991 ■ Development of the patch clamp. The ‘patch clamp’ is a technique formeasuring movements of ions through very small areas of cell membrane.This technique has revolutionised neuroscience and cell biology.

Richard Roberts and Philip Sharp 1993 ■ Discovery of introns and exons in DNA.

Michael Smith 1993 ■ Site directed mutagenesis. This technique is used by virtually everyone inprotein engineering and molecular biology.

Kary B Mullis 1993 ■ The polymerase chain reaction.

Alfred Gilman and MartinRodbell

1994 ■ Discovery of G proteins. Transduction of the signal is mediated by a proteinthat requires GTP for its action (G protein).

B Edward Lewis 1995 ■ Discovery of homeotic genes. Lewis identified a series of control genes inDrosophila that seems to regulate the activity of other genes. Later known ashomeotic genes.

Christiane Nusslein Volhardand Eric Wieschaus

1995 ■ Discovery of genes that control activation of homeotic genes.

Peter C Doherty and Rolf MZinkernagel

1996 ■ Described how MHC molecules are used by white blood cells to detect andkill virus-infected cells.

Stanley B Prusiner 1997 ■ Discovery of prions, infectious protein particles.

Robert F Furchgott, LouisJ Ignarro and Ferid Murad

1998 ■ Discovery of the signalling properties of nitric oxide.

Gunter Blobel 1999 ■ Discovered that newly synthesised proteins contain address tags which directthem to the proper location within the cell.

Arvid Carlsson 2000 ■ Proved that dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain whose depletionleads to symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.

Paul Greengard 2000 ■ Described how neurotransmitters act on the cell and can activate a centralmolecule known as DARPP-32.




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Eric R Kandel 2000 ■ Described how short-term and long-term memory is formed on the molecularlevel.

Leland H Hartwell, R TimothyHunt and Sir Paul M Nurse

2001 ■ Discovery of cyclin and cyclin dependent kinase, central molecules in theregulation of the cell cycle.

Paul Lauterbur and Sir PeterMansfield

2003 ■ Discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging.

Linda B Buck and Richard Axel 2004 ■ Discoveries of odorant receptors and the organisation of the olfactory system.

Barry J Marshall and RobinWarren

2005 ■ Discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis andpeptic ulcer disease.

Andrew Z Fire and Craig CMello

2006 ■ Discovery of RNA interference-gene slicing by double-stranded RNA.

Mario R Capecchi, Sir Martinand Oliver Smithies

2007 ■ Discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in miceby the use of embryonic stem cells.

Harald zur Hausen 2008 ■ Discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer.

Francoise Barre Sinoussi andLuc Montagnier

2008 ■ Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus.

Elizabeth H Blackburn, Carol WGreider and Jack W Szostak

2009 ■ Discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzymetelomerase.

Robert G Edward 2010 ■ Development of in vitro fertilisation.

Bruce A Beutler, Jules AHoffmann

2011 ■ Discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity.

Ralph M Steinman 2011 ■ Discovery of the dendritic cells and its role in adaptive immunity.

Sir John B Gurdon, ShinyaYamanaka

2012 ■ Discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent.

James E Rothman, Randy WSchekman and Thomos CSiidhof

2013 ■ Discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system inour cells.

Table 1.8 Books and Authors (Year of Publishing)

De Historia Plantarum Theophrastus (320 BC)

De Causis Plantarum Theophrastus (320 BC)

Naturalis Historia Pliny the Elder (77-79 AD)

Anatomical Preparations Galen (131-200 AD)

On Animals Albertus Magnus (1249)

De Humani Corporis Fabrica Andreas Vesalius (1543)

Micrographia Robert Hooke (1665)

Historia Generalis Plantarum John Ray (1686)

Systema Naturae Carolus Linnaeus (1735)

Genera Plantarum Carolus Linnaeus (1737)

Species Plantarum Carolus Linnaeus (1753)

Philosophie Zoologique Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1809)

(Inheritance of acquired characters)Histology

Albrecht von Kolliker (1852)

On the Origin of Species Charles Darwin (1859)




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Table 1.9 Famous Indian Biologists

MOP Iyengar Father of Indian Phycology

Y Bhardwaj Indian Phycologist

RN Singh Indian Phycologist

GS Venkataraman Indian Phycologist

EJ Butler Father of Indian Mycology and Pathology

Dhanwantri God of Medicine/Ayurveda

R Misra Father of Indian Plant Ecology

Birbal Sahni Father of Indian Palaeobotany

P Maheswari Father of Indian Plant Embryology

PKK Nair Father of Indian Palynology

RN Dastur Father of Indian Physiology

V Puri Plant Morphologist

KA Chaudhary Plant Anatomist and Xylotomist

William Rauxburgh Father of Indian Botany and Father of Indian Herbaria

Ram Udar Bryologist

TS Sadasivan Mycologist

DD Awasthi Lichens

JJ Chinoy Plant Physiologist

PN Mehra Great Pteridologist

RN Singh Role of Blue Green Algae in nitrogen fixation and utility ofBGA in reclamation of Kallar

Susruta Father of Surgery and Plastic Surgery

Charaka Father of Ayurveda

MS Swaminathan Father of Green Revolution in India. He developed wheat tripledwarf variety (Pusa Larma and Sharbati Ronara)

Salim Ali Ornithologist (Birdman of India)

Indira Hinduja,Subhas Mukherjee

Test-tube Baby

Col. Stevenson Father of Indian Zoology

Lalji Singh Father of DNA Fingerprinting in India

H Santapu Father of Indian Systemic Botany (Taxonomy)

V Kurien Father of White Revolution in India

Sir Ronald Ross A doctor in Indian Army, established that malarial parasite istransmitted by the bite of famale Anopheles mosquito. In 1972,he got Nobel Prize for this discovery

Misuse of BiologyBiological science developed many techniques for the interest of human prosperity but many agencies use these

techniques wrongfully against the human race.

Some misuses of biological techniques are as follows

1. Bio-wars and Bio-weapons Bio-war or biological warfare, also known as germ warfare is the use ofbiological toxins or infectitious agents such as bacteria, fungi (bio-weapons) against humans or their cropsand animals.



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Some historical bio-wars and bio-weapons are as follows

Table 1.10 Historical Bio-Wars

1. World War-I Germany used anthrax and bacterialdiseases to infect horses and cattle.

2. Japan-China War(1932-1945)

Japan infected prisoners with severalbiological agents in occupied China.

3. Chinese-Vietnam War Chinese forces used biologicalweapons in Vietnam.

4. Soviet Russia-AfghanistanWar

Soviet forces used bio-weapons inAfghanistan.

5. Iraq-Iran War (1980-1988) Iraqis used bio-weapon in Iran.

Table 1.11 Important Bio-Weapons

1. Anthrax causingbacteria (Bacillusanthracis)

Anthrax Spores of anthrax bacterium cansurvive in soil, water, etc., for aslong as 40 years and is highlyrestistance to eradication.

2. Clostridiumbotulinumbacterium

Botulism The toxin inhibits the release ofacetylcholine, causing the victim tosuffer paralysis. Even a small dose(0.02mg) can kill a full grown adult.

3. Ebola virus Ebola Ebola virus causes haemorrhagicfever, which is characterised byweakness, severe headache, muscleaches, vomiting, abdominal pain,diarrhoea, bleeding, etc.

4. Yersinia pestisbacterium

Plague Plague is a highly contagious diseaseof rodents and humans which istransmitted by rat flea Xenopsyllacheopis.

5. Smallpox virus Smallpox In smallpox, death is caused byinfection of lungs, heart or brain.

2. Bio-terrorism It is an attack in which pathogensare deliberately released causing terror andinnumerable death. For example, bio-terrorismoccurred in USA during 2000 through letters lacedwith anthrax bacterium.

3. Amniocentesis This technique has beendeveloped for detecting foetal abnormalitiesby analysing chromosomal defect oraberration of the foetus.

This process can also be used for prenatal sexdetermination so, it leads to female foeticide.Hence, this procedure has legal restrictions insome countries.

4. Sonography or ultrasound These techniquesare used to study the age and health of thefoetus alongwith their sex. Thus, leads toabortion in case of expected female child.

1. Match the following columns.

A. Limnology 1. Study of ants

B. Myremecology 2. Study of nutrition

C. Nidology 3. Study of freshwater ecology

D. Sitology 4. Study of bird’s nest

2. Fill in the blanks.

(i) ……… discovered transformation in bacteria.

(ii) ……… is known as the Father of Medicine.

(iii) Kary B Mullis received Nobel Prize in ……… for ……….

(iv) ……… is the Father of Circulatory System.

3. State true or false.

(i) Systema Naturae and De Historia Plantarum arewritten by Carolus Linnaeus.

(ii) Micrographia was written by Robert Hooke.

(iii) Funk coined the term ‘vitamin’.

(iv) Trichology is the study of wounds.

Practice Test 1



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ö Serendipity is a term used for discoveries made by chance. The example includes – A Fleming’s discovery of

penicillin, Newton’s discovery of gravity, etc.

ö Barbara Mc Clintock is called Lady Mendel as she was first lady Geneticist. She discovered mobile genetic

elements called jumping genes. She received Nobel Prize in 1983.

ö Ernst Mayr is known as the Darwin of 20th century. He made the origin of species diversity, the central question

of evolutionary biology.

ö Paul Ehrlich and Mechnikov received Nobel Prize in 1908 for their work on body resistance. They discovered

and named phagocytosis.

ö Norman Borlaugh Father of Green Revolution received Nobel Prize in Peace (1970) for developing high yielding

Mexican dwarf disease resistant varieties of wheat.

ö Harold Urey wrote a book named The Planets in which he discussed the results of Miller’s experiment.

ö National Science Day–28th February.

ö World Health Day–7th April.

ö International Day of Biological Diversity–29th December.

ö Har Govind Khorana is the only Indian, who received Nobel Prize in Medicine (1968). He was the first to

demonstrate the role of nucleotides in protein synthesis. He also discovered DNA ligase in T4 bacteriophage.

ö Khorana also synthesised artificial genes.

ö Antiserums are made in the Central Research Institute, Kasauli. The CRI, originally the Pasteur Institute of India

was established in 1904. The CRI works as a WHO ‘collaborating centre’ and as ummeino-biological laboratory

producing vaccines for measels, polio and DTP group of vaccines.

ö Largest herbarium of India is the CNH, Sibpur (Kolkata). It was established in 1795 by Dr William Roxbugh.

Presently the CNH possesses about 2.5 millions of herbarium sheets belonging to 350 families of plants.

ö Valdimir Korenchevsky–Father of Gerontology.

ö Thomas Edison–Father of Endocrinology.

ö Paul Berg–Father of Genetic Engineering.

ö Marcello Malpighi– Father of Histology.

ö Archibald Garrod–Father of Physiological / Biochemical Genetics.

Capsule



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