20140807051008_05 hbec4503 t1.pdf

INTRODUCTION In Topic 1, we will discuss the theories and practices of action research. We will look into what is involved in action research, as well as the characteristics and advantages of action research. In this topic, we will also review some guidelines to produce quality action research and as well as the proper applications for action research. Finally, we will go through the contexts of action research projects.

DEFINITION OF ACTION RESEARCH

Before we proceed, let us discuss the various definitions for action research as shown in Table 1.1.

1.1

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain what action research is;

2. Describe the characteristics of action research;

3. Use the guidelines to produce quality action research;

4. Identify the applications of action research; and

5. Practise action research in all contexts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

TTooppiicc

11 What is

Action Research?

TOPIC 1 WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

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Table 1.1: Definitions of Action Research

Source Definition

Koshy (2005) Action research, also known as Participatory Action Research (PAR), community-based study; co-operative enquiry; action science and action learning, is an approach commonly used for improving conditions and practices in a range of healthcare environments.

Sagor (2000) Defines action research as a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action.

The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the actor in improving or refining his or her actions.

Mills (2011) Defines action research as any systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, administrators, counsellors, or others with a vested interest in the teaching and learning process or environment for the purpose of gathering information about how their particular schools operate, how they teach, and how their students learn.

Schmuck (1997) Action research is an attempt to study a real school situation with a view to improve the quality of actions and results within it.

The purpose is also to improve ones own professional judgment and to give insight into better, more effective means of achieving desirable educational outcomes.

McMillan (2004)

Describes action research as the ability to focus on solving a specific classroom or school problem, improving practice, or helping make a decision at a single local site.

Mertler (2009) Action research is able to offer a process by which current practice can be changed toward better practice.

According to Mills (2011), action research has begun to capture the attention of teachers, administrators, researchers because of the ability to make research a more manageable task. It also helps to provide results that are more informative and have immediate and direct application. Although this is the case, many are still in doubt about what action research involves. Figure 1.1 provides an overview of educational research methods while Table 1.2 shows how action research differs from traditional research.


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Figure 1.1: Overview of educational research methods

Source: Mertler (2009)


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Table 1.2: Comparison between Traditional Research and Action Research

Comparison Factor

Traditional Research Action Research

Who? Conducted by university professors, scholars and graduate students on experimental and control groups.

Conducted by teachers and principals on children in their care.

Where? In environments where variables can be controlled.

In schools and classrooms.

How? Using quantitative methods to show, to some predetermined degree of statistical significance, a cause-effect relationship between variables.

Using qualitative methods to describe what is happening and to understand the effects of some educational intervention.

Why? To report and publish conclusions that can be generalised to larger populations.

To take action and effect positive educational change in the specific school environment that was studied.

Source: Mills (2003) For decades, there has been pressure on the methods of research to improve schools. Traditional educational researchers have a tendency to impose abstract research findings on schools and teachers with little or no attention paid to local variation (i.e., not all schools are the same) and required adaptations (i.e., the extent to which research findings generalise across entire populations) (Metz & Page, 2002). Mertler (2009) believes that, because of this issue, there is a need to increase the practice of teacher-initiated, classroom-based research; hence, action research may best be suitable. Unlike the traditional research method, action research is straightforward and is more applicable for school educators. As explained by Mills (2011), the basic process of conducting action research consists of these four steps:

(a) Identifying an area of focus;

(b) Collecting data;

(c) Analysing and interpreting the data; and

(d) Developing a plan of action. Furthermore, action research allows teachers to study their own classrooms, for example, their own instructional methods, their own students and their own


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assessments in order to better understand them and to be able to improve their quality or effectiveness. Therefore, the use of action research supports practitioners in seeking out ways to improve the quality of education in schools. Hence, these features of action research may be worth considering (Koshy, 2005):

(a) Action research is a method used for improving practice. It involves action, evaluation, and critical reflection and based on the evidence gathered changes in practice are then implemented.

(b) Action research is participative and collaborative; it is undertaken by individuals with a common purpose.

(c) It is situation-based and context specific.

(d) It develops reflection based on interpretations made by the participants.

(e) Knowledge is created through action and at the point of application.

(f) Action research can involve problem solving, if the solution to the problem leads to the improvement of practice.

(g) In action research, findings will emerge as action develops, but these are not conclusive or absolute.

WHAT IS INVOLVED IN ACTION RESEARCH?

A number of models have been proposed for the action research process by numerous authors and researchers, as discussed in the following subtopics. Although these models may appear to differ, they possess numerous common elements. Beginning with a central problem, these action research models involve some observation or monitoring of current practice, followed by the collection and synthesis of information and data. Finally, some sort of action is taken, which then serves as the basis for the next stage of action research (Mills, 2011). Some of

1.2

Think about your views of research. Develop a list of advantages andlimitations for both traditional research and action research.

ACTIVITY 1.1


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these models are quite simple in design, while others may appear complex. The complexity ranges from simpler to more complex as can be seen next.

1.2.1 Stringers Action Research Interacting Spiral

In Stringer's action research interacting spiral, he describes action research as having a simple, yet powerful framework consisting of a look, think and act routine (Stringer, 2007). At each stage, participants look (observe), think (reflect), and act on it. Each action taken will lead the participants to the next stage (see Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Stringers action research interacting spiral Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.2 Lewins Action Research Spiral

Lewins action research spiral was created by Kurt Lewin (Smith, 2007), who is also credited with coining the term action research. Lewin describes his model as an action research spiral, which includes fact finding, planning, taking action, evaluating and amending the plan, before moving into a second action step (see Figure 1.3).


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Figure 1.3: Lewins action research spiral


1.2.3 Calhouns Action Research Cycle

Calhouns (1994) action research cycle model, may not look like a spiral, but still represents a process that is built around a cyclical notion. According to Calhoun (1994), the solid lines indicate the primary direction of the action research cycle through the phases, in numerical order. The dotted lines indicate backward and forward movement within the cycle as refinement or clarification of information is warranted (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Calhouns action research cycle



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1.2.4 Bachmans Action Research Spiral

Bachmans (2001) action research spiral continues this notion of the cyclical nature of action research (see Figure 1.5). His downward spiral suggests that participants gather information, plan actions, observe and evaluate those actions, and then reflect and plan for a new cycle of the spiral, based on the insights that were gained in the previous cycle.

Figure 1.5: Bachmans action research spiral



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1.2.5 Riels Action Research Model

Riels (2007) progressive model of problem solving through action research takes the participant through four steps in each cycle: planning, taking action, collecting evidence and reflecting (see Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6: Riels action research model Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.6 Piggot-Irvines Action Research Model

Piggot-Irvines (2006) action research model continues to depict this spiralling nature of the action research process. In her upward spiral, she shows these similar steps - planning, acting and reflecting through three subsequent action research cycles (see Figure 1.7). Starting with current situation analysis, the process moves on to improvements implemented, then followed by review changes before reporting and recommending the findings.

1. Looking at all the models, observe the similarities and differences.

2. Which model would best suit your interest?

SELF-CHECK 1.1


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Figure 1.7: Piggot-Irvines action research model


1.2.7 Hendrickss Action Research Model

Hendrickss (2006) action research model is shown in Figure 1.8. Her model focuses on acting, evaluating and reflecting. She applies this in a school-based context.


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Figure 1.8: Hendricks action research process Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.8 Which Model to Follow?

According to Mertler (2009), it does not matter which model you follow because generally, they shared the same elements. Mertler and Charles (2011) present a general process of action research as follows:

(a) The planning stage;

(b) The acting stage;

(c) The developing stage; and

(d) The reflecting stage. Within this framework and as seen earlier in the various models presented; action research is a cyclical process and does not act in a linear fashion (Johnson, 2008). Many teacher-researchers involved in action research often find themselves repeating some of the steps several times or perhaps doing them in a different order (Mertler, 2009). These steps are cycles involving planning, acting, observing, developing a new plan and reflecting.


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CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research is a simple straightforward process but is sometimes misunderstood by education practitioners (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The list below describes action research, compiled from several resources (Johnson, 2008; Mertler & Charles, 2011; Mills, 2011; Schmuck, 1997):

(a) Action research is a process that improves education, in general, by incorporating change.

(b) Action research is a process involving educators working together to improve their own practices.

(c) Action research is persuasive and authoritative, since it is done by teachers for teachers.

(d) Action research is collaborative; that is, it is composed of educators talking and working with other educators in empowering relationships.

(e) Action research is participative, since educators are integral members, not disinterested outsiders of the research process.

(f) Action research is practical and relevant to classroom teachers, since it allows them direct access to research findings.

(g) Action research is developing critical reflection about ones teaching.

(h) Action research is a planned, systematic approach to understanding the learning process.

(i) Action research is a process that requires us to test our ideas about education.

(j) Action research is open-minded.

(k) Action research is a critical analysis of educational places of work.

(l) Action research is a cyclical process of planning, acting, developing and reflecting.

(m) Action research is a justification of ones teaching practices.

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Do you think there is any best action research model to follow? Why?

SELF-CHECK 1.2


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Of equal importance is that educators understand what action research is not (Johnson, 2008; Mertler & Charles, 2011; Mills, 2011; Schmuck, 1997):

(a) Action research is not the usual thing that teachers do when thinking about teaching; it is more systematic and more collaborative.

(b) Action research is not simply problem solving; it involves the specification of a problem, the development of something new (in most cases), and critical reflection on its effectiveness.

(c) Action research is not done to or by other people; it is research done by particular educators, on their own work, with students and colleagues.

(d) Action research is not the simple implementation of predetermined answers to educational questions; it explores, discovers, and works to find creative solutions to educational problems.

(e) Action research is not conclusive; the results of action research are neither right nor wrong but rather tentative solutions that are based on observations and other data collection and that require monitoring and evaluation in order to identify strengths and limitations.

(f) Action research is not a fad; good teaching has always involved the systematic examination of the instructional process and its effects on student learning.

ADVANTAGES OF ACTION RESEARCH

Koshy (2005) concludes that action research is a powerful and useful model for practitioner research because:

(a) Research can be set within a specific context or situation;

(b) Researchers can be participants they dont have to be distant and detached from the situation;

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Do the following to make action research a part of your daily teachingpractice. 1. Actually try the process to convince yourself that the investments

of time and energy are worth the outcomes. 2. Recognise that action research is a process that can be undertaken

without negatively affecting your personal and professional life. 3. Seek support from your professional colleagues.

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(c) Action research involves continuous evaluation and modifications can be made as the project progresses;

(d) There are opportunities for theory to emerge from the research rather than always following a previously formulated theory;

(e) The study can lead to open-ended outcomes; and

(f) Through action research, the researcher can bring a story to life. It is difficult to list the disadvantages of this method when you look at it for professional development purposes or to improve situations. It is, however, described as a soft option to some; therefore, action researchers would need to define the parameters of the study from beginning.

IS ACTION RESEARCH REAL RESEARCH?

Many are of the opinion that action research has less quality because it is conducted by teachers, and not academicians or researchers (Mertler, 2009). This is of course, not true. A so-called quality research project needs to meet the standards of sound practice, which lies in the concepts of validity and reliability. Although, action research relies on a different set of criteria, because of its participatory nature (Stringer, 2007), its quality is assessed based on the usefulness of its research findings for its intended audience. Table 1.3 explains three main concerns regarding this matter.

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In your personal opinion, do you think action research is valid? Discuss.

ACTIVITY 1.3


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Table 1.3: Three Main Concerns in Action Research as Real Research

Concern Description

Concern 1: Action research lacks rigour and validity

Rigour in general refers to the quality, validity, accuracy, and credibility of action research and its findings. It is normally associated with the terms validity and reliability in quantitative studies, which refers to the accuracy of instruments, data, and research findings, and with accuracy, credibility and dependability in qualitative studies (Melrose, 2001).

Rigour in action research is normally based on procedures of checking to ensure that the results are not biased or that they reflect only the particular perspective of the researcher, therefore looked into the entire research process and not specifically aspects of data collection, data analysis and findings (Melrose, 2001; Stringer, 2007).

Moreover, the use of various research methods applied in traditional research assists in keeping the work to strict standards (Koshy, 2005). Hence, the issue of lack rigour and validity is not applicable.

Concern 2: Action research findings are not generalisable

Koshy (2005) argues that an action researcher does not intend to generalise their data or findings, but to generate knowledge based on action within ones own situation.

It is said further that, any findings from the research are generalisable within that situation and within that context of work, which is normally declared in advance.

This particular scenario is believed to be similar to other kinds of research. Further research work based on findings can be carried out by those interested in similar conditions, either locally or internationally.

Concern 3: It is a deficit model

The idea that action research is a deficit model lies in the thoughts related to the problem-solving nature. According to Koshy (2005), developing strategies for solving a problem within a situation is not a negative action.

Instead, it is about making progress, developing ideas and making improvements. Moreover, the approach is similar to doing traditional research, but, the process is more straightforward as it follows strict standards.


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GUIDELINES TO PRODUCING HIGH QUALITY ACTION RESEARCH

In order to produce high quality research, several guidelines should be followed, as shown in Figure 1.9 (Melrose, 2001; Mills, 2011; & Stringer, 2007; taken from Mertler, 2009):

Figure 1.9: Some guidelines in producing high quality action research

Now, let us discuss the guidelines one by one. (a) Repetition of the cycle It is critical to repeat the process in a number of cycles because with each

subsequent cycle, more is learned, and greater credibility is added to the findings. The earlier cycles are used to inform how to conduct the later cycles (Melrose, 2001).

(b) Prolonged engagement and persistent observation In order to gather enough information to help participants fully understand

the outcomes of an action research process, they must be provided extended opportunities to explore and express their experience (Stringer, 2007) as it relates to the problem being investigated. However, simply spending more time in the setting is not enough. For example, observations and interviews must be deliberately and carefully conducted (Mills, 2011; Stringer, 2007). These should not be indiscriminate research activities.

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(c) Experience with the process In many cases rigour and credibility will depend on the experience of the

action researcher(s). If a teacher has (or other school personnel have) conducted previous studies, or even previous cycles within the same study, this individual can perform confidently and will have greater credibility with respective audiences (Melrose, 2001). However, if the teacher-researcher is a novice, the entire process may benefit from the use of an experienced facilitator.

(d) Polyangulation of data Rigour can be enhanced during the action research process when multiple

sources of data and other information are included (Mills, 2011; Stringer, 2007). This permits the action researcher to cross-check the accuracy of data (Mills, 2011) and to clarify meanings or misconceptions held by participants (Stringer, 2007). Accuracy of data and credibility of the study findings go hand-in-hand.

(e) Member checking Participants should be provided with opportunities to review the raw data,

analyses and final reports resulting from the action research process (Mills, 2011; Stringer, 2007). The rigour of the research is enhanced by this activity as it allows participants to verify that various aspects of the research process adequately and accurately represent their beliefs, perspectives and experiences. It also gives them the opportunity to further explain and/or extend the information that they have already provided.

(f) Participant debriefing Similar to member checking, debriefing is another opportunity for

participants to provide insight. However, in this case, the focus is on their emotions and feelings, instead of the factual information they have offered (Mills, 2011; Stringer, 2007). They may address emotions that might have clouded their interpretations of events or inhibited their memories. Needless to say, rigour in action research is very important, albeit for reasons that are different from those of more traditional forms of educational research.


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APPLICATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research can be applied in several ways, as shown in Figure 1.10 below:

Figure 1.10: Applications of action research

Let us look into the applications in greater detail now. (a) Identifying problems As explained by Johnson (2008), if a goal of action research is to promote

improvement and change, obviously the specific target of that improvement or change must first be identified. It is, therefore, common that in investigating issues, question like why are things as they are? will be asked.

(b) Developing and testing solutions Action research can be used to find solutions to problems you have

identified and ultimately test their effectiveness (Mertler, 2009). (c) Pre-service teacher education The transition from being a student to a beginning teacher is not a simple

process. Teaching is an extremely complex professional career. Action research helps to accommodate the limited knowledge and experiences of beginner teachers by helping them see things in the classroom that they would not normally notice (Johnson, 2008). Doing a mini action research project provides a beginner a unique pre-professional development opportunity. These mini projects can focus on observations of students, observations of other classroom teachers, or observations of their own practice.

(d) In-service professional growth Action research is an effective means for teachers to develop and grow

professionally. Johnson (2008) describes action research as the most

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efficient and effective way to address the professional development of teachers. Action research affords teachers opportunities to connect theory with practice, to become more reflective in their practice, and to become empowered risk takers. All of these opportunities enable the in-service classroom teacher to grow professionally and ultimately to realise growth in student learning.

Koshy (2005) describes the aims of teacher-researcher scheme as follows:

(a) To encourage teachers to engage with research and evidence about pupils achievements, for example, to use other peoples research to inform their practice and/or to participate actively in research.

(b) To increase the capacity for high-quality, teacher-focused classroom research by supporting teacher involvement in the development of research proposals for external funding.

(c) To support teachers in designing, applying for and carrying out more medium and large-scale classroom-based research about pedagogy where teachers have an active role.

(d) To enable experiments in disseminating research findings and making use of them in classrooms.

(e) To provide examples of good practice in making use of research.

CONTEXTS OF ACTION RESEARCH PROJECTS

This topic ends with some examples of action research projects (Koshy, 2005), which demonstrate the range of topics addressed by such research.

1.8.1 Enhancing Classroom Practice

These studies focus on classroom teaching:

(a) How can I improve my questioning skills?

(b) Who does most of the talking in my class the children or me?

(c) How can I improve childrens participating in ICT?

(d) Will the introduction of a learning diary in mathematics lessons enhance childrens conceptual understanding?

(e) How can I introduce class discussions on childrens special interests?

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1.8.2 Studying a Particular Theme

With the new Education Blue Print focusing on teachers, action research offers a good opportunity for teachers to evaluate and improve their own teaching. Some ideas are as follows:

(a) What is personalised learning and how can I implement it in my classroom?

(b) Can we teach problem-solving skills and does the teaching of problem-solving enhance childrens performance in other areas?

(c) What is meant by creativity in the classroom? What is creativity and how can I encourage children to be creative?

(d) I attended a conference on Multiple Intelligences as a basis of talent development. How do I put into practice what we were told?

1.8.3 Institutional Focus

These are topics based in the workplace such as:

(a) How can we enhance the motivation of our students?

(b) How can we increase participation at parents meetings?

(c) How can we encourage more discussion during staff meetings?

(d) What recommendations can be made to make the record-keeping system more manageable and useful?

(e) How can we develop a more caring ethos in the school?

(f) What are some anti-bullying strategies? How effective are these strategies?

Action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by educators for the purpose of gathering information about how their particular schools operate, how they teach, and how their students learn.

Action research is a straightforward process but is sometimes misunderstood by education practitioners.

Action research is done by teachers for teachers, working with students and colleagues.


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Action research is a process of problem solving to improve a method or practice.

The basic process of action research consists of the following four stages which are planning, acting, developing and reflecting.

Most action research studies are cyclical and iterative. Action research can be used effectively to bridge the gap between theory and

practice, to improve educational practice, to empower teachers, to provide professional growth opportunities for teachers, to identify educational problems, to develop and test solutions, and to expand the knowledge base of pre-service teachers.

Acting

Action research

Cyclical process

Developing

In-service teacher

Planning

Pre-service teacher

Reflecting

Rigour

Traditional research

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Calhoun, E. F. (1994). How to use action research in the self-renewing school.

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Hendricks, C. (2006). Improving schools through action research: A

comprehensive guide for educators. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Johnson, A. P. (2008). A short guide to action research (3rd Ed.). Boston: Allyn &

Bacon.


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Koshy, V. (2005). Action research for improving practice: A practical guide. London: Sage.

Koshy, E., Koshy, V., & Wateman, H. (2011). Action research in healthcare.

London: Sage Publication. McMillan, J. H. (2004). Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer (4th

Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Melrose, M. J. (2001). Maximising the rigour of action research: Why would you

want to? How could you? Field Methods, 13(2), 160-180. Mertler, C. A. (2009). Action research: Teachers as researchers in the classroom.

London: Sage Publication. Mertler, C. A., & Charles, C. M. (2011). Introduction to educational research (7th

Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Metz, M. H., & Page, R. N. (2002). The uses of practitioner research and status

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Mills, G. E. (2011). Action research: A guide to a teacher researcher. New Jersey:

Pearson Education, Inc. Piggot-Irvine, E. (2006). Sustaining excellence in experienced principals? Critique

of a professional learning community approach. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 10(16). Retrieved from http://iejll. synergiesprairies.ca/iejll/index.php/ijll/article/download/616/278

Riel, M. (2007). Understanding action research. Center for Collaborative Action

Research. Retrieved from http://cadres.pepperdine.edu/ccar/define.html Sagor, R. (2000). The action research guidebook: A four-step process for

educators and school teams. California: Sage. Schmuck, R. A. (1997). Practical action research for change. Arlington Heights, IL:

SkyLight Professional Development. Smith, M. K. (2007). Kurt Lewin: Groups, experiential learning, and action

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