2010 report of the methyl bromide technical options ... · (south africa), janny vos (the...
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2010 Report of the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
(MBTOC)
Montreal Protocol on SubStanceS
that DePlete the ozone layer
Celebrating 25 years of success in 2012
2010 Assessment
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MONTREAL PROTOCOL
ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE
THE OZONE LAYER
UNEP 2010 REPORT OF THEMETHYL BROMIDE
TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE
2010 Assessment
United Nations Environment Program
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MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report 1
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2010 Report of the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
2010 Assessment The text of this report is composed mainly in Times New Roman. Composition of the Report: Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee Coordination: Mohamed Besri, Michelle Marcotte, Marta
Pizano, Ian Porter, MBTOC Co-Chairs. Final editing and layout: Marta Pizano, Mohamed Besri, Michelle
Marcotte, Ian Porter MBTOC co-chairs
Reproduction: UNEP/ Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi Date: March, 2011
Under certain conditions, printed copies of this report are available from:
United Nations Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya
This document is also available in portable document format from: http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/TEAP/Reports/MBTOC/index.shtml No copyright involved. This publication may be freely copied, abstracted and cited, with acknowledgement of the source of the material.
ISBN: 978-9966-20-000-6
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee:
Co-Chairs: Mohamed Besri (Morocco); Michelle Marcotte (Canada); Marta Pizano (Colombia); Ian Porter (Australia)
Members: Jonathan Banks (Australia), Tom Batchelor (Belgium), Chris Bell (UK), Antonio Bello (Spain), Fred Bergwerff (The Netherlands), Aocheng Cao (China), Peter Caulkins (USA), Ricardo Deang (Philippines), Patrick Ducom (France), Abraham Gamliel (Israel), Raquel Ghini (Brasil), Ken Glassey (New Zealand), Alfredo Gonzalez (Philippines), Darka Hamel (Croatia), George Lazarovits (Canada), Andrea Minuto (Italy), Takashi Misumi (Japan), David Okioga (Kenya), Christoph Reichmuth (Germany), Jordi Riudavets (Spain), John Sansone (USA), Jim Schaub (USA), Sally Schneider (USA), JL Staphorst (South Africa), Akio Tateya (Japan), Robert Taylor (UK), James Turner (New Zealand), Alejandro Valeiro (Argentina), Ken Vick (USA), Nick Vink (South Africa), Janny Vos (The Netherlands), Chris Watson (UK), Jim Wells (USA), Eduardo Willink (Argentina), Suat Yilmaz (Turkey).
-
MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report 1
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2010 Report of the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
2010 Assessment The text of this report is composed mainly in Times New Roman. Composition of the Report: Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee Coordination: Mohamed Besri, Michelle Marcotte, Marta
Pizano, Ian Porter, MBTOC Co-Chairs. Final editing and layout: Marta Pizano, Mohamed Besri, Michelle
Marcotte, Ian Porter MBTOC co-chairs
Reproduction: UNEP/ Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi Date: March, 2011
Under certain conditions, printed copies of this report are available from:
United Nations Environment Programme Ozone Secretariat P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya
This document is also available in portable document format from: http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/TEAP/Reports/MBTOC/index.shtml No copyright involved. This publication may be freely copied, abstracted and cited, with acknowledgement of the source of the material.
ISBN: 978-9966-20-000-6
Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee:
Co-Chairs: Mohamed Besri (Morocco); Michelle Marcotte (Canada); Marta Pizano (Colombia); Ian Porter (Australia)
Members: Jonathan Banks (Australia), Tom Batchelor (Belgium), Chris Bell (UK), Antonio Bello (Spain), Fred Bergwerff (The Netherlands), Aocheng Cao (China), Peter Caulkins (USA), Ricardo Deang (Philippines), Patrick Ducom (France), Abraham Gamliel (Israel), Raquel Ghini (Brasil), Ken Glassey (New Zealand), Alfredo Gonzalez (Philippines), Darka Hamel (Croatia), George Lazarovits (Canada), Andrea Minuto (Italy), Takashi Misumi (Japan), David Okioga (Kenya), Christoph Reichmuth (Germany), Jordi Riudavets (Spain), John Sansone (USA), Jim Schaub (USA), Sally Schneider (USA), JL Staphorst (South Africa), Akio Tateya (Japan), Robert Taylor (UK), James Turner (New Zealand), Alejandro Valeiro (Argentina), Ken Vick (USA), Nick Vink (South Africa), Janny Vos (The Netherlands), Chris Watson (UK), Jim Wells (USA), Eduardo Willink (Argentina), Suat Yilmaz (Turkey).
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2 MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report
UNEP2010 REPORT OF THE
METHYL BROMIDETECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE
2010 ASSESSMENT
Table of Contents 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................................14
1.1. MANDATE AND REPORT STRUCTURE.........................................................................................................14 1.2. THE METHYL BROMIDE TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE (MBTOC)...................................................14 1.3. METHYL BROMIDE CONTROL MEASURES ..................................................................................................14 1.4. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS................................................................................................15
1.4.1. Consumption trends at national level ................................................................................................161.5. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE ......................................................................................................16
1.5.1. Impact of registration on availability of alternatives........................................................................171.5.2. Alternatives for soil treatments ..........................................................................................................17
1.5.2.1. Chemical alternatives ................................................................................................................................. 18 1.5.2.2. Non chemical alternatives .......................................................................................................................... 19 1.5.2.3. Combination of chemical and non chemical alternatives.......................................................................... 19
1.5.3. Alternatives for treatment of post-harvest uses: food processing structures and durable commodities (non-QPS) .....................................................................................................................20
1.5.3.1. Regulatory considerations.......................................................................................................................... 20 1.5.3.2. Defining IPM and its elements .................................................................................................................. 21 1.5.3.3. Pest control alternatives in flour mills and food processing facilities ...................................................... 21 1.5.3.4. Pest control alternatives for commodities.................................................................................................. 22
1.5.4. Rate of adoption of alternatives .........................................................................................................221.6. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE FOR QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT APPLICATIONS.................23 1.7. PROGRESS IN PHASING-OUT METHYL BROMIDE IN ARTICLE 5 PARTIES ....................................................25 1.8. ECONOMIC CRITERIA.................................................................................................................................26 1.9. EMISSIONS FROM METHYL BROMIDE USE AND THEIR REDUCTION............................................................27
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE ASSESSMENT .................................................................................................28 2.1. METHYL BROMIDE ......................................................................................................................................28
2.1.1. MB uses identified in Articles of the Protocol .....................................................................................282.2. MBTOC MANDATE ......................................................................................................................................29 2.3. COMMITTEE PROCESS AND COMPOSITION ....................................................................................................30 2.4. UNEP ASSESSMENTS ..................................................................................................................................31 2.5. DEFINITION OF AN ALTERNATIVE ................................................................................................................31 2.6. REPORT STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................32 2.7. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................33
3. METHYL BROMIDE PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND PROGRESS IN PHASE OUT (CONTROLLED USES)........................................................................................................................................35
MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report 3
3.1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................35 3.2. OVERVIEW OF MAJOR TRENDS IN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MB FOR CONTROLLED USES......35 3.3. METHYL BROMIDE GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY FOR CONTROLLED USES .....................................36
3.3.1. Global production for all purposes....................................................................................................363.3.2. Global production for controlled uses.................................................................................................383.3.3. Major producer countries ..................................................................................................................393.3.4. Production facilities ...........................................................................................................................40
3.4. TRENDS IN GLOBAL METHYL BROMIDE CONSUMPTION (AND PHASE-OUT) FOR CONTROLLED USES.........42 3.4.1. Global consumption by geographical region ....................................................................................433.4.2. Number of countries using methyl bromide......................................................................................44
3.5 TRENDS IN METHYL BROMIDE CONSUMPTION (AND PHASE-OUT) IN NON-ARTICLE 5 COUNTRIES FOR CONTROLLED USES ...............................................................................................................................................44
3.5.1. Total non-Article 5 consumption .......................................................................................................453.5.2. National consumption trends in major non-Article 5 consumers .....................................................463.5.3. Number of countries consuming MB....................................................................................................473.5.4. Consumption by geographical region................................................................................................483.5.5. Trends in nominations for critical use exemptions............................................................................48
3.5.5.1. Trends for preplant soil uses ..................................................................................................................... 49 3.5.5.2 Trends in postharvest and structure uses ................................................................................................... 49
3.5.6. Number and source of critical use exemptions.............................................................................503.6. MB CONSUMPTION TRENDS (AND PHASE-OUT) IN ARTICLE 5 PARTIES FOR CONTROLLED USES..............51
3.6.1. Total consumption and general trends ..............................................................................................513.6.2. Article 5 consumption trends by geographic region .........................................................................523.6.3. Article 5 national consumption as percentage of national baseline ..................................................533.6.4. Number of Article 5 countries consuming methyl bromide for controlled uses ...............................543.6.5. Small, medium and large Article 5 consumers ..................................................................................553.6.6. Major consumer Article 5 Parties......................................................................................................563.6.7. Assessment of progress in phase-out in Article 5 countries................................................................59
3.6.7.1. Article 5 consumption with respect to compliance .................................................................................. 60 3.7. METHYL BROMIDE USE BY SECTOR – CONTROLLED USES ........................................................................60
3.7.1. Global overview of fumigant uses......................................................................................................603.7.2. Quarantine and pre-shipment ............................................................................................................623.7.3. Non-QPS sectors .................................................................................................................................623.7.4. Non-QPS uses in non-Article 5 countries..........................................................................................633.7.5. Major soil uses in non-Article 5 countries ........................................................................................643.7.6. Postharvest uses in non-Article 5 countries .......................................................................................663.7.7. Major controlled uses in Article 5 countries ......................................................................................67
3.8. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................68 4. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE FOR SOIL FUMIGATION..............................................70
4.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................70 4.2 CHEMICAL ALTERNATIVES.............................................................................................................................71
4.2.1 Chemical alternatives adopted commercially ......................................................................................714.2.2 Application methods..............................................................................................................................72
4.2.2.1 Mechanical Injection ....................................................................................................................................... 72 4.2.2.1.1. Shallow injection (Shank injection)....................................................................................................... 72 4.2.2.1.2. Deep injection ........................................................................................................................................ 72 4.2.2.1.3. Manual application................................................................................................................................. 73 4.2.2.1.4. Hot gas.................................................................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2.1.5. Cold gas (cans) ....................................................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2.1.6. Drip irrigation......................................................................................................................................... 73
4.2.3 Combination of chemicals.....................................................................................................................734.2.3.1. 1,3-D and Pic .................................................................................................................................................. 74 4.2.3.2. 1,3-D and MITC ............................................................................................................................................. 74 4.2.3.3. MITC, 1,3-D and Pic ...................................................................................................................................... 75 4.2.3.4. Formalin and metham sodium........................................................................................................................ 75
4.2.4 Registration issues.................................................................................................................................754.3 NON CHEMICAL ALTERNATIVES ....................................................................................................................76
4.3.1. Resistant cultivars ................................................................................................................................764.3.2. Grafting ................................................................................................................................................77
4.3.2.1. General overview............................................................................................................................................ 77 4.3.2.2. Grafting combined with other alternatives..................................................................................................... 78
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2 MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report
UNEP2010 REPORT OF THE
METHYL BROMIDETECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE
2010 ASSESSMENT
Table of Contents 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................................14
1.1. MANDATE AND REPORT STRUCTURE.........................................................................................................14 1.2. THE METHYL BROMIDE TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE (MBTOC)...................................................14 1.3. METHYL BROMIDE CONTROL MEASURES ..................................................................................................14 1.4. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS................................................................................................15
1.4.1. Consumption trends at national level ................................................................................................161.5. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE ......................................................................................................16
1.5.1. Impact of registration on availability of alternatives........................................................................171.5.2. Alternatives for soil treatments ..........................................................................................................17
1.5.2.1. Chemical alternatives ................................................................................................................................. 18 1.5.2.2. Non chemical alternatives .......................................................................................................................... 19 1.5.2.3. Combination of chemical and non chemical alternatives.......................................................................... 19
1.5.3. Alternatives for treatment of post-harvest uses: food processing structures and durable commodities (non-QPS) .....................................................................................................................20
1.5.3.1. Regulatory considerations.......................................................................................................................... 20 1.5.3.2. Defining IPM and its elements .................................................................................................................. 21 1.5.3.3. Pest control alternatives in flour mills and food processing facilities ...................................................... 21 1.5.3.4. Pest control alternatives for commodities.................................................................................................. 22
1.5.4. Rate of adoption of alternatives .........................................................................................................221.6. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE FOR QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT APPLICATIONS.................23 1.7. PROGRESS IN PHASING-OUT METHYL BROMIDE IN ARTICLE 5 PARTIES ....................................................25 1.8. ECONOMIC CRITERIA.................................................................................................................................26 1.9. EMISSIONS FROM METHYL BROMIDE USE AND THEIR REDUCTION............................................................27
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE ASSESSMENT .................................................................................................28 2.1. METHYL BROMIDE ......................................................................................................................................28
2.1.1. MB uses identified in Articles of the Protocol .....................................................................................282.2. MBTOC MANDATE ......................................................................................................................................29 2.3. COMMITTEE PROCESS AND COMPOSITION ....................................................................................................30 2.4. UNEP ASSESSMENTS ..................................................................................................................................31 2.5. DEFINITION OF AN ALTERNATIVE ................................................................................................................31 2.6. REPORT STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................32 2.7. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................33
3. METHYL BROMIDE PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND PROGRESS IN PHASE OUT (CONTROLLED USES)........................................................................................................................................35
MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report 3
3.1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................35 3.2. OVERVIEW OF MAJOR TRENDS IN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MB FOR CONTROLLED USES......35 3.3. METHYL BROMIDE GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY FOR CONTROLLED USES .....................................36
3.3.1. Global production for all purposes....................................................................................................363.3.2. Global production for controlled uses.................................................................................................383.3.3. Major producer countries ..................................................................................................................393.3.4. Production facilities ...........................................................................................................................40
3.4. TRENDS IN GLOBAL METHYL BROMIDE CONSUMPTION (AND PHASE-OUT) FOR CONTROLLED USES.........42 3.4.1. Global consumption by geographical region ....................................................................................433.4.2. Number of countries using methyl bromide......................................................................................44
3.5 TRENDS IN METHYL BROMIDE CONSUMPTION (AND PHASE-OUT) IN NON-ARTICLE 5 COUNTRIES FOR CONTROLLED USES ...............................................................................................................................................44
3.5.1. Total non-Article 5 consumption .......................................................................................................453.5.2. National consumption trends in major non-Article 5 consumers .....................................................463.5.3. Number of countries consuming MB....................................................................................................473.5.4. Consumption by geographical region................................................................................................483.5.5. Trends in nominations for critical use exemptions............................................................................48
3.5.5.1. Trends for preplant soil uses ..................................................................................................................... 49 3.5.5.2 Trends in postharvest and structure uses ................................................................................................... 49
3.5.6. Number and source of critical use exemptions.............................................................................503.6. MB CONSUMPTION TRENDS (AND PHASE-OUT) IN ARTICLE 5 PARTIES FOR CONTROLLED USES..............51
3.6.1. Total consumption and general trends ..............................................................................................513.6.2. Article 5 consumption trends by geographic region .........................................................................523.6.3. Article 5 national consumption as percentage of national baseline ..................................................533.6.4. Number of Article 5 countries consuming methyl bromide for controlled uses ...............................543.6.5. Small, medium and large Article 5 consumers ..................................................................................553.6.6. Major consumer Article 5 Parties......................................................................................................563.6.7. Assessment of progress in phase-out in Article 5 countries................................................................59
3.6.7.1. Article 5 consumption with respect to compliance .................................................................................. 60 3.7. METHYL BROMIDE USE BY SECTOR – CONTROLLED USES ........................................................................60
3.7.1. Global overview of fumigant uses......................................................................................................603.7.2. Quarantine and pre-shipment ............................................................................................................623.7.3. Non-QPS sectors .................................................................................................................................623.7.4. Non-QPS uses in non-Article 5 countries..........................................................................................633.7.5. Major soil uses in non-Article 5 countries ........................................................................................643.7.6. Postharvest uses in non-Article 5 countries .......................................................................................663.7.7. Major controlled uses in Article 5 countries ......................................................................................67
3.8. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................68 4. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE FOR SOIL FUMIGATION..............................................70
4.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................70 4.2 CHEMICAL ALTERNATIVES.............................................................................................................................71
4.2.1 Chemical alternatives adopted commercially ......................................................................................714.2.2 Application methods..............................................................................................................................72
4.2.2.1 Mechanical Injection ....................................................................................................................................... 72 4.2.2.1.1. Shallow injection (Shank injection)....................................................................................................... 72 4.2.2.1.2. Deep injection ........................................................................................................................................ 72 4.2.2.1.3. Manual application................................................................................................................................. 73 4.2.2.1.4. Hot gas.................................................................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2.1.5. Cold gas (cans) ....................................................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2.1.6. Drip irrigation......................................................................................................................................... 73
4.2.3 Combination of chemicals.....................................................................................................................734.2.3.1. 1,3-D and Pic .................................................................................................................................................. 74 4.2.3.2. 1,3-D and MITC ............................................................................................................................................. 74 4.2.3.3. MITC, 1,3-D and Pic ...................................................................................................................................... 75 4.2.3.4. Formalin and metham sodium........................................................................................................................ 75
4.2.4 Registration issues.................................................................................................................................754.3 NON CHEMICAL ALTERNATIVES ....................................................................................................................76
4.3.1. Resistant cultivars ................................................................................................................................764.3.2. Grafting ................................................................................................................................................77
4.3.2.1. General overview............................................................................................................................................ 77 4.3.2.2. Grafting combined with other alternatives..................................................................................................... 78
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4 MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report
4.3.3. Substrates..............................................................................................................................................784.3.3.1 General overview............................................................................................................................................. 78 4.3.3.2 Substrates and biological agents...................................................................................................................... 79
4.3.4. Heat treatment ......................................................................................................................................804.3.4.1. Steam............................................................................................................................................................... 80 4.3.4.2. Steaming and other alternatives ..................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.4.3 Hot water.......................................................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.4.4 Solarization ...................................................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.4.5. Solarization and other alternatives ................................................................................................................. 82
4.3.5. Organic amendments............................................................................................................................834.3.6 Biofumigation (Biodisinfestation) .........................................................................................................83
4.3.6.1. Biofumigation and solarization: ..................................................................................................................... 84 4.3.6.2. Reducing redox potential................................................................................................................................ 84 4.3.6.3. Biological control and biofertilizers............................................................................................................... 84
4.4. CROP SPECIFIC STRATEGIES...........................................................................................................................85 4.4.1 Strawberries ..........................................................................................................................................85
4.4.1.1. Strawberry fruit............................................................................................................................................... 85 4.4.1.1.1 Chemical alternatives .............................................................................................................................. 85 4.4.1.1.2 Non-chemical alternatives....................................................................................................................... 86
4.4.1.2. Strawberry nurseries ....................................................................................................................................... 87 4.4.2 Orchard and vineyard replant ..............................................................................................................874.4.3 Open-field woody crop nurseries..........................................................................................................884.4.4 Vegetables..............................................................................................................................................90
4.4.4.1. Solanaceous crops........................................................................................................................................... 90 4.4.4.2. Cucurbits ......................................................................................................................................................... 91
4.4.5. Ornamentals .........................................................................................................................................924.4.6. Ginger...................................................................................................................................................93
4.5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................93 4.6. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................94
5. STRUCTURES AND COMMODITIES - METHYL BROMIDE USES AND ALTERNATIVES FOR PEST CONTROL.................................................................................................................................................114
5.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................114 5.1.1. Information Sources ...........................................................................................................................114
5.2. CURRENT MB USES IN NON-ARTICLE 5 PARTIES FOR STRUCTURES AND COMMODITIES ..........................115 5.3. REASONS FOR LACK OF ADOPTION OF ALTERNATIVES IN SOME STRUCTURAL AND COMMODITY CUNS ...115 5.4. REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS AND THE IMPACT ON REGISTRATION ON ADOPTION OF ALTERNATIVES FOR STRUCTURES AND COMMODITIES ................................................................................................................116
5.4.1. Regulatory issues affecting the use of ethyl formate .........................................................................1185.4.2. Regulatory issues affecting the use of propylene oxide.....................................................................1185.4.3. Regulatory and environmental issues affecting the use of sulfuryl fluoride.....................................118
5.4.3.1 Sufuryl fluoride - Maximum residue level issues .........................................................................................120 5.4.4. Regulatory issues affecting alternative adoption in flour mills and food processing facilities .......122
5.5. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT – WHERE PEST CONTROL BEGINS.........................................................124 5.5.1. Defining IPM and its elements...........................................................................................................1245.5.2. Differences in IPM definitions and practices ....................................................................................124
5.5.2.1 Examples of the differences in IPM practices and evaluation......................................................................125 5.5.3. Implementation of IPM programs......................................................................................................125
5.5.3.1. Elements of IPM...........................................................................................................................................126 5.5.3.2. Pest prevention..............................................................................................................................................126 5.5.3.3. Monitoring ....................................................................................................................................................127
5.5.4 Tools used in IPM programs...............................................................................................................1285.5.4.1 Aerosols .........................................................................................................................................................128 5.5.4.2 Contact or surface treatments ........................................................................................................................129 5.5.4.3 Biological control ..........................................................................................................................................130 5.5.4.4 Commercial production of natural enemies ..................................................................................................130 5.5.4.5 Physical control .............................................................................................................................................130 5.5.4.6 New active compounds..................................................................................................................................131
5.5.5. Constraints and future considerations...............................................................................................1315.6. CAUTIONARY NOTE ABOUT PEST RESISTANCE ............................................................................................131 5.7. CAUTIONARY NOTE – PSOCIDS AS AN EMERGING PEST IN NORTH AMERICA..............................................132 5.8. FURTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT IPM .....................................................................................132
MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report 5
5.9. CURRENT STATUS, TECHNICAL EFFICACY AND ADOPTION OF METHYL BROMIDE ALTERNATIVES IN STRUCTURES -- FLOUR MILLS AND FOOD PROCESSING FACILITIES.....................................................................133
5.9.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................1335.9.1.1. Integrated Pest Management – the necessary pre-requisite .........................................................................134
5.9.2. Technical efficacy of sulfuryl fluoride in flour milling......................................................................1345.9.3. Technical efficacy of heat treatments for flour milling and food processing ...................................1385.9.4. Monitoring the effectiveness of pest control treatments....................................................................1415.9.5. Frequency of structural fumigation and heat treatments – and some thoughts on cost...................1425.9.6. Progress in adoption of structural alternatives.................................................................................143
5.10. PEST CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR COMMODITIES ..................................................................................145 5.10.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1455.10.2. Carbonyl sulphide ............................................................................................................................145
5.10.2.1. Efficacy.......................................................................................................................................................146 5.10.2.2. Phytoxicity ..................................................................................................................................................147 5.10.2.3. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................148
5.10.3. Ethyl Formate...................................................................................................................................1485.10.4. Modified Atmospheres......................................................................................................................1495.10.5. Phosphine .........................................................................................................................................151
5.10.5.1. Insect resistance to phosphine ....................................................................................................................152 5.11. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES, AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE FUMIGATION OF COMMODITIES IN CHAMBER OR SILO ....................................................................................................................................................................152
5.11.1. Controlled Atmosphere- the basics..................................................................................................1525.11.2. Tools and methods............................................................................................................................153
5.11.2.1. Tools ...........................................................................................................................................................154 5.11.2.2. Methods ......................................................................................................................................................154
5.11.3 Controlled Atmosphere: 30 years of scientific research ..................................................................1555.6.3.1. Pest control efficacy .....................................................................................................................................157
5.6.3.1.1 Generic Treatment Times......................................................................................................................157 5.6.3.2. Tobacco Case Study .....................................................................................................................................157
5.12. PEST CONTROL ISSUES OF FRESH DATES....................................................................................................158 5.12.1 Case Study: Effective commercial introduction of controlled atmosphere disinfestation of dates in
Tunisia ..............................................................................................................................................1635.13. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................163
6. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE FOR QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT.............186 6.1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................186 6.2. REASONS FOR QPS USES OF METHYL BROMIDE......................................................................................187 6.3. DEFINITIONS OF QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT ...............................................................................188
6.3.1. Origin and original intent of the QPS exemption............................................................................1886.3.2. ‘Quarantine’ and ’Pre-shipment’ ....................................................................................................190
6.4. DECISIONS RELATING TO QPS USE OF METHYL BROMIDE ......................................................................193 6.5. POLICIES ON QPS USES OF METHYL BROMIDE ........................................................................................194
6.5.1. Legislation that requires methyl bromide use for QPS ...................................................................1946.5.2. Reasons for methyl bromide as the treatment of choice..................................................................1956.5.3. Policies and recommendations on methyl bromide and its alternatives under the International
Plant Protection Convention............................................................................................................1966.5.4. Party strategies (QPS) .....................................................................................................................197
6.6. MAIN USES OF METHYL BROMIDE FOR QPS PURPOSES .........................................................................197 6.6.1. Proportions of QPS use covered by IAs and domestic regulations ................................................1976.6.2. Main individual categories of use by volume ..................................................................................1986.6.3. Quantity of methyl bromide used .....................................................................................................199
6.7. KEY QUARANTINE PESTS CONTROLLED WITH METHYL BROMIDE ...........................................................202 6.8. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVES FOR THE MAJOR QPS USE CATEGORIES ...............................203 6.9. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MB FOR QPS USES.......................................................................206
6.9.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................2066.9.2. General methods of analysis ............................................................................................................2076.9.3. Source of data and analysis .............................................................................................................2086.9.4. QPS Production trends ....................................................................................................................2096.9.5. QPS Consumption trends .................................................................................................................212
6.9.5.1. Global QPS consumption.........................................................................................................................212 6.9.5.2. Regional consumption..............................................................................................................................214
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4 MBTOC 2010 Assessment Report
4.3.3. Substrates..............................................................................................................................................784.3.3.1 General overview............................................................................................................................................. 78 4.3.3.2 Substrates and biological agents...................................................................................................................... 79
4.3.4. Heat treatment ......................................................................................................................................804.3.4.1. Steam............................................................................................................................................................... 80 4.3.4.2. Steaming and other alternatives ..................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.4.3 Hot water.......................................................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.4.4 Solarization ...................................................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.4.5. Solarization and other alternatives ................................................................................................................. 82
4.3.5. Organic amendments............................................................................................................................834.3.6 Biofumigation (Biodisinfestation) .........................................................................................................83
4.3.6.1. Biofumigation and solarization: ..................................................................................................................... 84 4.3.6.2. Reducing redox potential................................................................................................................................ 84 4.3.6.3. Biological control and biofertilizers............................................................................................................... 84
4.4. CROP SPECIFIC STRATEGIES...........................................................................................................................85 4.4.1 Strawberries ..........................................................................................................................................85
4.4.1.1. Strawberry fruit............................................................................................................................................... 85 4.4.1.1.1 Chemical alternatives .............................................................................................................................. 85 4.4.1.1.2 Non-chemical alternatives....................................................................................................................... 86
4.4.1.2. Strawberry nurseries ....................................................................................................................................... 87 4.4.2 Orchard and vineyard replant ..............................................................................................................874.4.3 Open-field woody crop nurseries..........................................................................................................884.4.4 Vegetables..............................................................................................................................................90
4.4.4.1. Solanaceous crops........................................................................................................................................... 90 4.4.4.2. Cucurbits ......................................................................................................................................................... 91
4.4.5. Ornamentals .........................................................................................................................................924.4.6. Ginger...................................................................................................................................................93
4.5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................93 4.6. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................94
5. STRUCTURES AND COMMODITIES - METHYL BROMIDE USES AND ALTERNATIVES FOR PEST CONTROL.................................................................................................................................................114
5.1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................114 5.1.1. Information Sources ...........................................................................................................................114
5.2. CURRENT MB USES IN NON-ARTICLE 5 PARTIES FOR STRUCTURES AND COMMODITIES ..........................115 5.3. REASONS FOR LACK OF ADOPTION OF ALTERNATIVES IN SOME STRUCTURAL AND COMMODITY CUNS ...115 5.4. REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS AND THE IMPACT ON REGISTRATION ON ADOPTION OF ALTERNATIVES FOR STRUCTURES AND COMMODITIES ................................................................................................................116
5.4.1. Regulatory issues affecting the use of ethyl formate .........................................................................1185.4.2. Regulatory issues affecting the use of propylene oxide.....................................................................1185.4.3. Regulatory and environmental issues affecting the use of sulfuryl fluoride.....................................118
5.4.3.1 Sufuryl fluoride - Maximum residue level issues .........................................................................................120 5.4.4. Regulatory issues affecting alternative adoption in flour mills and food processing facilities .......122
5.5. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT – WHERE PEST CONTROL BEGINS.........................................................124 5.5.1. Defining IPM and its elements...........................................................................................................1245.5.2. Differences in IPM definitions and practices ....................................................................................124
5.5.2.1 Examples of the differences in IPM practices and evaluation......................................................................125 5.5.3. Implementation of IPM programs......................................................................................................125
5.5.3.1. Elements of IPM...........................................................................................................................................126 5.5.3.2. Pest prevention..............................................................................................................................................126 5.5.3.3. Monitoring ....................................................................................................................................................127
5.5.4 Tools used in IPM programs...............................................................................................................1285.5.4.1 Aerosols .........................................................................................................................................................128 5.5.4.2 Contact or surface treatments ........................................................................................................................129 5.5.4.3 Biological control ..........................................................................................................................................130 5.5.4.4 Commercial production of natural enemies ..................................................................................................130 5.5.4.5 Physical control .............................................................................................................................................130 5.5.4.6 New active compounds..................................................................................................................................131
5.5.5. Constraints and future considerations...............................................................................................1315.6. CAUTIONARY NOTE ABOUT PEST RESISTANCE ............................................................................................131 5.7. CAUTIONARY NOTE – PSOCIDS AS AN EMERGING PEST IN NORTH AMERICA..............................................132 5.8. FURTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT IPM .....................................................................................132
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5.9. CURRENT STATUS, TECHNICAL EFFICACY AND ADOPTION OF METHYL BROMIDE ALTERNATIVES IN STRUCTURES -- FLOUR MILLS AND FOOD PROCESSING FACILITIES.....................................................................133
5.9.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................1335.9.1.1. Integrated Pest Management – the necessary pre-requisite .........................................................................134
5.9.2. Technical efficacy of sulfuryl fluoride in flour milling......................................................................1345.9.3. Technical efficacy of heat treatments for flour milling and food processing ...................................1385.9.4. Monitoring the effectiveness of pest control treatments....................................................................1415.9.5. Frequency of structural fumigation and heat treatments – and some thoughts on cost...................1425.9.6. Progress in adoption of structural alternatives.................................................................................143
5.10. PEST CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR COMMODITIES ..................................................................................145 5.10.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1455.10.2. Carbonyl sulphide ............................................................................................................................145
5.10.2.1. Efficacy.......................................................................................................................................................146 5.10.2.2. Phytoxicity ..................................................................................................................................................147 5.10.2.3. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................148
5.10.3. Ethyl Formate...................................................................................................................................1485.10.4. Modified Atmospheres......................................................................................................................1495.10.5. Phosphine .........................................................................................................................................151
5.10.5.1. Insect resistance to phosphine ....................................................................................................................152 5.11. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES, AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE FUMIGATION OF COMMODITIES IN CHAMBER OR SILO ....................................................................................................................................................................152
5.11.1. Controlled Atmosphere- the basics..................................................................................................1525.11.2. Tools and methods............................................................................................................................153
5.11.2.1. Tools ...........................................................................................................................................................154 5.11.2.2. Methods ......................................................................................................................................................154
5.11.3 Controlled Atmosphere: 30 years of scientific research ..................................................................1555.6.3.1. Pest control efficacy .....................................................................................................................................157
5.6.3.1.1 Generic Treatment Times......................................................................................................................157 5.6.3.2. Tobacco Case Study .....................................................................................................................................157
5.12. PEST CONTROL ISSUES OF FRESH DATES....................................................................................................158 5.12.1 Case Study: Effective commercial introduction of controlled atmosphere disinfestation of dates in
Tunisia ..............................................................................................................................................1635.13. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................163
6. ALTERNATIVES TO METHYL BROMIDE FOR QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT.............186 6.1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................186 6.2. REASONS FOR QPS USES OF METHYL BROMIDE......................................................................................187 6.3. DEFINITIONS OF QUARANTINE AND PRE-SHIPMENT ...............................................................................188
6.3.1. Origin and original intent of the QPS exemption............................................................................1886.3.2. ‘Quarantine’ and ’Pre-shipment’ ....................................................................................................190
6.4. DECISIONS RELATING TO QPS USE OF METHYL BROMIDE ......................................................................193 6.5. POLICIES ON QPS USES OF METHYL BROMIDE ........................................................................................194
6.5.1. Legislation that requires methyl bromide use for QPS ...................................................................1946.5.2. Reasons for methyl bromide as the treatment of choice..................................................................1956.5.3. Policies and recommendations on methyl bromide and its alternatives under the International
Plant Protection Convention............................................................................................................1966.5.4. Party strategies (QPS) .....................................................................................................................197
6.6. MAIN USES OF METHYL BROMIDE FOR QPS PURPOSES .........................................................................197 6.6.1. Proportions of QPS use covered by IAs and domestic regulations ................................................1976.6.2. Main individual categories of use by volume ..................................................................................1986.6.3. Quantity of methyl bromide used .....................................................................................................199
6.7. KEY QUARANTINE PESTS CONTROLLED WITH METHYL BROMIDE ...........................................................202 6.8. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVES FOR THE MAJOR QPS USE CATEGORIES ...............................203 6.9. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF MB FOR QPS USES.......................................................................206
6.9.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................2066.9.2. General methods of analysis ............................................................................................................2076.9.3. Source of data and analysis .............................................................................................................2086.9.4. QPS Production trends ....................................................................................................................2096.9.5. QPS Consumption trends .................................................................................................................212
6.9.5.1. Global QPS consumption.........................................................................................................................212 6.9.5.2. Regional consumption..............................................................................................................................214
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6.9.6. Article 5 QPS consumption ..............................................................................................................2176.9.6.1. Article 5 QPS consumption bands ...........................................................................................................218 6.9.6.2. Non-A5 QPS consumption........................................................................................................................220 6.9.6.3. Non-A5 QPS consumption bands ..............................................................................................................221 6.9.6.4. Global QPS consumption bands.................................................................................................................223
6.9.7. Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................2236.10. ALTERNATIVES FOR SAWN TIMBER AND WOOD PACKAGING MATERIAL...................................................224
6.10.1. Heat treatment ..................................................................................................................................2256.10.1.1. Chemical alternatives .................................................................................................................................225 6.10.1.2. Alternatives for wood pallets and other wooden packaging materials......................................................226
6.10.2. Economic feasibility .........................................................................................................................2266.10.3. Market penetration of heat treatments compared to methyl bromide.............................................2276.10.4 Regulatory requirements and other drivers......................................................................................228
6.11. ALTERNATIVES FOR LOGS ........................................................................................................................230 6.11.1. Reduction in methyl bromide dosage...............................................................................................2306.11.2. Phosphine .........................................................................................................................................2316.11.3. Sulfuryl fluoride................................................................................................................................2326.11.4. Methyl isothocyanate/ Sulfuryl fluoride mixture .............................................................................2336.11.5. Methyl iodide ....................................................................................................................................2346.11.6. Cyanogen ..........................................................................................................................................2356.11.7. Heat...................................................................................................................................................2366.11.8. Irradiation ........................................................................................................................................2376.11.9. Water soaking or immersion ............................................................................................................2376.11.10. Debarking .......................................................................................................................................2376.11.11. Chipping and Grinding ..................................................................................................................2386.11.12. Microwaves.....................................................................................................................................2386.11.13. Economic feasibility .......................................................................................................................2386.11.14. Market penetration of alternatives.................................................................................................2396.11.15. Regulatory requirements and other drivers...................................................................................240
6.12. ALTERNATIVES FOR GRAINS AND SIMILAR FOODSTUFFS ..........................................................................241 6.12.1. Alternatives for quarantine treatments ............................................................................................2426.12.2. Alternatives for pre-shipment treatments ........................................................................................2436.12.3. Economic feasibility .........................................................................................................................2446.12.4. Regulatory requirements and other drivers.....................................................................................2456.12.5. Emerging or potential alternatives for grains and similar foodstuffs ............................................245
6.12.5.1. Pre-shipment treatments .............................................................................................................................245 6.12.5.2. Quarantine treatments.................................................................................................................................245 6.12.5.3. Carbonyl sulphide.......................................................................................................................................246
6.12.5.3.1. Efficacy ..........................................................................................................................................247 6.12.5.3.2. Phytoxicity .........................................................................................................................................247
6.12.5.4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................248 6.13. ALTERNATIVES FOR PRE-PLANT SOILS USE FOR PROPAGATIVE MATERIAL AND NURSERY USES ..............248
6.13.1. Treatment of soil with methyl bromide to control pest incursions..................................................2486.13.2. Treatment of soil with methyl bromide to control pests in propagated plants ...............................249
6.14. ALTERNATIVES FOR FRUIT AND VEGETABLES...........................................................................................250 6.14.1. Introduction – Quarantine and pre-shipment treatments................................................................2506.14.2. Selection of alternatives to methyl bromide.....................................................................................2516.14.3. Organic produce...............................................................................................................................2526.14.4. Pests that restrict market access......................................................................................................2526.14.5. Market requirements ........................................................................................................................2526.14.6. Economic impact of alternatives......................................................................................................2536.14.7. Process for developing of disinfestation treatments for market access ..........................................2536.14.8. Cold treatment ..................................................................................................................................2556.14.9. Heat treatments ................................................................................................................................256
6.14.9.1. Hot air .........................................................................................................................................................257 6.14.9.2. Vapour heat.................................................................................................................................................257 6.14.9.3. High temperature control atmospheres ......................................................................................................258 6.14.9.4. Hot water treatment ....................................................................................................................................258
6.14.10. Controlled and modified atmospheres...........................................................................................2596.14.10.1. Controlled atmosphere cold storage.........................................................................................................259 6.14.10.2. Ambient controlled atmosphere treatments .............................................................................................261 6.14.10.3. Heated controlled atmosphere treatments ................................................................................................261
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6.14.10.4. Dynamic CA/Ultra low oxygen...............................................................................................................262 6.14.11. Removal ..........................................................................................................................................263
6.14.11.1. Brushing....................................................................................................................................................263 6.14.11.2. Water blasting...........................................................................................................................................264 6.14.11.3. Moderate pressure high volume ...............................................................................................................264 6.14.11.4. High pressure water washer .....................................................................................................................264 6.14.11.5. Air-blasting ...............................................................................................................................................265
6.14.12. Irradiation ......................................................................................................................................2656.14.13. Radio frequencies and microwaves ...............................................................................................2676.14.14. Pressure treatments........................................................................................................................2696.14.15. Fumigation Treatments ..................................................................................................................270
6.14.15.1. “Generally Recognised As Safe” fumigants ............................................................................................270 6.14.15.1.1. Ethyl formate....................................................................................................................................270 6.14.15.1.2. Ozone................................................................................................................................................272 6.14.15.1.3. Ethyl acetate .....................................................................................................................................273 6.14.15.1.4. Ethanol..............................................................................................................................................273 6.14.15.1.5. Acetaldehyde....................................................................................................................................273 6.14.15.1.6. Essential oils and volatile organic compounds................................................................................273
6.14.15.2. Non GRAS fumigants...............................................................................................................................274 6.14.15.2.1. Phosphine .........................................................................................................................................274 6.14.15.2.2. Carbonyl sulphide ............................................................................................................................276 6.14.15.2.3. Cyanogen..........................................................................................................................................277 6.14.15.2.4. Methyl iodide ...................................................................................................................................277 6.14.15.2.5. Aerosol sprays ..................................................................................................................................277 6.14.15.2.6. Insecticidal dips/inline spray............................................................................................................278
6.14.15.3. Combination treatments............................................................................................................................278 6.14.15.4. Systems approach .....................................................................................................................................280
6.14.16. Existing alternative treatments to methyl bromide........................................................................2806.14.17. Treatments in the country of origin ...............................................................................................2826.14.18. In-transit treatment ........................................................................................................................2826.14.19. Treatments on arrival in the importing country ............................................................................283
6.15. SCOPE FOR REPLACEMENT OF METHYL BROMIDE USED FOR QPS APPLICATIONS.....................................285 6.15.1. Sources of information .....................................................................................................................2856.15.2. Scope for replacing MB used for QPS in non-Article 5 Parties .....................................................2866.15.3. Scope for replacing MB used for QPS in Article 5 Parties.............................................................2866.15.4. Feasibility of global replacement of methyl bromide for QPS........................................................286
6.16. OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMISSION REDUCTION AND RECOVERY OF METHYL BROMIDE USED FOR QPS .......287 6.16.1. Reducing volumes of methyl bromide use as a phytosanitary measure..........................................2876.16.2. Application of best practice .............................................................................................................287
6.17. CONSTRAINTS TO ADOPTION OF ALTERNATIVES FOR QPS USES...............................................................288 6.17.1. Economic ..........................................................................................................................................2886.17.2. Regulatory (including health issues) ...............................................................................................2916.17.3. Post-entry quarantine measures ......................................................................................................2916.16.5. Research priorities for alternatives to MB for QPS........................................................................292
6.18. REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................292 7. FACTORS THAT HAVE ASSISTED WITH METHYL BROMIDE PHASEOUT IN ARTICLE 5 COUNTRIES ........................................................................................................................................................313
7.1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................313 7.2. MLF PROJECTS IN ARTICLE 5 COUNTRIES................................................................................................313
7.2.1. Types of MB users .............................................................................................................................3137.2.2. Overview of MLF projects ................................................................................................................3147.2.3. Demonstration projects .....................................................................................................................3157.2.4. Phaseout projects .............................................................................................................................3177.2.5. Alternatives chosen in phaseout projects..........................................................................................3187.2.6. Crop specific technology choices in A5 countries............................................................................321
7.2.6.1. Ornamental crops .....................................................................................................................................321 7.2.6.2. Strawberry fruit ........................................................................................................................................322 7.2.6.3 Strawberry nurseries sector .........................................................................................................................322 7.2.6.4 Nurseries and propagation material for other crops....................................................................................323 7.2.6.5. Tomato, pepper, eggplant and other vegetables..........................................................................................323 7.2.6.6. Tobacco seedbeds ........................................................................................................................................323 7.2.6.7. Cucurbits ......................................................................................................................................................324
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6.9.6. Article 5 QPS consumption ..............................................................................................................2176.9.6.1. Article 5 QPS consumption bands ...........................................................................................................218 6.9.6.2. Non-A5 QPS consumption........................................................................................................................220 6.9.6.3. Non-A5 QPS consumption bands ..............................................................................................................221 6.9.6.4. Global QPS consumption bands.................................................................................................................223
6.9.7. Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................2236.10. ALTERNATIVES FOR SAWN TIMBER AND WOOD PACKAGING MATERIAL...................................................224
6.10.1. Heat treatment ..................................................................................................................................2256.10.1.1. Chemical alternatives .................................................................................................................................225 6.10.1.2. Alternatives for wood pallets and other wooden packaging materials......................................................226
6.10.2. Economic feasibility .........................................................................................................................2266.10.3. Market penetration of heat treatments compared to methyl bromide.............................................2276.10.4 Regulatory requirements and other drivers......................................................................................228
6.11. ALTERNATIVES FOR LOGS ........................................................................................................................230 6.11.1. Reduction in methyl bromide dosage..