Chapter six Chapter six

SmanticsSmantics

What is semantics? What is semantics?

• Semantics is defined as the study of meaSemantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistining. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning.c discipline that studies meaning.

• Semantics answers the question “what Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other wordoes this sentence mean”. In other words, it is the analysis of conventional meads, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of connings in words and sentences out of context.text.

Reference and sense(1)Reference and sense(1)• Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world.

There are two aspects of meaning.There are two aspects of meaning.• Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or

identifies an entity in the world. But the referential theidentifies an entity in the world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expreory fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.ssion.

• Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entitSome words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenies in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.ix, unicorn, and mermaid.

• It is not possible for some words to find referent in the It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etworld, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.c.

Reference and sense(2)Reference and sense(2)• Speakers of English understand the meaning oSpeakers of English understand the meaning o

f a round triangle although there is no such graf a round triangle although there is no such graph.ph.

• Sense is the relation by which words stand in hSense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental representation, the asuman mind. It is mental representation, the association with something in the speaker’s or sociation with something in the speaker’s or hearer’s mind. The study of meaning from thhearer’s mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the representate perspective of sense is called the representational approach.ional approach.

Classification of lexical meaninClassification of lexical meanings (1)gs (1)• Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – cReferential meaning (denotative meaning) – c

entral meaning of words, stable, universalentral meaning of words, stable, universal• Associative meaning – meaning that hinges on Associative meaning – meaning that hinges on

referential meaning, less stable, more culture-referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specificspecific

• Connotative meaning – the communicative valConnotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers ue an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peto, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheralripheral

Classification of lexical meaniClassification of lexical meanings (2)ngs (2)• Social meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is coSocial meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is co

nveyed about the social circumstances of the nveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expressionuse of a linguistic expression

• Affective meaning – what is communicated of Affective meaning – what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer tothe feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred towards what is referred to

• Reflected meaning – what is communicated thReflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the sarough association with another sense of the same expressionme expression

Classification of lexical meanings Classification of lexical meanings (3)(3)

•TaboosTaboos•Collocative meaning – the assocCollocative meaning – the assoc

iated meaning a word acquires iiated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of wordn line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with its which tend to co-occur with it

Lexical sense relations (1)Lexical sense relations (1)

• SynonymySynonymy• Synonyms are words which have different forms but siSynonyms are words which have different forms but si

milar meanings.milar meanings.• Dialectal synonyms – lift/elevator, flat/apartmentDialectal synonyms – lift/elevator, flat/apartment• Synonyms of different styles – gentleman/guySynonyms of different styles – gentleman/guy• Synonyms of different registers – salt/sodium chlorideSynonyms of different registers – salt/sodium chloride• Synonyms differing in affective meaning – attract/sedSynonyms differing in affective meaning – attract/sed

uceuce• Synonyms differing in collocation – beautiful/handsoSynonyms differing in collocation – beautiful/handso

me, able/capableme, able/capable

Lexical sense relations (2) Lexical sense relations (2)

Synonyms are frequently used in speakinSynonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesive device. In org and writing as a cohesive device. In order to avoid repetition the writer/speakeder to avoid repetition the writer/speaker needs to use a synonym to replace a wr needs to use a synonym to replace a word in the previous co-text when he/she ord in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea. wants to continue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to creaThe synonyms together function to create cohesion of the text.te cohesion of the text.

Lexical sense relations (3)Lexical sense relations (3)

• AntonymyAntonymy• Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaAntonyms are words which are opposite in mea

ning.ning.• Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to

each other, but the positive of one word does noeach other, but the positive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of the other. For t necessarily imply the negative of the other. For example, the words hot and cold are a pair of anexample, the words hot and cold are a pair of antonyms, but not hot does not necessarily mean tonyms, but not hot does not necessarily mean cold, maybe warm, mild or cool. Therefore, this cold, maybe warm, mild or cool. Therefore, this pair of antonyms is a pair of gradable antonyms.pair of antonyms is a pair of gradable antonyms.

Lexical sense relations (4)Lexical sense relations (4)

• Complementary antonyms – words opposite to each oComplementary antonyms – words opposite to each other and the positive of one implies the negative of thther and the positive of one implies the negative of the other: alive/deade other: alive/dead

• Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote thReversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the same relation or process from one or the other direce same relation or process from one or the other direction: push/pull, up/down, teacher/studenttion: push/pull, up/down, teacher/student

• Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resourcAntonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based on e in language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based on antonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to fuzzinantonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to fuzziness.ess.

Lexical sense relations (5)Lexical sense relations (5)• HomonymyHomonymy• Homonyms are words which have the same form, but different mHomonyms are words which have the same form, but different m

eanings. eanings. • Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but differenHomographs – words which are identical in spelling, but differen

t in meaning and pronunciation: tear [] (v.)/tear [] t in meaning and pronunciation: tear [] (v.)/tear [] (n.)(n.)

• Homophones – words which are identical in pronunciation, but dHomophones – words which are identical in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning: see/seaifferent in spelling and meaning: see/sea

• Full homonyms – words which are identical in spelling and pronuFull homonyms – words which are identical in spelling and pronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to a babynciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to a baby/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)

• Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.Syntactic categoRhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.Syntactic categoriesries

Lexical sense relations (6)Lexical sense relations (6)

•PolysemyPolysemy•A polyseme is a word which has sevA polyseme is a word which has sev

eral related senses.eral related senses.•Polysemy is based on the intuition oPolysemy is based on the intuition o

f native speakers as well as the etyf native speakers as well as the etymology or history of words.mology or history of words.

Lexical sense relations (7)Lexical sense relations (7)

•HyponymyHyponymy•Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.• Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyTiger, lion, elephant and dog are hypony

ms of the word animal. Words like animams of the word animal. Words like animal are called superordinates.l are called superordinates.

• This kind of vertical semantic relation linThis kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchical work. ks words in a hierarchical work.

Componential analysisComponential analysis

• Componential analysis is the approach that anComponential analysis is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing it into its alyze word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features. It shows the semantic featureatomic features. It shows the semantic features of a word.s of a word.

• Examples:Examples:• Man: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULTMan: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT• Boy: +HUMAN +MALE –ADULTBoy: +HUMAN +MALE –ADULT• Father: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENTFather: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENT• Daughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENTDaughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENT

Words and concepts (1)Words and concepts (1)

• CategorizationCategorization• Categorization refers to the process by which Categorization refers to the process by which

people use language to classify the world aroupeople use language to classify the world around and inside them.nd and inside them.

• It is fundamental to human cognition.It is fundamental to human cognition.• In the past two decades cognitive psychologistIn the past two decades cognitive psychologist

s and cognitive linguistics have gained new inss and cognitive linguistics have gained new insights into the nature of categories. ights into the nature of categories.

Words and concepts (2)Words and concepts (2)

• PrototypesPrototypes• A prototype is a set that has typical, centA prototype is a set that has typical, cent

ral features. Others are peripheral featurral features. Others are peripheral features, which are not typical but related.es, which are not typical but related.

•HierarchiesHierarchies• Conceptual networkConceptual network

Sentencial sense relations – semaSentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences(1)ntic relations of sentences(1)• Sentences may be related in sense. I will illustrSentences may be related in sense. I will illustr

ate sense relations within and between sentenate sense relations within and between sentences.ces.

• Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.• Contradiction: The bachelor is married.Contradiction: The bachelor is married.• Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.• Synonymousness: John broke the glass./The gSynonymousness: John broke the glass./The g

lass was broken by John.lass was broken by John.• Entailment: The meeting was chaired by a spinEntailment: The meeting was chaired by a spin

ster./The meeting was chaired by a woman.ster./The meeting was chaired by a woman.

Sentencial sense relations – semaSentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences(2)ntic relations of sentences(2)• Presupposition: Sam has returned the book./SPresupposition: Sam has returned the book./S

am borrowed the book.am borrowed the book.• These semantic relations are found within or bThese semantic relations are found within or b

etween meaningful sentences. There are senteetween meaningful sentences. There are sentences which sound grammatical but meaninglences which sound grammatical but meaningless. These sentences are said to be semanticallss. These sentences are said to be semantically anomalous. For example:y anomalous. For example:

• Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.• The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.

Metaphors (1)Metaphors (1)• From rhetorical device to cognitive deviceFrom rhetorical device to cognitive device• The classical view sees metaphor as a kind of The classical view sees metaphor as a kind of

decorative in addition to ordinary language, a decorative in addition to ordinary language, a rhetorical device that makes language use colrhetorical device that makes language use colourful.ourful.

• Another view of metaphor, which has become Another view of metaphor, which has become more influential in the past two decades, holdmore influential in the past two decades, holds that metaphors are a cognitive device. Metaps that metaphors are a cognitive device. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorizatiohor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process. n of the world and our thinking process.

Metaphors (2)Metaphors (2)• Cognitive linguistics has shown that metaphor Cognitive linguistics has shown that metaphor

is not an unusual or deviant way of using langis not an unusual or deviant way of using language. The use of metaphor is not confined to liuage. The use of metaphor is not confined to literature, rhetoric and art. It is actually ubiquitterature, rhetoric and art. It is actually ubiquitous in everyday communication.ous in everyday communication.

• The components of metaphorsThe components of metaphors• Target domain – tenorTarget domain – tenor• Source domain – vehicle Source domain – vehicle

Metaphors (3)Metaphors (3)

• Features of metaphorsFeatures of metaphors•Metaphors are systematic.Metaphors are systematic.•Metaphors can create similarities betweMetaphors can create similarities betwe

en the two domains involved.en the two domains involved.•Metaphors are also characterized by imaMetaphors are also characterized by ima

ginative rationality.ginative rationality.