2010 aps action research
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Anderson Primary School's Action Research ReportsTRANSCRIPT
ANDERSON PRIMARY
SCHOOL
ACTION RESEARCH PAPERS
2010
1
No. Project Title Page1. Using Literature To Improve Pupils’ Ability To Solve Story Sums
Mdm Diana Wong, Mdm Ng Lih Teng, Mdm Ada Lim, Mrs Lau Han Kee 4
2. PUPPETRY FARE @ STELLAR PART II - A Continued Study On Puppetry For Lower Primary StudentsMdm Cynthia Ong, Mrs Magdalene Thio, Miss Eileen Ang, Mr Patrick Lee, Mdm Tan Meow Sim
15
3. Tackling Comprehension Pasages For Lower Primary PupilsMrs. Fong Lai Leng, Ms Neo Hwee Hwee, Mr Mohd Yazid Sallim, Miss Cindy Leong Wah Jin, Mrs Teh Siew Ngoh
18
4. Scaffolding The Assessment - Does It Help The Lower Ability Pupils?Ms Amenah Ali, Mrs Chang Swee Lian, Mdm Shahrulbariah Md Arif,Mdm Chow Soon Come, Ms Kavitha Kunnasegaran.
23
5. The Effects Of Conscious – Raising Method On The Language Of Pupils In Composition WritingMs Juliarti Junidi, Mrs Lisa Kan, Mdm Siti Nurjihan, Mrs Jessamine Ravindran, Mr Ong Jin Cheng
27
6. The Use Of Cover-Copy-Compare (CCC) Strategy To Enhance Primary 4 Students’ Ability To SpellMrs Teresa Shanmugam, Mrs Chia-Low Sock Cheng, Miss Adelene Guo, Mrs Serene Soh
36
7. Can Art Therapy Help Pupils To Be More Focused?Mr Anuar Bin Adam, Mr Ramesh, Mr Chan See Meng, Mdm Wong Geok Mei, Mrs SKT Subbrahmanyam, Mrs Gloria Paul
56
8. Improving Students’ Acquisition And Retention In The Spelling Of English Words Through The Enhanced Cover-Copy-Compare (CCC) StrategyMrs Diana Tan (APS), Shobana Musti-Rao and Joanne Khaw (National Institute of Education)
64
9. The Use of Collaborative Platform, E-Portfolio, Promotes Active Learning In The Study Of Flowering PlantsMr Derek Tan, Mdm Phua Ei Ling, Mdm Neo Nah, Mr Peter Toh, Miss Fion Lim
80
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ANDERSON PRIMARY SCHOOLACTION RESEARCH PROJECTS 2010
No. Project Title Page10. Teaching Contextual Clues In Reading - A Lesson Study
ApproachMrs Haslinda Azhar, Mdm Sarabjeet Kaur, Ms Thai Ee Lin Elaine
91
11. The Effectiveness Of Using Role-Play To Improve Pupils’ Composition Writing Skills Mdm Cheong Hwee Hua, Ms Eu Lee May, Ms Kek Sor Ling, Ms Bernice Cheng, Mdm Tan Lee Siang
104
12. The Effectiveness Of Using Scaffolding Technique (扶-放-收) To Improve Students’ Composition Writing SkillsMr Ben Choo, Mdm Grace Loke, Mdm Leow Ching Lee, Miss Cheung Ka Lai, Miss Cheong Mei Yuan
116
13. Enhancing Students’ Interest In Reading Using Book Review Strategy – Visual MappingMdm Ng Xiaoyan, Mdm Koh Ah Lek, Mdm Loh Sin Fah, Mdm Poon Hui Kiang
128
14. The Effectiveness Of Using Mixed Reality To Enhance Creative Writing Skills Of Primary Four StudentsMiss Chong Shi Yan, Mr Koo Eng Huat, Mr Lee Seh Lat, Miss Wong Yuen San
141
15. The Use Of Videos In Effective Teaching Of Composition WritingCik Sabariah, Cik Wan Wardah, Mr Muhd Aidil
147
16. The Effective Use Of Rubrics In The Teaching Of Oral And Composition WritingMrs Steven, Mrs Ramathas, Mrs Mohan
152
17. Sport Stacking And Its Effect On Reading Scores In Primary 4 StudentsMr Alphonsus, Ms Zheng Yingsi, Mdm Jumiati, Mr Roseman, Mrs Wendy Yap
158
18. Using Repeated Reading And Comprehension Strategies To Enhance Primary 4 Pupils’ Reading Proficiency And Understanding Reading Passages
Miss Shaneza (APS), Shobana Musti-Rao (National Institute of Education)Yet to be published
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Using literature to improve pupils’ ability to solve story sums
ByDiana Wong, Ng Lih Teng, Ada Lim, Mrs Lau Han Kee
Anderson Primary School
Abstract
This paper investigates the effectiveness of using literature to improve pupils’ ability
to solve story sums. Selected literature books were used to provide meaningful
context to some abstract mathematical terms. Three P1 classes were involved in this
research where a structured plan on reading of the selected literature was adopted.
Findings indicate that the use of literature is an effective tool to engage pupils and
improve their ability to solve story sums.
Introduction
Abstract Mathematical concepts pose difficulties for many students. (Murphy, S,
2000) (Learning Mathematics with Virtual manipulatives). Some students find it
difficult to grasp math concepts especially when they are presented in a verbal or
numerical way. Anderson, A,, Anderson, J & Shapiro, J. discussed literature reading
as a means to teach mathematical concepts to young children. Murphy S suggested
the use of children’s literature as they can bring Math to life and also aid visual
learners with the vivid use of pictures. Whitin, Phyllis; Whitin, David J. view children
as sense-makers and offered ideas on using children’s literature to teaching
Mathematical concepts.
The use of literature is yet another approach teachers can use in providing their
students with varied experiences with mathematics. Spann (1992) states that
‘literature speaks to the heart of the child’ (Spann, 1992). Literature is a marvellous
tool for supporting problem solving learning. The books act as word problems, but
they are word problems with some interest to children. Literature connection
motivates students(Usnick & McCarthy, 1998), provokes interest (Welchman-
Tischler, 1992), helps students connect mathematical ideas to their personal
experiences (Murphy, 2000), accommodates children with different learning styles
(Murphy, 2000), and promotes critical thinking, or provides a context for using
mathematics to solve problems.
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Research conducted by Hong (1996) showed that kindergarteners exposed to story-
related mathematics exhibited a greater preference and aptitude for mathematics
activities than did those of a comparison group.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of children’s literature
in helping pupils understand of Math concepts in the local context. If it is effective,
teachers could consider using children’s literature to help children learn
Mathematics.
The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
a) Does the use of literature improve pupils’ ability to solve story sums?
b) Do the pupils enjoy listening to the literature that was read to them?
Method
Subjects
The participants came from three mixed-ability P1 classes of which one was the
control group and the other two were the experimental groups. There were 30
students in each of the three P1 classes.
Design
This is a qualitative and quantitative research using a combination of tests and oral
feedback. The three classes involved in the research study were of mixed abilities.
Measure
In this study, a reading test was conducted for all the pupils in the three classes at
the Term 3 Week 1. In this reading test, the pupils were individually tested on their
ability to read 8 Mathematical terms (see Appendix 1) which were commonly used in
story sums. These terms were selected because it was found that many pupils had
difficulties understanding and tackling these terms used. Pupils who can read 6 to 8
Mathematical terms (words) were considered competent readers.
Following the reading test, a pre test (see Appendix 2) was conducted at Term 3
Week 1 for all the pupils to identify pupils who could read but were not able to solve
story sums. The pre- test consisted of 5 story sums which incorporated Mathematical
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terms used in the reading test. Pupils who were considered competent readers but
were unable to solve 3 story sums or more were identified to form the subjects of this
study.
Following the pre test, only the 2 experimental groups were introduced to the 5
selected literatures in term 3 (see Appendix 3 for the titles of the books). Each book
was read twice or thrice within a fortnight depending on the length and difficulty level
of the book. The teacher read the book to the pupils, asked questions and elicited
responses. The Mathematical terms in the story were also emphasized and
explained. The control group continued their lessons on story sums taught in the
conventional method whereby they read and identify key words, guided with steps to
solve the sums. A post-test (with the same questions as those in the pre-test) was
conducted at the end of Term 3 for all the 3 classes.
Informal feedback was obtained from the experimental classes to find out if they had
enjoyed the literature read to them.
Procedure
Before the start of the research study, the research team realized that some pupils
can read but are not able to understand and solve Mathematics story sums. We
researched relevant articles on this topic and sourced for meaningful literature that
would help improve pupils’ understanding (MathStart Series).
The following procedure was adopted for the research study:
1. Teachers were briefed by the leader of the research team on how the research
study would be carried out.
2. Teachers selected relevant books (see Appendix 3).
3. Teachers conducted the reading test (see Appendix 1) and pre- test.
4. Teachers in the experimental groups introduced the literature to the class
1. At the end of 10 weeks, a post test was given to all 3 groups.
5. Informal assessment (observation of pupils, feedback were also carried out in
order to probe further into the students’ responses to the questionnaire.)
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Results
The following are the results of the pre and post tests taken by the 2 experimental
groups and 1 control groups.
Table 1: Pre-test and Post-test Results
Number of pupils who are competent readers but
attained less than 6 marks
Pre-Test Post-Test
Class 1.1 11 0
Class 1.3 10 0
Class 1.4 7 3
*Class 1.1 and 1.3 are the experimental groups
*Class 1.4 is the control group
Generally, 100% of students in the experimental groups showed improvement in
their test
scores. In the control group, only 57% of the pupils showed improvements.
Discussion and Recommendations
We found that students enjoyed listening to the literature being read to them. They
were observed to be responsive and made predictions when the literature was read
to them. The pupils gave oral feedback that they enjoyed the stories. This literature
provided a familiar and meaningful context for an activity with mathematical content.
They can relate that Maths is integral in their daily lives. Maths learning is made fun
and meaningful through the use of children’s literature. The pupils who are already
competent in English and Maths also benefited from the literature.
This literature approach also complements the STELLAR (Strategies for English
Language Learning and Reading) approach. STELLAR is a nationwide curriculum
which emphasises on learning of the English Language using authentic children’s
literature.
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Despite the advantages of using children’s literature in teaching Mathematics, there
are several challenges. One is the difficulty in finding books that use the standard
unit of measurement in the local context. For example, in the story ‘Super
Sandcastle Saturday’, the book used ‘inches’ (used in the U.S. context) instead of
the metric measurements. Although this approach provided a good exposure for the
brighter pupils, it could be confusing to the weaker pupils. Hence, it is important to
continue to explore and review new and relevant literature books.
The short-term use of literature as a Mathematics intervention poses as another
limitation. The research was carried out on a small scale with just three classes and
over a short duration of 10 weeks. The choice of literature was also limited. It was
also observed that the results may not be representative of the overall P1 population
as both the experimental and control groups improved during the conduct of the
study. Other worksheets and parent’s intervention at home may have contributed to
the improvements in the test scores. Therefore, it is not possible to assert that the
use of literature in the teaching of story sums was instrumental to the improvement
of the pupils’ mathematics competencies. As such, more studies will be required to
validate the results.
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REFERENCES
Anderson, A., Anderson, J. & Shapiro, J. (2004). Mathematical Discourse in
storybook reading. Journal for research in mathematics education.
Murphy, Stuart. J. (2000). Teaching math, reaching kids. Teaching Pre K-8.
Murphy, S.J. (2000). Children’s books about Math: Trade books that teach. New
Advocate, 13 (4), 365-74. [EJ 617 808)
Article: Learning Mathematics with Virtual manipulatives from
http://www.cited.org/index.aspx
Whitin, Phyllis; Whitin, David J. (2000). Math is language too: Talking and Writing in
the Mathematics Classroom.
Hong, H. (1996). Effects of mathematics learning through children’s literature on
math achievement and dispositional outcomes. Early childhood Research
Quarterly, 11 (4) 477-94. [EJ 550 959]
Usnick, V. & McCarthy, J. (1998). Turning adolescents onto mathematics through
literature. Middle School Journal, 29 (4), 50-54. [EJ 615 455]
Welchman-Tischler, R. (1992). How to use children’s literature to teach mathematics.
Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Available online at
http://watt.enc.org/online/ENC2285/2285.html.
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Appendix 1- Mathematical Terms
less than altogether
more thanleft
how many after
at first now
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Appendix 2- Pre-test
Name of Pupil: ______________________
Class: Primary 1. _____ Date: _____________
PRE/POST-TEST
Do the following sums. Draw pictures and write the number sentences to
show
your answer.
1. Peter has 4 sweets. Mary gives him 3 more. How many sweets has
he now?
___________________________
He has ______________ sweets now.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. John has 10 toy cars. Ali has 4 toy cars.
How many more toy cars does John have?
___________________________
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John has _________ more toy cars.
3. Mei Mei has 8 stickers. She has 2 less than Lily.
How many stickers does Lily have?
___________________________
Lily has ________________ stickers.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. After Susan gave 3 pencils to her sister, she has 2 pencils left. How
many pencils does she have at first?
___________________________
Susan has ________________ pencils.
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5. Bala and Alex have 9 balloons altogether. If Bala has 6 balloons, how
many balloons does Alex have?
___________________________
Alex has ________________ balloons.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remember to check your work!
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Appendix 3- Literature Titles
Book Title Topic Frequency
1 Animal on board Adding 2 times
2 Elevator Magic Subtracting 2 times
3 More or Less Comparing Numbers
3 times
4 100 days of Cool Numbers to 100 3 times
5 Supersand Castle Saturday Measurement 3 times
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PUPPETRY FARE @ STELLAR PART II
A Continued Study on Puppetry for Lower Primary Students
Cynthia OngMagdalene Thio
Eileen AngPatrick Lee
Tan Meow Sim
Abstract:
According to research findings, using puppets in the classroom can help “improve upon communication skills, overcome language barriers, and teach self-control” (Burn, 1989) and it was also concluded that “use of puppets as a teaching tool in the classroom indirectly influences student involvement through attentiveness.” (Wallace & Mishina, 2004)
In our 2009 research study, it was concluded that teacher’s intervention using puppetry has resulted in significant improvement in focus and recall of information in Primary Two pupils through improvement in comprehension assessment scores. With the adoption of the STELLAR programme for the lower primary levels, our Primary One pupils will also undergo this structured instructional programme in English.
This study attempts to investigate whether puppetry also enhances Primary One pupils’ learning in the STELLAR programme by encouraging focus and recall. It involved two classes of Primary One pupils of mixed gender and abilities, and compares pupil performance when puppetry is (i) conducted by teacher, and (ii) conducted by teacher and peer.
The comprehension OE scores from the Term 2 Review 2 paper served as the pre-intervention scores for the three classes. The intervention comprises of using stick puppets to reinforce content retention of a STELLAR book and to interact with the pupils, rather than having only the teacher reading the Big Book to pupils. The post-intervention is an OE comprehension test based on the STELLAR book taught.
Introduction:
With the adoption of the STELLAR programme across the lower primary levels One and Two this year, teachers now have a standard set of procedures to teach English language skills.
The STELLAR programme was adopted as it has been proven to be effective in teaching and in learning by pupils.
This objective of this study then is to further examine the effectiveness of dramatic strategies to enhance the STELLAR programme, in particular with the use of puppetry.
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Method:
Pre-Intervention:
Prior to the intervention, pupils from team members’ classes underwent the STELLAR programme as per normal, with the teacher reading the Big Books to pupils in class before attempting activities related the those big books. Intervention:
Puppetry was introduced for the classes involved using the big book “Mr Gumpy’s Outing”.
Teacher made use of hand puppets to tell the story and to illicit responses from the pupils for the Shared Book Reading (SBA) 1 session. For the class that underwent pupil puppetry, pupils then conducted SBA 2 using puppets with teacher reading along with pupils.
The big book was re-read again to pupils from both classes without the use of hand puppets.
Post-intervention:
After intervention, an open-ended (OE) comprehension quiz was administered to the classes after SBA 2. The number of pupils with improved scores were recorded.
Results:
The class with both Teacher & Pupil puppetry had an improvement in scores from 12 students for a total test cohort of 20. The class with Teacher puppetry only had an improvement in scores from 6 students for a total test cohort of 27.
Discussion & Recommendations:
In our research, we allowed for puppetry intervention to be conducted via both teachers and/ or students.
Although there was a significant improvement in scores of 100% of the number of students for the class with pupil puppetry compared to the class with only teacher puppetry, this improvement could be due to other factors such as differences in scaffolding. At the same time, pupils are exposed thrice to the text for Tr & Pupil Puppetry whereas pupils with only Tr puppetry read the book only twice.
Small sample sizes were used (<30) thus results are not representative of the majority of pupils.
However, puppetry is an engaging activity and we would like to recommend the use of this particularly in repeated readings of familiar big books, where students are likely to have lost interest in the content of the book. By injecting puppetry into repeated readings, pupil interest could be rekindled.
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References:
Burn, J. (1989) Express it with puppetry—an international language. In S. Hoffman, and L. Lamme (Eds.), Learning from the inside out. Wheaton, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.
Wallace, A. & Mishina, L. (2004). Relations Between The Use Of Puppetry in the Classroom, Student Attention and Student Involvement.
Skillful Teacher Pedagogies:
Management: Attention – Engaging pupils via puppetry
Motivation: Personal Relationship Building & Class Climate – Non-threatening learning environment.
Curriculum Planning: Objectives – To enhance pupils’ focus and recall. Planning – Creating appropriate hand puppets to suit the story used. Assessment – Pre and post comprehension activity and scores. Learning experiences – Learning through enactment.
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ANDERSON PRIMARY SCHOOLACTION RESEARCH 2010
TACKLING COMPREHENSION PASSAGES FOR
LOWER PRIMARY PUPILS
Done by:Mrs. Fong Lai Leng
Ms Neo Hwee Hwee
Mr Mohd Yazid Sallim
Miss Cindy Leong Wah Jin
Mrs Teh Siew Ngoh
Tackling Comprehension Passages for Lower Primary Pupils
Abstract
In Singapore schools, reading comprehension is widely used as a means to
assess a child’s language ability. In the lower primary language exams paper,
reading comprehension makes up 20% of the total score of the language paper. It
requires a child to first read a passage and then answers the questions that follow.
Though it sounds simple, reading comprehension requires higher thinking skills of
comprehending, classifying, summarising, inferring and explaining.
Item Analysis of the lower primary English examination papers has shown that
reading comprehension has the greatest percentage of failures as compared to the
other sections. One possible reason for this high failure is the lack of explicit
teaching for reading comprehension.
Although the STELLAR program is in place to standardise each pupil’s
English learning experience in class, the program does not place emphasis on
answering reading comprehension passages and it has no recommended strategy
for teachers to teach reading comprehension. However, pupils are still expected to
be able to read, understand and answer comprehension passages.
The problems faced by pupils are multi-fold. The weakest pupils may not even
be able to read most of the words to start with. The next tier of pupils is those who
can decode the words, read the passage fairly fluently but do not understand the
passage in entirety. For pupils who do understand the passage, the problem then
lies in providing the right answers, content-wise, to the given questions. When they
do have the right answers, some pupils are not able to phrase their answers
correctly resulting in them not excelling in this section.
The focus of this research is on the pupils who are able to decode the words,
read the passage but may not understand the passage in its entirety. A strategy of
“identifying key words” and summarising” was taught to the pupils attending the
remedial classes of the teachers involved in the research. A pre-test was conducted
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for these pupils and after about ten weeks of using the strategy, a post-test was
conducted. Their pre-test results are also compared to their results in the
comprehension section in their Semestral Examination.
Introduction
Teachers, particularly beginning teachers, are often at a loss as to how they can
teach pupils on how to answer comprehension questions accurately and correctly.
This is probably because, when they were in school, they were not taught explicitly
how they can tackle comprehension passages. Explicit instruction appears to be
crucial in pupils’ success. When researchers explicitly taught kids these
comprehension-fostering strategies, kids not only learned to apply the strategies they
were taught, but the instruction had positive effects on students’ general
comprehension as well (Harvey and Goudvis 2007).
With that in mind, we taught our pupils a strategy where they could identify and
classify the information found in the passages. Classifying is one of the dimensions
of the cognitive process. Classifying occurs when a student recognizes that
something (e.g. a particular instance or example) belongs to a certain category (e.g.
concept or principle) (Anderson, Krathwohl et al, 2001). Pupils are then taught to
present, in table form, the information that they have classified. They are then taught
to evaluate the information to identify the most likely answers.
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Method
Profile of PupilsThe research involved pupils in the remedial classes of five primary 2 English
teachers. The subjects were not randomly assigned. They were identified as the
weaker pupils (but not LSP nor LSM pupils) based on their Primary 1 results and
selected to be in the remedial classes. Their English scores range from low Band 2
to Band 4.
ProcedurePupils sat for a pre-test, followed by four weeks of instruction and a post-test.
Design
There were a total of 29 pupils. They sat for a pre-test and were told to answer five
questions of a reading comprehension without guidance from their teachers. The
pupils scored a mean of 6.7 marks.
Teachers then taught the pupils a modified QAR approach to answer reading
comprehension passages. Teachers also drew up a summary table where pupils can
classify their answers to “who”, “what”, “when”, “where” and “why” questions. A
checklist was also included to remind pupils to check their work.
A total of four lessons were conducted where pupils were guided each time to
1) apply the modified QAR approach
2) use the table to classify information from the passage
3) use the checklist to correct minor grammatical and punctuation mistakes.
At the end of the four lessons, a post-test was conducted. Pupils had to attempt a
comprehension passage that was similar to the pre-test but pupils were given the
table and checklist to help them organize and check their answers. The pupils
scored a mean of 5.2 marks.
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Results
A paired samples t-test was conducted to compare the comprehension scores of
students before and after the Modified QAR approach. There was a significant
decrease in performance from the pre-test (M=5.22, SD=2.50; t(28)= 2.70, p= .01)
Mean Std. Deviation
Pre-test 6.6552 1.63174
Post-test 5.2241 2.50209
The results showed pupils’ scores decreased by 1.43 in the post-test as compared to
the pre-test.
Discussion
Our group realised that there were numerous flaws in our design.
Firstly, the sample size of 29 is too small to draw any concrete conclusion about the
effectiveness of the strategy involved. Secondly, a lack of control group makes it
difficult to eliminate the possibility that the subjects were not able to learn the
strategy effectively and not that the strategy itself was not effective. Lastly, even
though much effort has been put in to ensure that the pre-test passage and post-test
passage were similar, on hindsight, the questions asked in the pre-test were more
direct and therefore easier to answer than the inferential questions asked in the post-
test.
Our group will continue to fine-tune the modified QAR approach. We would like to
propose the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies in primary one. A
more structured and standardised approach towards the teaching of the strategy is
also being explored where pupils are first taught to answer the simpler questions of
“who”, “where” and “which” before the “when”, “what” and “why” questions.
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Scaffolding the assessment, does it help the lower-ability pupils?Ms Amenah Ali, Mrs Chang Swee Lian, Mdm Shahrulbariah Md Arif,
Mdm Chow Soon Come, Ms Kavitha Kunnasegaran.24th Nov 2010
AbstractEvery child needs to learn what is in the curriculum, as the curriculum is designed to
prepare all children for successful living in society. Rutherford (2008:4) proposes that the instructional and assessment methods may be different in order to assist the learning of every child. Learning and teaching is a two-way interactive process. In addition, assessment goes hand in hand in teaching. Assessment is an ongoing process that informs and guides instructions. Teachers may use a variety of assessment tools and procedures to monitor, document and evaluate pupils’ learning and academic performance. According to Tompkins (2006:298), tests are probably the best known form of assessment. Our team is studying the relationship between differentiated and non-differentiated (mainstream) assessments or tests of the pupils’.
Data is collected through mainstream tests and their respective differentiated tests. Ms Amenah designed the differentiated tests. These tests are modified from the mainstream tests. They are meant to scaffold the pupils in answering mainstream tests. A total of 30 pupils are selected from six P2 classes.
IntroductionOne of the reasons of assessment is to evaluate students’ thinking and learning,
(Duncan, 2009:174). Duncan proposes that assessment must recognise that pupils learn at different rates and show growth in many ways. Downey (2009:200) suggested schools should target ‘low-achieving students in order to get the greatest gains over time’. We, as educators, need to give low-ability pupils second chance to show success, (Guskey, 2007). After all, it is what our pupils learn after their time with us that really matters. Wormeli (2006:8) agreed that what our pupils learn is the greatest testimony for us as teachers.
Our team would like to find out whether our pupils perform better in both tests and examinations after they had been given differentiated assessments / tests. If we were to acknowledge that pupils progress at different rates, then provisions should be made that they be assessed differently. We also agreed with Downey (2009) that, no one strategy is going to make a difference in our schools. Nonetheless, we proposed differentiated assessments as a means to scaffold our low-ability pupils and to help them learn.
MethodSubjects
A total of 30 pupils are selected from P2.2 (5), P2.3 (4), P2.4 (5), P2.5 (5), P2.8 (8) and P2.9 (3).
DesignThis research is studying the relationship between differentiated and non-
differentiated assessments or tests of the pupils’. Thus we are looking into the correlation between low-ability pupils’ differentiated and non-differentiated assessments. Ultimately, we
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are looking into whether we are able to help low-ability pupils perform well during the final examination after going through differentiated assessments throughout the year.
P2 pupils sit for two formal tests per term (from Term1 to Term 3). Low-ability pupils in our selected list also sit for the respective differentiated tests a few days before the mainstream formal tests. The research is designed to span three terms.
MeasureThis research will use data from differentiated and non-differentiated assessments to
accept or reject the following null hypothesis.
H0: Differentiated assessment has no effect on the pupils’ performance in tests and examinations.
Data AnalysisThe line graphs indicated that no two pupils have similar pattern of line graphs. The scores of the pupils are also inconsistent.
The graph of total scores, indicated that pupils scored better in the differentiated tests. Although the total scores of Reviews are lower than their respective total scores of differentiated tests, the graph indicated that there is a gradual improvement of scores from Review 2 to Review 5.
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Limitations and RecommendationsThere are too many variables in this study. Future studies should consider the gender and the personalities of the pupils. There could also be a control group to strengthen the validity of the study. An oversight is the absence of parental consent prior to the implementation of the study. Conclusion
From the graphs, we do not have a conclusive outcome. We can neither reject nor accept the null hypothesis. Although there is a gradual improvement through the Reviews, as well as, an improvement in P2 Overall from P1 Overall we cannot be certain that this improvement is the result of the pupils being motivated after taking the differentiated tests. Other possible factors like an effective STELLAR programme or the growing maturity of the pupils could be responsible for the improvement.
Despite our inability to prove that differentiated tests help improve pupils’ assessment scores, we have achieved in motivating the subjects. We end our study by citing Gipes, (2010:6) ‘Developing a positive self-concept and attitude is often the most important part of a student’s literacy program.’
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Bibliography
Downey, C. J. et al (2009). 50 ways to close the achievement gap. 3rd ed., USA: Corwin Press
Duncan, A., Kryza, K & Stephens, S. (2009). Inspiring Elementary Learners. USA: Corwin Press
Gipe, J. (2010). Multiple Paths to Literacy. 7th Ed. USA: Pearson Education
Guskey, T. (2007). Using assessments to improve teaching and learning. In D. Reeves (Ed.), Ahead of the curve: The power of assessment to transform teaching and learning. Bloomington, Indiana: Solution Tree. (secondary source)
Rutherford, P. (2008). Instruction for ALL Students. 2nd Ed. USA: JUST ASK Publications.
Tompkins, G. E. (2006). Literacy for the 21st Century, A Balanced Approach. USA: Pearson Education.
Wormeli, R. (2006). Fair isn’t always equal. USA: Sternhouse Publishers
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ANDERSON PRIMARY SCHOOLAction Research Project 2010
Project name The Effects of Conscious – Raising Method on the Language of
Pupils in Composition Writing
Abstract
Language forms a large proportion of marks in Composition assessment. Hence, it is
important that pupils do not make too many mistakes in language in Composition Writing as
this will reduce their overall Composition scores. However, it has been observed that many
pupils often make many grammatical mistakes in their language errors. In many cases, the
pupils do not have a way of reviewing their Composition for any language error. This study
seeks to examine how the language in Composition writing can be improved through a
conscious-raising method. Using an experimental design, two P3 classes are selected for the
study. The experimental class will be taught how to review their grammar by highlighting all
the tenses in their Composition writing. After that, the pupils will examine them for any error
and then correct them. The control class will be taught Composition writing the same way as
the experimental class. However, these pupils will not be taught how to review their
grammar. The duration of study will be 5 weeks. Data collected will be examined to indicate
whether any improvement has been in the experimental class and conclusion drawn from it.
Members &Presenters
Ms Juliarti JunidiMrs Lisa KanMdm Siti NurjihanMrs Jessamine RavindranMr Ong Jin Cheng
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Rationale:
The students have high tendency to use the wrong form of verbs in their writing. The
students have been taught on the correct usage of the verbs and to apply this to their
writing process. However, they do not make the conscious effort to proof read their
writing. Thus, they do not achieve high marks in the language criteria for their
composition writing. The approach of conscious-raising method which focuses on the
language in pupils’ composition writing will raise pupils’ awareness of grammatical
features of the language, hence improving their overall composition marks.
Objective:
This research aims to find out how effective is the conscious – Raising Method on the
Language of Pupils in Composition Writing
Introduction:
Traditional vs Conscious-Raising Approach
In the traditional approach to teaching grammar, the goal is to instill correct grammatical
patterns and habits directly. It is more of a procedural knowledge of it. In contrast, the
consciousness-raising approach describes the rule of grammar and applying it in pattern
practice drills.
Ellis (2002) defines consciousness-raising as an approach to the teaching of grammar
through drills, grammar explanation, and other form-focused activities. It is a way of
raising pupils’ awareness of grammatical features of the language to equip pupils with a
better understanding of a specific grammatical feature.
28
The main characteristics of consciousness-raising activities proposed by Ellis (2002)
involve:
1. there should be an effort to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention;
2. the learners are provided with data which illustrate the targeted feature and an explicit
rule description or explanation;
3. the learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the specific
feature;
4. misunderstanding or incomplete understanding of the grammatical structure by the
learners leads to clarification in the form of further data and description or
explanation; and
5. learners are required (though not crucial) to articulate the rule describing the
grammatical feature.
In short, in consciousness-raising, learners are required to notice a certain feature of
language (that is, sentence patterns), but there is no requirement to produce or
communicate the certain sentence patterns taught.
To summarize, practice is directed at the acquisition of implicit knowledge of a
grammatical structure. That is the sort of unspoken knowledge required for applying the
structure effortlessly for communication. Consciousness-raising is geared for the
formation of explicit knowledge: the kind of intellectual knowledge which we are able to
gather about any subject (Ellis, 2002).
29
Steps taken in our Consciousness-Raising Activity:
Controlled and Experimental Group:
3.4 (controlled group) 3.7 (experimental group)
Students in both experimental and controlled classes are guided through the
brainstorming process using the 5W1H question tags. (Strategy used by
Primary 3 level)
Students do not go through this stage Target structure: Teacher goes
through with students on verbs and
ways of correctly identifying and
correcting them. Examples are shown.
Students proceed to write their picture composition
Students do not go through this stage Students identify and underline the
verbs in their own writing. They are to
analyse they have used the correct verbs
i.e past/present tense, in their sentences.
30
Why do we use conscious - raising method
Verbs are conjugated (inflected) to reflect how they are used. There are two general
areas in which conjugation occurs; for person and for tense. CR method allows
pupils to see examples of verbs in different forms, for example When we use the
infinitive ‘to’ form of the verb, the next form of verb will be in its present participle
form, i.e: to begin.
CR method can be applied to pupils with different learning styles. Not all pupils
respond well to a teacher-directed lesson. Many pupils ‘switch off’ as soon as the
teacher starts talking or may passively receive information and give appropriate
answers without actually processing anything. If the lesson is more student-oriented,
then they are more likely to be remembered and understood.
CR method present verbs in context which is generally created by the pupils
themselves. Traditionally, pupils are taught verbs in isolation of textbooks and
activity books. When pupils learn from the context, they see and learn for
themselves the correct form of verb that should appear in the sentence structure.
CR method encourages cooperative learning. Rather than individually processing
verb forms and then producing them together, pupils work together cooperatively to
process the language.
CR method is involves peer checking and develops their Socio-Emotional Learning
aspects. Pupils develop on their interpersonal skills and relationship management
when they check each other’s writing. They learn how to respond appropriately
when being corrected by their peers.
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Advantages / Disadvantages of Conscious-Raising activity in class
From our findings, we observed that the pupils had become more positive and more
aware of their learning processes. Pupils responded well to being told why the need for
the consciousness-raising method in their composition writing. It allows pupils to make
their own assumptions and they took on a more conscious effort to identify the correct
form of verb in the sentence. They then confirm it with their peers about their writing
and in which area that they should improve on. This also gives the teacher an
opportunity to assess how well the pupils are able to use the grammar item.
Conclusion
To conclude, the consciousness-raising method in composition is considered ideal for our
pupils as they provide input and grammar in context. Pupils potentially find this type
method of learning, informative and motivating in a way that traditional grammar
exercises are not.
Skillful Teacher Pedagogy
Clarity, Models of teaching (Instructional Strategies)
Time, Discipline (Management)
Our group felt that CR method utilizes instructional strategies well as the students are
taught principles of learning which includes self-directed. Thus clarity in instructions are
crucial as students need to be taught how to gear themselves for this independent learning
method. And it is only fitting that time and discipline management is needed when
32
students are engaged in their independent learning. These strategies are infused as much
as possible into our lessons in order to observe results.
References
Ellis, R. (1991) Second language acquisition & language pedagogy. Bristol, UK:
Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Krashen, S. D. & Terrell, T. D. (1983) The natural approach. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Willis, D. & Willis, J. (1996) Consciousness-raising activities. Retrieved October 10, 2009 from http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/documents/7c-r.doc
33
Appendix
Appendix 1: Lesson Plan
Level: Primary 3 Date: Term 3 Week 5Topic: Composition writing Duration: 60 mins (CONTROL)
90 mins(EXPERIMENTAL)
Instructional Objectives:By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. write a composition based on a given set picture 2. identify verbs in their composition and correct them accordingly
Time Activities Rationale Resources15mins
Additional 15 mins
Pre-Activity Teacher will show work flow of lesson using word web Teacher will show students the picture composition on
visualisor and elicit response from students Teacher will ask students their ideas on what the scenario
is about Teacher will bring their attention to the helping words
provided and how to use them appropriately Teacher will write guiding sentences to help students
Elaboration on introduction, addressing the 5WIH and sensory words to describe the picture
What do you think this story is about? How are we going to start this story? Beginning
sentences? What else can we write about for this picture?
What makes a good introduction? How do we go about starting to write about the second
picture? Paragraphing? Next, how do we start the next picture? Is this the
climax? What makes a good climax? How are we going to end the story? What makes a
good ending?
EXPERIMENTAL PART Teacher will ask students what they remember about verbs Students will give some examples Teacher will ask students the usage of past tense and
present tense in composition writing Teacher will show some examples Teacher will teach students how to read and check
their composition to look for verbs and make corrections accordingly.
Students will be asked to underline the words which
Tuning-in Sieve students’
prior knowledge.
Making learning purposes known.
PPT slides
(REFER to APPENDIX 3)
34
are verbs Teacher will remind students to make conscious effort
to be more aware of tenses they use This can be extended to teach them to be more
conscious of other task they do so as to be more aware of the grammar items and not to repeat common/recurring mistakes
Teacher will also elicit that this checking method is good to practice and to be cultivated as a habit even up to higher level.
40min WRITING ACTIVITY Teacher will ask students to write their composition Teacher will then tell students that they are going to
develop their story by adding more expressions, feelings to make their story more interesting.
Teacher will write on the whiteboard the time at which the students should stop writing.
EXPERIMENTAL 10 minutes before the time ends, teacher will tell pupils to
start reading the composition and underline the verbs and make the necessary changes
Addressing LO 1 and LO 2
2mins Post-activity Teacher will collect students’ work for marking
Checking of students’ understanding
35
36
THE USE OF COVER-COPY-COMPARE (CCC) STRATEGY TO ENHANCE
PRIMARY 4 STUDENTS’ ABILITY TO SPELL
Teresa Shanmugam, Chia-Low Sock Cheng,
Adelene Guo, Serene Soh
Anderson Primary School
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of the use of CCC on students’
ability to spell. Students from an English remedial class participated in this study which
involved 3 lesson cycles. We conducted pre-tests and post-tests to determine the
effectiveness of CCC. The findings revealed that there was no significant difference in
the post test results. The study also explored the pedagogical implications of the use of
lesson study on the teachers.
Using the Lesson Study research protocol, the team designed a research lesson
incorporating the CCC strategy which was first introduced to a P4 class by NIE. After the
first round of piloting this strategy, we have decided to use this approach as part of our
Lesson Study research.
In this study, a group of P4 teachers worked collaboratively to come up with a lesson
plan for a P4 EL Remedial lesson. The lesson was conducted by one member in the team,
while the rest of the members acted as observers of the lesson. Thereafter, the group
37
engaged in a small group discussion to reflect and revise on the lesson conducted. With
the feedback and revision, the team carried out the improved lesson again
Introduction
From being teacher-centred to student-centred, lesson study has been credited with
changing Japan’s classroom practices, resulting in decades of steady improvement in
elementary education. It represented the teachers’ school-based efforts to realize their
vision of student learning and long-term development. Lesson study is a potentially
powerful tool in achieving improved instructional practices and school-based curriculum
innovations to nurture engaged learners.
Research on design and implementation involves documenting change over time. There
was a mixed approach in data collection. End-of-cycle surveys and pre- and post-tests of
students enabled us to obtain a view of the implantation patterns. Observations, video-
taped lessons, surveys and research lessons provided qualitative data.
Cover, Copy, and Compare (CCC) is a simple, efficient, self-managed academic
intervention that can be used to improve accuracy, fluency, and maintenance across
students, curricula objectives, academic skill domains, and settings. (Skinner, 1997).
CCC requires students to cover a written word, respond by copying the same word and
evaluate the responses by comparing it to the original word.
38
In the beginning of the year, one of the Primary 4 classes carried out a separate AR
project to investigate the effectiveness of the CCC approach in improving students’
acquisition and retention of Spelling words.. The AR project was a joint collaboration
between Anderson Primary School (APS) and National Institute of Education (NIE). This
project was carried out with an intention of using the CCC strategy and Lesson Study
approach to benefit both the teachers and students. It provided a platform and structure
for teachers to communicate and interact despite their busy schedules. It also gives
students the opportunity to learn spelling in a different way (CCC).
Lesson Study embodies many features are effective to focus on meaningful problems,
taking explicit account of the contexts of teaching and the experiences of teachers, and
providing on-site teacher support within a collegial network.
During this lesson study process, teachers collaborated to:
1) formulate long-term goals for students to enhance their ability to spell,
therefore leading to an increased mastery of the language;
2) plan and conduct lessons based on research and observation in order to ensure
students’ ability to spell would improve;
3) carefully observe the level of students’ learning, their engagement, and their
behaviors during the lesson; and
39
4) hold debriefing sessions with their collaborative groups to discuss and revise
the lesson accordingly (Lewis, 2002b).
Method
CCC (Cover, Copy, Compare) strategy was used in our lesson study to find out the
impact it has on the pupils’ ability in spelling.
The group of P4 teachers met to discuss and decide on the target group and the best time
to conduct this research study. Pupils from the English remedial class were selected and
the study was conducted during the remedial lesson after school so as not to disrupt
curriculum time. The teachers also included a vocabulary worksheet based on the
selected words from the spelling list. Three lesson cycles were conducted. Each lesson
cycle was conducted by a different teacher with 3 other teachers acting as observers who
followed a checklist on how the pupils responded during the lesson.
Initially, pupils ranging from Middle-ability to Low-ability group were selected. They
went through the following procedure:
A pre-test (10 words)
Teaching of the meanings of the words using ppt. Examples of how the
words are used in a sentence. Pupils then tried to construct their own
sentences verbally.
40
Vocabulary exercise – a vocabulary worksheet was given to pupils to do
after the lesson
Learning to spell the words using CCC strategy. Pupils were given a piece
of paper with the list of words. Pupils to:-
- Study a word carefully.
- Cover the copied word with a sheet of paper or fold the paper and
write the word from memory.
- Check the word and compare with the original word.
- If the word was correctly spelt from memory, place a tick mark and
move onto the next word.
- If the word was spelt wrongly, repeat steps.
A post-test was conducted on the same list of words as in the pre-test
After each lesson, the teachers met to give their observations using the checklist and to
make any improvement needed for the next lesson. Based on the first observation, the
number of participants was reduced and 5 words from the previous lesson were added as
a form of revision in the next lesson cycle.
41
Results Analysis
Test 1 Scores
Student Pre Post
Difference
(Post – Pre)
A 10 10 0
B 7 10 3
C 6 10 4
D 10 10 0
E 10 10 0
F 10 10 0
G 8 10 2
H 5 9 4
I 9 10 1
J 9 10 1
K 7 10 3
L 7 10 3
M 4 10 6
N 3 10 7
O 10 150 0
P 4 9 5
Mean 7.4375 9.875 2.438
A Hypothesis Test was done based on the sample mean score difference between the pre
and post tests to ascertain the effectiveness of CCC.
42
We used the paired t test to find out the difference between the pre and post test scores.
Owing to the small sample size of the group, the two-tailed test was employed at
significance level of 5%.
Test Total (N) Sample
mean
difference
(µpost - µpre )
Sample
standard
deviation of
differences
Test
Statistic
(t)
Critical
Statistic
(Tα) where
α = 0.05
1 16 2.438 2.235 4.3633 1.753
Hypothesis Test:
H0 (Null Hypothesis) : µ0 = 0 (µpost - µpre = 0)
Ha (Alternative Hypothesis) : µpost - µpre > 0
At significance level of 5%, we will reject H0 if t > T0.05, where T0.05 is based on 15
degrees of freedom. Since Test Statistic (t) = 4.3633 > T0.05 (15) = 1.753, we can conclude
that the sample mean of post scores (after the use of CCC) exceeds the sample mean of
pre scores (before the use of CCC).
We repeat the same process for Tests 2 and 3.
43
Test 2 Scores
Student Pre Post
Difference
(Post – Pre)
A 9 10 1
B 9 10 1
C 6 10 4
D 7 9 2
E 9 10 1
F 8 10 2
G 6 10 4
H 5 10 5
I 8 10 2
J 7 8 1
K 9 10 1
L 7 10 3
M 6 10 4
N 2 8 6
O 10 10 0
P 2 9 7
Mean 6.875 9.625 2.75
Test Total (N) Sample
mean
difference
(µpost - µpre )
Sample
standard
deviation of
differences
Test
Statistic
(t)
Critical
Statistic
(Tα) where
α = 0.05
2 16 2.75 1.984 5.544 1.753
44
Hypothesis Test:
H0 (Null Hypothesis) : µ0 = 0 (µpost - µpre = 0)
Ha (Alternative Hypothesis) : µpost - µpre > 0
At significance level of 5%, we will reject H0 if t > T0.05, where T0.05 is based on 15
degrees of freedom. Since Test Statistic (t) = 5.544 > T0.05 (15) = 1.753, we can conclude
that the sample mean of post scores (after the use of CCC) exceeds the sample mean of
pre scores (before the use of CCC).
45
Test 3 Scores
Student Pre Post
Difference
(Post – Pre)
A 9 10 1
B 8 10 2
C 6 10 4
D 9 10 1
E 6 10 4
F 6 10 4
G 5 10 5
H 8 10 2
I 7 10 3
J 8 8 0
K 5 10 5
L 4 10 6
M 4 10 6
N 2 10 8
O 9 9 0
P 0 9 9
Mean 6 9.75 3.75
46
Test Total (N) Sample
mean
difference
(µpost - µpre )
Sample
standard
deviation of
differences
Test
Statistic
(t)
Critical
Statistic
(Tα) where
α = 0.05
3 16 3.75 2.61 5.747 1.753
Hypothesis Test:
H0 (Null Hypothesis) : µ0 = 0 (µpost - µpre = 0)
Ha (Alternative Hypothesis) : µpost - µpre > 0
At significance level of 5%, we will reject H0 if t > T0.05, where T0.05 is based on 15
degrees of freedom. Since Test Statistic (t) = 5.747 > T0.05 (15) = 1.753, we can conclude
that the sample mean of post scores (after the use of CCC) exceeds the sample mean of
pre scores (before the use of CCC).
47
Spelling Tests Scores (Without explicit Spelling and Vocabulary instructions)
Student Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
A 13 14 14
B 15 5 14
C 12 11 8
D 11 13 15
E 11 13 15
F 13 14 13
G 8 10 8
H 5 8 4
I 14 15 13
J 12 2 7
K 12 14 15
L 13 13 10
M 8 13 5
N 3 2 7
O 13 11 13
P 2 7 1
Test Mean (%)
Without
instructions
68.3%
With instructions 97.5%
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SURVEY
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Before CCC
1. I liked spelling.19.44%
55.56
% 22.22% 2.78%
2. I learnt spelling by myself.36.11%
36.11
% 22.22% 5.56%
3. I learnt spelling with the help of my
parents/siblings/friends.
19.44%
33.33
% 25.00% 22.22%
4. I scored well in spelling.
11.11%
50.00
% 33.33% 5.56%
5. I found it difficult to learn the
spelling words.
8.33%
22.22
% 50.00% 19.44%
6. I understood the meanings of the
words in the spelling list.
27.78%
33.33
% 30.56% 8.33%
After CCC
7. I like spelling. 55.56% 27.78 11.11% 5.56%
49
%
8. I learn spelling by myself.
58.33%
30.56
% 8.33% 2.78%
9. I learn spelling with the help of my
parents/siblings/friends. 19.44%
36.11
% 22.22% 22.22%
10. I score well in spelling.
22.22%
61.11
% 11.11% 5.56%
11. I find it difficult to learn the
spelling words.
8.33%
27.78
% 41.67% 22.22%
12. I understand the meanings of the
words in the spelling list.
44.44%
36.11
% 13.89% 5.56%
13. I enjoy doing CCC.
63.89%
16.67
% 8.33% 11.11%
14. I will recommend the CCC strategy
to my friends. 47.22%
41.67
% 5.56% 5.56%
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Findings and Discussion
From the data above, it can be concluded that the sample mean of post scores (after the
use of CCC) exceeds the sample mean of pre scores (before the use of CCC). Teachers
were confident that students had made improvements as there were significant
differences between the Pre- and Post-Tests. Without explicit Spelling and Vocabulary
instructions from the teacher, students did not perform as well as they did during CCC
lesson cycles. Therefore, it is important for teachers to go through the CCC lesson cycle
with the students before they do their Spelling tests.
Based on the survey results, we can conclude the following:
More students showed interest in spelling after the programme and felt that they
score well in it.
Students found it easier to learn spelling after CCC has been taught.
A majority of them enjoyed doing CCC and would recommend the CCC strategy
to their friends.
Through lesson observations, the use of CCC generated much interest and
engagement in students’ learning. They took ownership of their own learning.
After going through the whole Lesson Study process which lasted for about 3 months, the
following are some learning points to reflect and review on.
51
Lesson Study is a collaborative research and experience for the teachers. It provided a
professional development opportunity for teachers involved to come together to discuss
new pedagogies to enhance the teaching and learning process. There were many learning
opportunities for the teachers to study and learn from one another in every stage of the
process. The discussion sessions allowed teachers to clear up inconsistencies and gaps in
our understanding and teaching. The quality of lesson plans and materials were revised
and improved upon during each post lesson conference. Through constant revision of the
lesson, we believe that students benefited and were more engaged. The teachers acquired
professional knowledge through constant reviews and discussions.
Lesson Study created a more open culture among the teachers. Teachers also began to be
more receptive towards others observing their lessons and feedback that were given to
them. We were more reflective, adaptive and open to ideas in our teaching. The platform
strengthened teachers’ team spirit as we collaborated and motivated one another as a
community of practitioners.
Instead of focusing on the teacher, Lesson Study focuses on students’ engagement. The
lesson observations gave the teachers the opportunity to observe how our students learn
and have a better understanding of students’ thinking processes. When we were more
aware of how the students learn, we were able to revise the lessons to suit their needs.
52
Recommendations
To assist further research in this area, we recommend the following:
1) Provide a longer time frame for future intervention. It could be increased to 10
cycles spanning over a period of 10 weeks. Students need more time to be
familiarised with the CCC strategy.
2) Having the same teacher to teach the same group of pupils throughout the
lesson cycle so as to maintain the same learning environment.
3) Student engagement was a challenge as the lessons were held after school.
Coupled with the end of year examinations approaching, it was difficult to get
students focused. Therefore, lessons could be held during curriculum time.
4) CCC technique could be reinforced further during EL lessons so that students
will apply the skill they have acquired and help them improve in their
spelling.
5) As an observer in a Research Lesson, s/he should play a passive role instead
of intervening in the lesson like correcting the students’ work or giving
students any instructions.
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6) Conduct a Post-Test a week or so after the lesson cycles to check on the
retention of learning of the students.
References
Skinner, C, McLaughlin. T and Logan, P. (1997). Cover, Copy, and Compare: A Self-
Managed Academic Intervention Effective Across Skills, Students, and Settings. Journal
of Behavioural Education, Vol. 7, Number 3, pg 295-306.
Lewis, C. (2000, April). Lesson Study: The core of Japanese professional development.
Paper presented at American Educational Research Association (AERA) meetings, New
Orleans, LA. Retrieved from http://www.lessonresearch.net/aera2000.pdf
54
Annex
Observer’s Checklist – CCC
Date of Session: ___________________ Observer: ____________________
Implementer: _____________________ Session/ Week: ________________
S.No Steps Step
Completed
Observer Notes
Yes No
Pre-test
1. Students have difficulties
completing the test.
2. Students are showing signs of
stress.
3. Students are able spell the words
within the given time.
Vocabulary Instruction
1. Students are responding chorally.
2. Students are able to form a
sentence with the given word.
Vocab Test
1. Students have difficulties
55
completing the test.
2. Students are showing signs of
stress.
3. Students are able complete the
test within the given time.
Spelling Instruction
1. Students are able to model the
CCC strategy step-by-step using
one example.
2. Students are engaged in strategy.
Spelling Test
1. Students have difficulties
completing the test.
2. Students are showing signs of
stress.
3. Students are able spell the words
within the given time.
4. Students are able to complete the
test in a shorter time.
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Can Art Therapy help pupils to be more focused?
ByMr Anuar Bin Adam
Mr RameshMr Chan See Meng
Mdm Wong Geok MeiMrs SKT Subbrahmanyam
Mrs Gloria Paul
Anderson Primary SchoolAbstract
Art therapy is based on the idea that art is a means of symbolic communication. This approach, often referred to as art psychotherapy, emphasizes the products—drawings, paintings, and other art expressions—as helpful in communicating issues, emotions, and conflicts. The art image becomes significant in enhancing verbal exchange between the person and the therapist and in achieving insight; resolving conflicts; solving problems; and formulating new perceptions that in turn lead to positive changes, growth, and healing.
The purpose of art therapy is much the same as in any other psychotherapeutic modality: to improve or maintain mental health and emotional well-being. Art therapy generally utilizes drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, and other forms of visual art expression. It helps people to discover what underlying thoughts and feelings are being communicated in their artwork and what it means to them. It is hoped that these people will not only gain insight and judgment, but perhaps develop a better understanding of themselves and the way they relate to the people around them.
This action research thus answers the question whether Art Therapy can help pupils to be more focused.
57
Introduction
Art Therapy is a combination of art and psychology. Art therapy is the therapeutic use of art making. Through creating art and reflecting on the art products and processes, people can increase awareness of self and others. Art therapy fosters use of both sides of the brain. The nonverbal art expression is primarily a right brain process; the writing comes from the left-brain language centers. Art Therapy helps people to resolve conflicts and problems, develop interpersonal skills, manage behavior, reduce stress, increase self-esteem and self-awareness, and achieve insight.
Art therapy works on many levels: through the absorption in the art-making process, through the dynamics of relationships, through the dynamics of conscious and unconscious and through reflections on the content of the image itself. At the centre of art therapy is the understanding that all of the above can lead to change. Art Therapy does not require prior knowledge of any art skills.
The art therapist may offer technical help, encourage expression, facilitate a creative environment, reflect on individual or group process, offer information or point out possibilities the client had not seen. But her constant attitude is to encourage and empower the client to find and develop their capacities and skills.
Art therapy involves visual expression on different levels of complexity. A human being functions as a whole organism, and at any given time, many brain processes and areas are active and involved. The interaction with art media in art therapy can proceed from the peripheral stimulation of the different sensory modalities or from spontaneous expression of emotions, or both. An expression through art media can also originate from complex cognitive activity involving decisions and internal imagery, thus activating the sensory channels and motor activity.
The process of expression through art media and the products created in an art therapy session engage and are perceived predominantly through the tactile-haptic and visual sensory and perceptual channels, and then are processed for their affect, associations, and meaning through cognitive and verbal channels. These activities involve different motor, somatosensory, visual, emotional, and cognitive aspects of information processing with the activation of the corresponding neurophysiological processes and brain structures
Art therapists have generated many specific definitions of art therapy, but most of them fall into one of two general categories. The first involves a belief in the inherent healing power of the creative process of art making. This view embraces the idea that the process of making art is therapeutic; this process is
58
sometimes referred to as art as therapy. Art making is seen as an opportunity to express one's self imaginatively, authentically, and spontaneously, an experience that, over time, can lead to personal fulfillment, emotional reparation, and recovery (Malchiodi, 2006).
The second definition of art therapy is based on the idea that art is a means of symbolic communication. This approach, often referred to as art psychotherapy, emphasizes the products-drawings, paintings, and other art expressions as helpful in communicating issues, emotions, and conflicts. The art image becomes significant in enhancing verbal exchange between the person and the therapist and in achieving insight; resolving conflicts; solving problems; and formulating new perceptions that in turn lead to positive changes, growth, and healing. In reality, art as therapy and art psychotherapy are used together in varying degrees. In other words, art therapists feel that both the idea that art making can be a healing process and that art products communicate information relevant to therapy are important (Malchiodi, 2006).
Malchiodi (2006) provides an example of what an art therapy session involves and how it is different from an art class. "In most art therapy sessions, the focus is on your inner experience-your feelings, perceptions, and imagination. While art therapy may involve learning skills or art techniques, the emphasis is generally first on developing and expressing images that come from inside the person, rather than those he or she sees in the outside world. And while some traditional art classes may ask you to paint or draw from your imagination, in art therapy, your inner world of images, feelings, thoughts, and ideas are always of primary importance to the experience (Malchiodi, 2006).
An interesting thing about these processes is that the patients do not need to have artistic talent in order to benefit. The art that starts coming is unique to every person. This connection to the deeper layers of your self is the healthy basis on which the rest of the therapy is built. If you want to better your life, you have to find the strength within you which can do it. This is why this is the beginning. lt is in fact very easy to do, and it makes people feel good in a deep and subtle way, immediately. Everything that happens in the process is experiential, and changes that you go through are permanent. Once you get rid of an inner barrier, you do not have it any more. When working in this way, the difficulties that show up in your art are those that are ready to be released. Problems that are not ready yet will not show themselves till they are ready. This is a natural and healthy process that easily and pleasantly goes deeper and deeper. When we agree with nature, nature helps us work with its inner logic and the work becomes very effective.
Art therapy, sometimes called expressive art or art psychology, encourages self-discovery and emotional growth. It is a two part process, involving both the creation of art and the discovery of its meaning. Rooted in Freud and Jung's theories of the subconscious and unconscious, art therapy is
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based on the assumption that visual symbols and images are the most accessible and natural form of communication to the human experience. Patients are encouraged to visualize, and then create, the thoughts and emotions that they cannot talk about. The resulting artwork is then reviewed and its meaning interpreted by the patient.
Over the years, children have been expected to “confront life and its challenges with the maturity once only expected of the fully grown, but without any time for preparation (Elkind, 1998). Due to the extent of the changes that occur, this period in their lives can be quite stressful. Those who are less well adjusted may cope by accentuating preexisting disruptive behaviors, developing new disruptive behaviors, becoming withdrawn from peers, experiencing poor academic achievement, and feeling a decreased sense of school belonging.
What appear to be more beneficial to addressing these school-specific concerns are solution-focused brief therapy groups within the school. Cooley (2009) asserted that these group interventions are a source of change and influence and are “the treatment of choice for many children”. Kelly, Kim and Franklin (2008) suggested that schools are a natural setting for group therapy because the “school climate provides additional stresses” to both teachers and students. These authors also contended that solution-focused, brief therapy in particular is effective because it is goal-oriented and draws on the strengths of individual students.
Riley (1999) noted, “when creativity is introduced into problem solving, the art can provide fresh viewpoints and excitement”. Bush (1997) suggested that art therapy within the schools gives students an opportunity to creatively explore their problems and follow through on setting and achieving goals to solve them. Rosal (1997) also found that art therapy activities integrated into a public school’s ninth-grade curriculum positively changed some student attitudes about school, family, and self.
For those students, exhibiting disruptive behavior problems and poor coping skills, group art therapy provides an opportunity to develop or strengthen coping skills as well as practice appropriate classroom behaviors. Rozum (2001) believed group art therapy to be very effective for children with behavior disorders because it allows them to practice self-regulating skills in a monitored environment. Rosal (1993) found that students in an art therapy group made more progress in reducing disruptive behaviors and gaining an internal locus of control than students in a control group.
The literature suggests that art therapy may help students address inappropriate or disruptive responses to stress. After Art Therapy, pupils are expected to be more focused in their work, improve their self esteem and be more self disciplined
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This research paper attempts to answer the question whether Art Therapy can help pupils to be more focused
Method The participants in this study were 10 primary four pupils of mixed ability.
The mean age of the participants was 10 years. Participants were easily distracted, and often exhibited poor coping skills and/or disruptive behaviors, and were referred to the study by their form teachers, subject teachers or peers due to the significant impact these behaviors had on the students’ academic experience. Specific behaviors included speaking out in class at inappropriate times, exhibiting difficulty following or accepting adult requests, and interacting poorly with peers. The participants were not receiving any special education needs and were not classified as “seriously emotionally disturbed” or diagnosed as having any learning difficulties.
To start off, first, we identified ten Primary 4 pupils with short attention span. Then we analyzed their past exam results and general behavior in class. We got feedback from their teachers and peers. Next, we put them through 8 weeks of art therapy sessions, each lasting an hour. Then we observed their behaviors in class. We also interviewed them after the 8 sessions were over and again got feedback from their teachers and peers. Lastly, we compared their exam results and classroom behavior after the 8 art therapy sessions.
The intervention chosen for this study was group art therapy. The participants attended the sessions after school hours in the school’s designated art room. No academic classes were missed. The session took place once a week over 8 consecutive weeks within the second semester. Each session was 45 to 60 mins long and began with a verbal check-in for participants to describe their individual, overall functioning on a 10-point Likert scale (How Am I Feeling Today: 1 being the worst possible, 10 being the best possible). This was followed by a planned art task, clean up, sharing of artwork and discussion of that session’s topic, and a check-out in the same manner as the check-in.
An Art Therapy session consists of the following:1. Breathing techniques to calm oneself
2. Warm up exercises
3. Receive instruction of the art task to do
4. Perform the task within the stipulated time given
5. Sharing of completed task one by one
6. Doing reflection
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ResultsThe results from this action research are predominantly qualitative. Based
on the team’s hypothesis, we are focused on behavioral change rather than any measurable data.
A description of the general behavior of each participating student was noted at the start of the Art Therapy session. At the end of the sessions, we reviewed the changes by means of interviews and observations.
All 10 participating students showed observable improvement in the following general behaviors:
Behavior #1: Attention Span
This behavior was observed during the instructional step at the start of each therapy session. During the first session, not all the student could produce the work as instructed.
By the 8th session, everyone was able to receive instruction regarding the art work and able to produce the art piece as told by the teacher.
The improvement in attention span also resulted in the students’ ability to remain focus and complete their art work on time.
Behavior #2: Communication Skills
This was observed through the art sharing where the student gave their own interpretation of the art work. As the sessions progressed, the students were able to elaborate on their art work with more detailed descriptions and even dwelling more into their own emotions.
Behavior #3: Disruptive Behavior
For this behavior, we observe the students’ behaviors during the Art Therapy sessions as well as interviewing the respective classroom teachers. Information from both sources points to an observable reduction in disruptive behaviors of the participating students.
One possible contributing factor is the improvement in their attention span, where the students could remain on task for a longer duration.
A comparison between the SA1 and SA2 academic results of the participating students revealed some degree of improvement. It must be stressed that this was not part of the objective of this Action Research. The improvement
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in academic performance cannot yet be linked to Art Therapy being a significant factor. However, it does provide a possibility for further investigation in the future.
Discussion and Recommendations
The hypothesis of this Action Research seems to be consistent with the observations made at the end of the therapy sessions. Students having difficulties in focusing in doing tasks did show observable improvement after the therapy sessions.
Another observable benefit to the students is their ability to better express their emotions and getting more in touch with their feelings. This helps in their ability to relate better to others which raised their self confidence along the way.
In order to provide a more definitive correlation between Art Therapy and improving learning ability, the methodology employed in this research should be repeated with more participants. Only when the results are repeatable can the hypothesis of this research be determined.
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References Brunner-Routledge.Kramer, E., 1971. Art Therapy with children. N.Y.: Schocken Books
Bush, J. (1997). The development of school art therapy in Dade County Public Schools: Implications for future change. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 14(1), 9–14.
Cooley, L. (2009). The power of groups: Solution-focused group counseling in schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Elkind, D. (1998). All grown up and no place to go: Teenagers in crisis. (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
Kelly, M. S., Kim, J. S., & Franklin, C. (2008). Solution-focusedbrief therapy in schools: A 360-degree view of research and practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Malchiodi, C. (1998). The art therapy sourcebook. Lincolnwood,IL: Lowell House.
Malchiodi, C. (Ed.). (2003). Handbook of art therapy. London, England: Guilford Press.
Riley, S. (1999). Contemporary art therapy with adolescents. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley.Rosal, M. L. (1993). Comparative group art therapy research to evaluate changes in locus of control in behavior disordered children. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 20(3), 231–241.
Rosal, M. L., McCulloch-Vislisel, S., & Neece, S. (1997). Keeping students in school: An art therapy program to benefit ninth-grade students. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 14(2), 30–36.
Rozum, A. L. (2001). Integrating the language of art into a creative cognitive-behavioral program with behaviordisordered children. In S. Riley (Ed.), Group process madevisible: Group art therapy (pp. 115–138). Philadelphia, PA:
Silver, R. 1993.Age and gender differences expressed through drawings: a study ofattitudes toward self and others. ARTherapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 10(3), 159-168.
Silver, R. (Ed.) 2005. Aggression and Depression Assessed Through Art, New York: Brunner-Routledge, N.Y. and U.K.
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IMPROVING STUDENTS’ ACQUISITION AND RETENTION IN THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH WORDS THROUGH THE ENHANCED COVER-COPY-COMPARE (CCC) STRATEGY.
Diana Tan
Anderson Primary School
Shobana Musti-Rao and Joanne Khaw
National Institute of Education
ABSTRACT
Spelling problems are common for students and students who experience difficulty in
spelling are more likely to experience problems in written expression. In view of this
repercussion on students, in particular to the weak spellers, there is a need to teach
students a strategy to learn spelling in order for them to achieve mastery.
Arising from this impetus, this pilot study investigates the effectiveness of using Cover-
Copy-Compare (Murphy, Hern, Williams, & McLaughlin, 1990) as a self-regulated
spelling strategy to enhance precision and fluency in spelling for a class of mixed-ability
Primary Four students.
Results indicate improved spelling performance during the modified copy, cover, and
compare spelling phase of the experiment in comparison to the use of traditional spelling
approach of presenting a list of spelling words at the beginning of the term and a spelling
test at the end of each week. Questionnaires given to students at the end of the study
revealed that most students preferred the enhanced copy, cover, and compare spelling
method over the more traditional approach to spelling.
Guided by the research question, “Does the explicit teaching of Cover-Copy-Compare
(CCC) improve students’ acquisition and retention in the spelling of English words?”, the
key finding of this small-scale action research suggests that CCC is effective in the
acquisition and maintenance of English words.
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INTRODUCTION
Spelling is an essential skill to complete the writing process successfully. Poor spellers
tend to terminate their writing process prematurely or resort to using limited vocabulary
as a result of their inability to retrieve the spellings for the words they want to use. Data-
based research in the past decade has identified several evidence-based interventions in
teaching spelling. One such intervention is the cover, copy, and compare procedure
(CCC; McLaughlin & Skinner, 1996) that has shown to be effective across a variety of
curricular areas (e.g., spelling, reading, mathematics, and geography). In the area of
spelling, a CCC worksheet will consist of three columns with the list of spelling words in
the first column. The students are required to (a) look at a spelling word in the first
column, (b) cover the word, (c) write the word in the second column from memory, (d)
uncover the word in the first column, and (e) evaluate the word written in the second
column against the original word in the first column. Backed by years of research,
components that contribute to the success of the CCC strategy include multiple
opportunities to practice, immediate feedback, self-evaluation, and self-correction.
In a recent study, Nies and Belfiore (2006) compared the effects of two spelling strategies
(CCC and copy-only) to improve spelling performance of 2 third-grade students with
learning disabilities. They found that the CCC strategy resulted in greater number of
words learned and retained than the copy-only strategy. Nies and Belfiore make the
distinction between self-evaluation and self-correction. In self-evaluation, the student
compares the written response to a set standard or criterion. Whereas, in self-correction
the student not only needs to make a discrimination between performance and standard,
but also requires to make a modification to the response to match the standard to be
considered correct. In another study, Erion, Davenport, Rodax, Scholl, and Hardy (2009)
compared two types of CCC that differed in the number of times a student was required
to rewrite a word during the self-correction stage of the process. Students were required
to rewrite the word either one (i.e., CCC1) or three times (i.e, CCC3). Results indicated
that there was no difference in performance, during acquisition and retention, between the
two versions of CCC.
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Previous research using CCC with spelling was conducted with individual students, or
small-groups of students having a learning disability or identified as having poor ability
in spelling (e.g., Cieslar, Mc Laughlin, & Derby, 2008; Erion et al., 2009; Nies &
Belfiore, 2006 ). This study extends the literature on using CCC strategy for spelling in
two ways. First, the study was conducted in a Primary Four classroom as a class-wide
intervention implemented by the Language Arts teacher. Students in this study were of
normal ability with no identified areas of academic or behavioural difficulties. Secondly,
in this study treatment integrity data were collected on the extent to which instruction on
use of CCC was carried out by the teacher as intended and social validity data on whether
or not the teacher and students liked using CCC and will use it in the future.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of traditional spelling instruction
and CCC strategy on the acquisition and maintenance of spelling words for 36 Primary
Four students.
METHOD
Subjects
In this study, the participants came from a mixed ability and mixed gender Primary Four
class with an enrolment of 36 students where 22 of them are boys and 16 were girls. The
class was specifically chosen based on the English Language teacher’s willingness in
participating in this research and also, on the basis that the class comprised of students
from high-ability (HA), middle-ability (MA) and low-ability (LA) as measured in terms
of their English, Mathematics, Science and Mother Tongue in the Primary Three
Semestral Assessment 2 (2009). The choice of this mixed ability class for this spelling
intervention programme would provide the researchers with more insights into the
effective use of CCC in a classroom comprising of students from different ability
backgrounds and with a good composition of males and females which could be further
build on before embarking on a larger intervention with similar class dynamics and even
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experimenting this strategy with mixed gender classes comprising of specific ability
groups.
Design
An alternating treatments design with no-treatment control condition (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007) was used to examine the effects of the class-wide spelling and vocabulary
instruction versus regular classroom practice where minimal instruction was provided to
students on words (spelling and vocabulary). The vertical distance between the two data
paths representing the intervention and no-intervention conditions determined the
effectiveness of the intervention and experimental control. This design is one example of
single-subject research methodology, making analysis possible at both the group and
individual level.
Measure
The dependent variables used in the study were percentage correct on spelling tests.
Students were given a weekly spelling test on Wednesdays during weeks when students
had to study words and phrases on their own (i.e., No instruction condition), and on the
following day (i.e., Thursday) during weeks when student received vocabulary
instruction and practice with spelling words and phrases using CCC method (i.e., CCC +
VI condition) on Wednesdays. The percentage correct was calculated by dividing number
of words and phrases spelled correctly by the total number of words on the test and
multiplying by 100. The letters in the spelling words and phrases had to match the word
dictated by the teacher during the administration of the test. The teacher first presented
the spelling word and phrases in context before dictating the word in isolation. The
teacher also provided students with the meaning of the word and phrases. If the spelling
word was anxious, for example, the teacher said, “She was anxious to know if she did
well on her test. Anxious. Anxious means very worried about something.” Spelling
scores were analysed for the class as a whole, and for 9 students who scored below 70%
on their weekly spelling tests prior to start of the study.
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Procedure
Before the start of the research study, the English Language teacher and the academic
staff from National Institute of Education (NIE) established the implementation schedule
for both modified CCC method and traditional method of spelling instruction (Refer to
Annex A) in which the classroom teacher would alternate regular spelling instruction
with non-CCC instruction with effective from Term 1 and for the span of two semesters.
Lesson plans entailing both approaches for the spelling instructions were crafted by both
the classroom teacher and the NIE academic staff.
The following were the procedure for the traditional one-period non-CCC classroom
approach to teaching spelling on Thursdays from 11.30 a.m. to 12 noon and using another
English Language period prior to the subsequent spelling test:
1. At the end of each spelling task, teacher reminded students to study the
given 10 spelling word and phrases which would be tested for the
following week.
2. Teacher reviewed the spelling instruction with students prior to the
spelling test each week.
3. Teacher highlighted that the 10 words and phrases to be tested for the
week were with close reference to the theme found in their Primary Four
English Language textbook.
4. Teacher read the given sentence on the spelling test paper, together with
the required word or phrase, once.
5. Teacher repeated the required word or phrase again.
6. Teacher explained the meaning of the word or phrase before moving to the
next question.
7. Teacher scored students’ test papers after each spelling activity and
returned these spelling test papers to all students at least a day prior to the
subsequent spelling task.
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8. To reinforce and to improve students’ acquisition and retention in the
spelling of English words tested, teacher revised the spelling of the 10
words and phrases tested previously by having the class to spell out all
these words and phrases verbally at least a day prior to the subsequent
spelling task.
9. Teacher requested students to independently complete the corrections for
each word or phrase spelled inaccurately by referring to the given spelling
list and re-writing each word or phrases thrice on the spelling test paper.
10. To ensure spelling accuracy, teacher assessed students’ corrections to
ensure spelling accuracy in which students re-write the word and phrases
using correct letters in the correct sequence.
The procedure for the two-period enhanced CCC strategy for spelling intervention was as
follows on Wednesdays from 11.30 a.m. to 12.30 p.m. and on Thursdays from 11.30 a.m.
to 12 noon:
1. Teacher prepared the PowerPoint slides, Vocabulary Test and CCC-
strategy activity sheets to be used prior to each enhanced CCC spelling
strategy lesson.
2. Teacher reviewed the spelling instruction by highlighted that the 10 words
and phrases to be tested for the week were with close reference to the
theme found in their Primary Four English Language textbook.
3. With reference to the PowerPoint slides, teacher introduced the list of
words and phrases to be tested for the week by reading each aloud and
requesting students to repeat after her.
4. Using the PowerPoint slides, Teacher read and explained the semantic
meaning of each word and phrase.
5. Teacher highlighted the use of these words and phrases by using the
examples found in the spelling test paper for the week and including these
sentences in the PowerPoint slides. Teacher and pupils read the given
sentence with the required word or phrase together.
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6. Teacher called upon a few students to form a sentence using the same
word before moving on to the next word or phrase.
7. Students completed the given Vocabulary Test.
8. After the provision of this enhanced CCC spelling instruction, teacher
introduced a self-regulated spelling strategy to help students enhance
precision and fluency in spelling.
9. Teacher distributed the CCC-strategy Activity Sheets to all students.
10. With reference to the CCC-strategy Activity Sheets, pupils studied the
spelling of each word or phrase written on the first column of the activity
sheet independently.
11. Students were instructed to cover the correct model on the first column
and to spell the word or phrase in the space provided on the second
column of the sheet. Students uncovered the copied word and checks to
ensure that the word copied from memory is spelled correctly on their
own.
12. If students get the word correct, they would put a tick in the third column
before moving on to the next word or phrase. If students get the word
incorrect, they would put a cross in the third column and would re-learn
the spelling of the word and phrase by referring to the correct model on
the first column.
13. Students would repeat Step 10 and 11 until the word copied from memory
is spelled correctly and then move to the next word on the first column of
the CCC-strategy activity sheets.
14. Pupils complete the given Spelling Test the following day.
15. Prior to scoring the accuracy of the vocabulary quizzed and spelling tests
by the English Language teacher, all the test papers were photocopied.
The English Language teacher scored the original tests and the NIE
academic staff independently scored the photocopied tests. It was
observed that the interscorer agreement for weekly tests as well as the
maintenance test was relatively high.
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16. To reinforce and to improve students’ acquisition and retention in the
spelling of English words tested, teacher requested students to
independently complete the corrections for each word or phrase spelled
inaccurately by referring to the given spelling list and re-writing each
word or phrases thrice on the spelling test paper.
17. To ensure spelling accuracy, teacher assessed students’ corrections to
ensure spelling accuracy in which students re-write the word and phrases
using correct letters in the correct sequence.
Semestral 1 review was carried out to investigate on the effectiveness of using CCC as a
self-regulated spelling strategy to enhance precision and fluency in spelling for these
students. Informal feedback was also obtained from English Language Teacher and the
students involved in this experimentation. With these inputs, the English Language
teacher and the academic staff from NIE decided to extend this research study over a
longer period, for another semester of study, with no changes made to both the traditional
and enhanced CCC lesson instructional procedures so as to determine the outcomes more
conclusively.
To assess the social validity, the NIE academic staff proceeded in the preparation of a
brief questionnaire. Upon completion of the mini-scale research study, which was
towards the end of Semester 2, the teacher handed out the questionnaires to all students
with the intent to inquire about various preferences for the experimental conditions.
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Results and Analysis
The results for the spelling tests in terms of class-wide means and means for low-
achievers are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Class means and Low-Achievers means on spelling during no-instruction and VI+CCC instruction conditions
Week Spelling: Percentage CorrectClass wide Data Low-Achievers Only
N No-instruction
VI+CCC N No-instruction
VI+CCC
1 37 84.2 8 65.62 36 78.1 9 73.13 36 77.1 8 55.64 38 81.9 9 69.95 37 79.7 9 61.16 38 84.7 9 74.17 32 64.2 8 57.88 37 77.4 9 60.09 37 66.2 9 46.810 36 86.8 9 81.511 37 70.2 9 44.4
Mean (SD)
75.8 (6.5)
79.2 (9.0)
55.6 (8.4)
71.3 (8.7)
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Figure 1. Percentage Correct for Spelling: Class Means
Figure 2. Percentage Correct in Spelling for Low Achieving Students
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Figures 1 and 2 show class-wide performance and that of low-achievers group over the
course of the study. The general trend seemed to suggest that the mean scores for spelling
for the whole class improved from the first to the fifth session of VI+CCC. This is with
the exception of the fourth session of VI+CCC (Week 7) where the mean spelling score
for the class declined to 64.2%. As seen in Figure 2., the vertical distance between the
two data paths suggests that the low-achievers made more significant progress, i.e. 15.7%
improvement when comparing mean spelling scores for NI and VI+CCC compared to the
rest of the class (3.4%).
To assess the believability of data, the NIE academic staff were present during the use of
CCC strategy for spelling to assess procedural verification using a checklist that
delineated the steps to be completed. During these sessions, it was observed that the
English Language teacher followed the correct procedures with 100% accuracy.
As a measure of social validity, the teacher completed a consumer satisfaction post-
intervention survey. The teacher strongly agreed that VI+CCC was appropriate given the
objectives to be achieved, easy to implement, within her skill level to implement and
suitable given the classroom culture of her class. She noted that the CCC strategy
emphasised students to be self-directed in learning the spelling words, and this may not
be particularly helpful for one of her students (who did not perform well for spelling) as it
was likely he needed more personal attention. The teacher perceived that that her
students’ performance improved in vocabulary and spelling and would have lasting
positive effects. She would continue to use this strategy and also, to recommend to
others.
There were a total of 35 responses from the student’s Social Validity Questionnaire. Like
the teacher, the students generally liked the use of VI+CCC, particularly the way the
teacher explained the words and used in a sentence. A large majority of the students
(88.6%) felt that they have learned spelling words well and improved their spelling scores
by using the CCC strategy. 95.3% of the students reported that they would use the CCC
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strategy to learn spelling words and 85.7% said they could also use the CCC strategy in
other subjects to help them learn new words or facts better. When asked what they liked
best about CCC, 56.4% of the students said that it was an effective way of revising
words, helped them improve their spelling, or memorise words better. The students felt
that the most important thing they have learnt about CCC is that they “kept doing it until
we got all correct” which suggests that they understood the rationale of CCC. Some
students (20%) indicated that benefits of learning the words also meant that they were
able to use it for future compositing [writing]”. The students also indicated that CCC
strategy could also be used in other subject areas like Science (87.6%), Chinese (77.1%)
and Mathematics (57.1%). From the responses, it is evident that the students and teachers
responded very well to VI+CCC.
DISCUSSIONS
Returning to the research question, both the English Language teacher and the academic
staff from NIE found that students’ spelling performance improved during the modified
copy, cover, and compare spelling phase of the experiment in comparison to the use of
traditional spelling approach of presenting a list of spelling words at the beginning of the
term and a spelling test at the end of each week. Over and above this, the improved
spelling performance for the identified nine weak spellers in the class seemed to suggest
that CCC is an effective self-regulated spelling strategy used to enhance precision and
fluency in spelling for the weaker learners. Furthermore, students’ scores taken from the
maintenance test, which was administered towards the end of the study, seemed to also
indicate that students made considerable gains on their spelling performance and more
significantly, CCC is effective in the acquisition and maintenance of English words.
Additionally, questionnaires given to students at the end of the study revealed that 88.6%
of the students surveyed expressed their preference for the use of enhanced copy, cover,
and compare approach in learning the spelling of English words. Furthermore, with the
increasing demand for engaged teaching and learning in the classrooms, the strong
emphasis to cater to students’ learning needs and preferences and essentially, the need to
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provide opportunities for students to become self-directed learners who take
responsibility for their own learning so as to create a positive impact in their educational
achievement, the English language teacher would naturally gravitate towards the use of
the enhanced CCC spelling in comparison to the use of traditional spelling approach.
The results obtained from this research study seemed to concur with the research that the
use of explicit teaching of Cover-Copy-Compare (CCC) improve students’ acquisition
and retention in the spelling of English words and that most students found the learning
process useful and enjoyable. Hence, teachers should take cognizance of these factors
when introducing the learning of the spelling of English words into their curriculum with
the intent to allow students to experience success and to achieve mastery in learning the
spelling of new words or phrases which would reduce their problems in written
expression gradually. More significantly, apart from equipping students with content
knowledge, it is crucial for them to develop the necessary skills and values so that they
could achieve the full benefits of a balanced and holistic primary education and
ultimately in becoming future-ready citizens of character who can thrive in the 21st
Century.
RECOMMENDATIONS
While this research study seemed to suggest that the use of CCC is an effective self-
regulated spelling intervention to enhance precision and fluency in spelling and that this
approach was favourably received by students for learning of the spelling of EL words in
which the research team would recommend the adoption of modified CCC approach for
learning spelling, it must be pointed out that this research exercise was conducted on a
small scale basis with only one mixed ability and mixed gender class of Primary Four
class with an enrolment of 36 students. And in consideration of its positive impact on
students’ acquisition and retention in the spelling of English words, for the weaker
learner in particular, this pilot research study was then ‘scaled-up’ where the spelling
intervention was implemented in a Primary Four English Language remedial class
comprising of 16 weaker students of mixed gender. However, to further to determine the
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outcomes more conclusively and to understand of the strategy’s long-term educational
value, a research on a larger scale involving more classes and participants extending over
an entire school year could be mounted.
The second implication on the outcome on the practice was that the weekly spelling
words varied in level of difficulty from week to week and that the list of spelling words
was distributed to pupils at the start of each new term. Apart from the possibility of
withholding the issuance of spelling list to students, other possible ways to address these
concerns would be to formulate a list of commonly mis-spelt English words or more
commonly used English words with close reference to the variety of daily written
expression activities and creative writing assignments or even exposing students to the
list of frequently used scientific terms appropriate for the level. Having to assess students
within their learning context would serve to increase assessment validity and reliability.
The third limitation of this investigation was that the maintenance of spelling words was
only implemented once throughout the entire study. More long-term assessments of
maintenance such as to include the spelling words learned in previous weeks in the
weekly vocabulary quizzes and spelling tests would strengthen future research.
Another limitation was that the research team did not assess the extent to which students
were able to generalise new spelling words. Generally, the most important direction for
spelling may be to assess the extent to which students’ newly learned spelling words
generalise to a variety of written expression activities and writing assignments. An
analysis of students’ composition writing and the finding of this investigation, for
instance, would help to address this limitation and essentially, to strengthen future
research.
As results indicate improved spelling performance during the modified copy, cover, and
compare spelling phase of the experiment in comparison to the use of traditional spelling
approach, it would then be interesting to investigate on the effectiveness of having
students to assume the role of the teacher by guiding them in the preparation of resources
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required during the modified copy, cover, and compare spelling phase of the experiment
and in the delivery of the similar set of enhanced CCC-based instructions while the
English Language teacher, on the other hand, would undertake the supporting role as a
facilitator in the classroom.
Further research could be extended to students of various age and skill levels and
investigate its impact on the broad range of curriculum, in both core and non-core
subjects, and skill areas as highlighted in the survey by both the English Language
teacher and some students involved in the study.
With the intent to impact more teachers and students, other imperative factors, such as the
teachers and students’ willing and readiness to create more learning content and
assessment materials which include vocabulary quizzes, CCC-strategy activity sheets,
spelling tests as well as the PowerPoint slides used to introduce the semantic meaning
and usage of the identified list of words and phrases, the provision and feasibility of
physical infrastructure as well as the availability of information technology structure and
support, must be taken into consideration.
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REFERENCES
1. Cieslar, W., McLaughlin, T. F., & Derby, K. M. (2008). Effects of the copy, cover,
and compare procedure on the math and spelling performance of a high school student
with behavioral disorder: A case report. Preventing School Failure, 52(4), 45-51.
2. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
3. Erion, J., Davenport, C., Rodax, N., Scholl, B., & Hardy, J. (2009). Cover-Copy-
Compare and Spelling: One versus Three Repetitions. Journal of Behavioral
Education, 18 (4), 319-330.
4. McLaughlin, T. F., & Skinner, C. H. (1996). Improving academic performance
through self-management: Cover, copy, and compare. Intervention in School and
Clinic, 32, 113-118.
5. Murphy, J. E., Hern, C. L., Williams, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1990). The effects
of the Cover, Copy, and Compare approach in increasing spelling accuracy with
learning disabled students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 15, 379-386.
6. Nies, K.A., & Belfiore, P.J. (2006). Enhancing Spelling Performance in Students with
Learning Disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 15, 163-170.
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The Use of Collaborative Platform, E-Portfolio, Promotes Active Learning in the Study of Flowering Plants. ___________________________________________________________________
Derek Tan, Phua Ei Ling, Neo Nah, Peter Toh, Fion LimAnderson Primary School
email contact: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A global citizen in every pupil - an outcome that education today aims to attain at
every stage of learning - drives us to fervently equip our pupils with 21st century
skills.
This study examines the effects of the affordances of a collaborative platform, e-
Portfolio in the study of flowering plants. Four classes of pupils embarked on a ten-
week hands-on activity, where they were given the autonomy to grow their plants
from scratch, monitor the growth, identify problems, set learning goals, search for
solutions and evaluate the findings on their own.
A grounded analysis of the students’ discussion on the e-Portfolio, coupled with the
survey findings and interviews conducted showed evidence of 21st century skills
attributes.
INTRODUCTION
The affordance of ICT in curriculum is increasingly incorporated into teaching and
learning as it serves as an important tool of empowerment. It gives our pupils greater
leverage to engage in experiential learning activities, in which teachers are able to
adopt a more passive approach in the classrooms and only serve as facilitators. This
is in alignment with MOE’s initiative, TLLM, a project which anchors on developing
students into self directed and collaborative learners by strengthening the quality of
learning through active engagement and motivating them to learn better.
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At Anderson Primary, traditional lecture methods in which teachers talk and pupils
listen, dominate the classrooms. When TLLM evolved, the school recognises the
need to holistically develop our pupils to be global-ready citizens. We are aware that
a positive indication that the pupils are moving in the right track happens when they
can actively take ownership of their learning; they drive the whole research,
discussion and evaluation process. This study, hence, gives us an opportunity to
explore an alternative pedagogical approach that would enable the school to nurture
in our pupils the 21st century skills of ICT competence, self-directedness through
intrinsic motivation and effective collaboration.
According to James A. Eison (2010), active learning encompasses a few aspects:
involving students doing things and thinking about the things they are doing, creating
space for students to think creatively and critically, encouraging students to express
ideas confidently and allowing them a chance to give and receive feedback.
Analysis of the research literature (Chickering and Gamson, 1987) also suggests
that students must do more than just listen: They must read, write, discuss, or be
engaged in solving problems. Most importantly, to be actively involved, students
must engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. Within this context, it is proposed that strategies promoting active
learning be defined as instructional activities involving students in doing things and
thinking about what they are doing.
e-Portfolio is a collaborative platform which supports the above-mentioned tasks
through synchronous and asynchronous communication. Pupils can connect with
one another in an easy and timely manner to share information. As social networking
sites like Facebook and MySpace have attracted millions of users (Boyd & Ellison,
2007), the school hopes to tap on their key technological features such as mobile
connectivity, discussion forums, photo/video/file sharing functions, URL tags in a
virtual learning environment.
In this way, our pupils can internalise the attributes of the 21st century skills. In the
e-Portfolio environment, they can practise effective communication when they pose
queries, answer feedback, discuss possible solutions and make decisions on what to
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accept and reject. Incidentally, they are working together towards a common goal at
their own pace. Furthermore, pupils were able to log on to the e-Portfolio at school
and from home. This keeps the forum active - yet another advantage in ensuring that
pupils remain committed to their project.
The rest of the paper shall dwell deeper on how the team seeks to address the
research question through description of the method and analysis of our findings. By
the end of it, the study was able to demonstrate that using active learning
instructional strategies does create excitement and enhance learning.
METHOD
The students selected for this research were P5 pupils from four classes of mixed
abilities. They were selected because they were of the similar academic
performance based on previous assessments, and the teacher researchers are
teaching Science in these classes.
PROCEDURE
Each class was allocated a plot of land in the Science Garden. The pupils in each
class were divided into 6 groups. Each group was given two kinds of seeds to be
planted. They were corn and lady’s fingers. The group members took turns to
monitor the growth of the plants, water and weed the plants as well as record their
observations in their science journals. They also took photographs of the different
stages of the plant growth. Pupils posted their photographs, posed queries and gave
feedback via the E-Portfolio during the allocated curriculum time and at home. The
duration of the project was 10 weeks. Pupils accessed the portal at least one hour
per week.
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Figure 1.1: Pupils online discussion on E-Portfolio
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DESIGN
In order to assess the validity of using the E-Portfolio as a teaching and learning tool,
a survey questionnaire was given to these students to evaluate their perceptions of
active learning. At the end of the project, the pupils completed an online perception
survey. In addition to this, thirty students were randomly selected to participate in an
interview with the teacher researchers. The aim of the interview was conducted to
further evaluate the effectiveness on the strategies used.
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Figure 1.2: Sample of survey questions
Figure 1.3: Sample of interview questions and pupils’ collated responses
RESULTS
Methodological triangulation (Questionnaires, pupils’ reflection and interviews) is
adopted in our qualitative research to increase the credibility and validity of the
results. Every question is uniquely crafted under the category of the 3 domains of
MP3 goals, Self-directed learning, collaborative learning and use of ICT. The key
results of the survey questionnaire conducted with students from the 4 classes are
tabulated and discussed in this section.
Table 1: Sample of Questions on Self-Directed Learning
N = 120
No. SA A D SD
# % # % # % # %
1. I take the initiative to monitor
the growth of my plant. 26 17.3 96 64 21 14 7 4.7
Total = 81.3% Total = 18.7%
2. I approach someone outside
school (e.g parents, relatives
and etc) for assistance and
solutions when I encountered a
15 10.1 52 34.9 51 34.2 31 20.8
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problem about my plant.
Total = 45% Total = 55%
3. I look for more information
from various sources (Internet,
books and etc) to help me
understand the growth of my
plant better.
33 22.3 65 43.9 39 26.4 11 7.4
Total = 66.2% Total = 33.8%
Generally, it was observed that most students took the ownership of their learning by
taking the initiative to observe the plants, take photographs to document their
learning, identify the problems and pose them on the E-Portfolio so as to elicit
responses or solutions from their peers and through self-discovery. Closely aligned
to the SDL Construct 1, 2 and 3, students have shown the ability to articulate their
learning gaps as they could identify the areas where they needed more information
about the growth of the growth in the form of formulating questions and generate
own inquiries. This is evident in the samples of pupils’ reflections on the E-Portfolio
where the richness of discussion and new knowledge creation beyond the curriculum
are observed.
Table 2: Sample of Questions on Collaborative Learning
N = 120
No. SA A D SD
# % # % # % # %
1. I have learnt new knowledge
from my team members 26 17.7 81 55.1 29 19.7 11 7.5
Total = 68.8% Total = 27.2%
2. The feedback provided by my
team members increased my
understanding on the growth of
my plant
30 20.7 82 56.6 21 14.5 12 8.3
Total = 77.3% Total = 22.8%
3. The feedback and comments
given by my friends have
helped me to acquire new
35 24 79 54.1 19 13 13 8.9
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knowledge
Total = 78.1% Total = 21.9%
The results reaffirm our initial intention of embarking on this project, which is to
develop and build a culture of collaboration amongst students. Most of the students
have worked together intra/inter groups to solve a problem as everyone of them play
a vital role in brainstorming and finding possible solutions to their problems.
Exchanging and sharing of knowledge with their team members and peers from
other groups was the key approach towards effective collaboration. These survey
results on collaborative learning were further supported by interview responses with
the students and coding done on the samples of students’ reflection.
Table 3: Sample of Questions on the Use of ICT
N = 120
No. SA A D SD
# % # % # % # %
1. I enjoyed using the E-Portfolio
to carry out online discussion 22 15.4 83 58 30 21 8 5.6
Total = 73.4% Total = 26.6%
2. E-Portfolio is a safe platform
for learning48 33.1 82 56.6 12 8.3 3 2.1
Total = 89.7% Total = 10.4%
The results revealed that the students enjoyed using online discussion via the
collaborative platform, E-Portfolio. Being a safe platform for active participation and
learning, E-Portfolio was used as a mean of exchanging and sharing knowledge.
Besides, the students used ICT as their main source of information. Some resources
which they used to find the answers to the problems were (1) Wikipedia, (2) Online
encyclopedias, (3) Search Engines and (4) Websites.
To enhance the reliability and accuracy of the online perception survey, an interview
was done with 30 randomly selected students so as to elicit more information with
regards to the survey results. The interview responses suggest the achievement of
goals set at the beginning of the project, which is to promote active learning through
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reinforcing the development of self-directed and collaborative learning in the study of
flowering plants. Some examples are as follow;
1. We distributed the duties, worked together to ensure the growth of our plants
and overcome difficulties.
2. We shared our ideas with one another and decide which the best as a team.
3. The comments that my friends have given helped me to understand the
growth of my plant.
Coding was also done on the students’ reflections and there were evidences that the
students are demonstrating the various aspect of self-directed and collaborative
learning.
Methodological triangulation served as a powerful tool to strengthen the qualitative
research as adopted in this project. With similar outcomes of the results from the
survey, interviews and sample of students’ reflection, it has definitely captured a
more complete, holistic and contextual portrayal of promoting active learning in the
study of flowering plants.
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Figure 1.4: Coding aligned to the MP3 goals
DISCUSSION
The pupils took on an active role in discovering for themselves the growth of
flowering plants. They had hands-on experiences and learnt actively about the
growth of the plants. This project promoted teamwork and cooperative learning as
pupils had to communicate with one another to find solutions to the problems
encountered.
The E-Portfolio provided a safe environment for active discussion. Teacher
researchers were also involved in monitoring the online discussion. Discussion
highlights and misconceptions were discussed during lesson time. The pupils
articulated their learning gaps and carried out their own research to find solutions for
problems they had encountered during the project. Through the intensive research,
pupils gained new knowledge beyond their curriculum.
RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
The e-Portfolio as a collaborative platform can be utilised in other science topics.
However, not all science topics can ride on this platform as the topics may not be
suitable in carrying out hands-on activities.
The teacher researchers felt that the pupils were highly motivated and they showed
keen interest in learning this topic. The positive survey results strongly indicated that
the entire level encompassing even pupils with differentiated academic abilities could
benefit from carrying out this project.
One limitation in this project was that the plants were not taken care of during the
weekends and public holidays. As a result, some of the plants did not grow healthily.
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Another limitation was that the plots allocated were too small and this resulted in the
overcrowding of the plants. It is recommended that a bigger area be used for this
project if it is to be carried out as a whole level.
REFERENCES
Ministry of Education, Singapore (2008). MOE Launches Third Masterplan for ICT in Education. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/press/2008/08/moe-launches-third-masterplan.php
Chickering, Arthur W., and Zelda F. Gamson (March 1987). Seven Principles for Good Practice. AAHE Bulletin 39: 3-7. ED 282 491. 6 pp. MF-01; PC-01.
Charles C. Bonwell and James A. Eison (2003). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. Retrived from http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/91-9dig.htm
Boyd, D.M., & Ellison, N.B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), article 11. Retrieved from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol23/issue1/boyd.ellison.html
91
Teaching Contextual Clues in ReadingA Lesson Study Approach
Mrs Haslinda Azhar,Mdm Sarabjeet Kaur &Ms Thai Ee Lin Elaine
Anderson Primary School
Abstract
One of the challenges that many pupils face in English is comprehension.
While many can read independently from a text, few fully comprehend the content
and context of what is written as reflected in their answers in the close passage and
reading comprehension section. As a result, scores for reading comprehension and
cloze passage rank as one the most challenging to do well in.
For too long, teachers struggle with teaching pupils the way ‘to do’ reading
comprehension and cloze passages. While identifying contextual cues in class may
not be a foreign idea, what is lacking is the teaching of what these contextual cues are.
The study attempts to shed light on deliberately teaching pupils what
contextual cues are and providing scaffolding through questioning to build pupils’
understanding of what they are reading. Using a lesson study approach, a class of
Primary 6 pupils underwent four lessons of learning what contextual cues are (within
a cloze passage) and how to identify them.
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1. Introduction
Lesson study is a form of professional development introduced by Japanese teachers.
In lesson study, teachers plan, observe, and refine “research lessons” designed to bring to life
their long-term goals for student learning and development. (Catherine Lewis, 2002) The
refined “research lessons” are then taught to a different group of pupils.
There are several reasons why the actual practice of lesson study appeals to
instructors. Teachers control the process, and adapt it to their work schedules. It affords an
opportunity for teachers to examine collectively teaching and learning issues that matter to
them and have direct application to their classrooms. Lesson study is low risk; changing a
single lesson is less risky than changing an entire course or adopting a significantly different
pedagogical approach. (Cerbin & Kopp, 2006)
The team conducted a modified approach to Lesson Study. It was not feasible, at
Primary 6, to teach the same lesson due to time constraint to complete the syllabus. After
each observation, the team met and discussed observations made. From the observations, the
team then planned for the next lesson, making improvements on questioning techniques and
creating activities which will engage the pupils during the lessons.
The focus of the Lesson Study the team has embarked on is the teaching of a
particular skill ie. looking for contextual cues. It is a skill which pupils are really lacking in.
Through Lesson Study, each lesson was refined to meet the ultimate objective, which cannot
be achieved through Action Research which is clinical in nature.
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2. Rationale
Most Primary 6 pupils have difficulty and do not score well in the Comprehension
Cloze and Comprehension Open-Ended sections of the English paper. The lack of
background knowledge and particularly inference skills are the factors which contribute to
pupils’ poor performance in these two sections. These concerns led to the team’s decision to
use the Lesson Study approach in the teaching of the ‘how’ ie. looking for and identifying
contextual cues.
As Kispal mentioned, “it is only in extreme cases that a reader is consciously aware of
carrying out an inference, let alone formulating a query in order to infer an answer.” Kispal,
A (2008)
The focus of teaching contextual cues stems from the need to develop inference skills.
According to Kispal, “The central premise of schema theory is that much of knowledge is
stored in complex relational structures, schemata…once some small part of a schema… is
encountered, the activated schema causes reasonable inferences to be made”. Kispal, A
(2008)
The main objective of study is to enable pupils to infer on their own and make
meaningful connections based on schema and contextual cues.
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3. Content Development
The lessons were carried out over 4 weeks, with each week building on the last and
progressing towards the pupils independently identifying and applying contextual cues to
make inferences. The four lessons primarily focused on teaching pupils to identify contextual
cues. However, as it progressed, the scaffolding and questionings differed, with each tasks
evolving to allow pupils to build on their schema and apply their inference skills.
Lesson 1: Introduction to Making Inferences
Because the study involved teaching the skill of inference, pupils were first
introduced to what inference meant. The team discussed effective ways to draw on their
experiences- since inference is used in daily lives when making everyday decisions. Starting
with the unfamiliar, pupils had to infer what an unfamiliar object was and its use. As part of
scaffolding, specific questions by the teacher guided their thoughts. For example, “Were
there any clues from the object or background information that helped you confirm your
decision?” The main thought process was to look out for clues and tap on their prior
experiences- the two main factors that guide our ability to infer.
As expected, many could not identify the object because it was foreign to them- no past
experiences to draw upon and no identifiable clues to tap upon. To make inference slightly
easier, the teacher showed a familiar object, a tea cup and asked:
- How do you think these two objects might be related?
- Has the introduction of the second object changed your opinion of what the first
object is?
As pupils share their revised responses, the teacher continued to draw attention to the
clues they found on the object (by now, many of them could guess that the object, a tea
infuser, was used for tea) and how their own background knowledge helped them decide
what it was.
Such questioning techniques and scaffolding were deliberate in allowing pupils to make a
conscious effort to see how unfamiliarity is overcome when appropriate clues are identified
and how making connections to what they know and do not know is essential when inferring:
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- Why do you think the tea-cup made it easier for you to infer? ( To highlight
connection and making meaning)
- What clues did you gather? How has your own prior knowledge influence the way
you made your decision?
As a summary, teacher gathered their experiences for the day and recorded their thinking
about the inference process. The anchor chart, serving to connect what they have learnt to
future teaching and learning, required all the pupils in the class to be involved in the process
of constructing meaning to what they learnt about inference. The following were their
responses:
Anchor Chart
What do we know about Inferences?
When do we make inferences?
How do Inferences help us?
It involves:• Thinking• Looking for clues• Tapping on prior
experiences or background knowledge
• When in doubt• When faced with the
unfamiliar• When we do not
understand
• To understand better• To make meaning
and connections
Table 1: Anchor Chart on Inference Skill
During post-lesson conferencing, the observing team feed backed that the questions
crafted served their purpose in helping pupils scaffold their thoughts. However, the teacher
who delivered the lesson could have given more waiting time for the pupils to think and
respond. It was also noted that the pupils were very engaged and responded very well to the
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introductory lesson which required them to guess the use of tangible items. Tapping on this
enthusiasm and drawing on what they learnt about inference in lesson one, the next challenge
for the team was to build on the skill while keeping pupils engaged.
Lesson 2: From Concrete to Contextual Cues
The focus of the second lesson was to tap on pupils’ experience of being able to make
meaningful connections between a familiar object and an unfamiliar one. Therefore, the
lesson was a bridge to link identifying concrete to contextual cues. Based on the post
conference session on engaging the pupils, the teams deigned a lesson to reinforce the
concepts learnt in the previous lesson- using cues to help in inference.
As a trigger, the class played a riddle game- What am I? The rule of the game was to infer
a particular object with as little clues or hints as possible. The teacher only revealed one clue
at a time, giving time for pupils to infer. When they were unable, the second clue is revealed
until the object is identified. For example:
1. I am round2. My favourite number is one3. I am made by the government 4. I have the lion and the tiger as protectors 5. I am gold in colour
After a series of rounds, the teacher asked what the rationale for the game was. To link
the first lesson of identifying concrete clues to contextual ones, the following were asked:
- How did you manage to infer the answers to the riddle?
- What helped you in guessing the correct object?
The teacher guided the discussion and scaffolded their thoughts to lead them to see that
inference is made easier when there are more cues. To reiterate and recap what was learnt;
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the teacher drew upon the Anchor Chart and introduced the focus of the second lesson-
Identifying contextual cues.
Pupils were given two short passages which were selected and adapted by the team to
specifically allow pupils to tease out contextual cues embedded within the text. The
comprehension questions corresponded with the level of difficulty. An example is as follows:
Another feature of the text was the ‘hints’. While the first two questions had the hints
identified, the subsequent ones required the pupil to identify the ‘hints’ or contextual cues in
the passage. The rationale for this was to allow the pupils to consciously identify the cues so
that inference can be made. This was also to reinforce that they were not merely guessing the
answer but were able to infer based on cues available. The passages were also thoughtfully
selected so that they were not beyond their schema but main subject areas that they could
identify with. After all, the lesson was not testing on general knowledge but identifying
98
contextual cues to infer. As the teacher guided the pupils through the passages, two essential
questions were posed to guide their thought process:
- What ‘hints’ are there in the passage that help you understand the passage better?
- How have your own prior experiences make that connection to better understanding?
As post-lesson conference reflection, the team observed that the pupils were very
engaged with the trigger activity and it was an appropriate and good way to link the previous
lesson of concrete cue to a contextual one. They also observed that more waiting time was
consciously provided by the teacher so that pupils could reflect and think longer about their
answers.
Lesson 3: Identify Cues & Making Connections
Relying on feedback during post-lesson conference and brainstorming how to
progress further in developing the skill of inference, the team continued to work on
developing appropriate tasks for pupils to continue to practice their inference skill within a
text. For this lesson, scaffolding was less as seen in the tasks below:
However, to
ensure that the skill of identifying contextual cues was reinforced, the following was asked:
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- Which contextual cue (sentence, phrase, description) allow you to infer that…?
For this task, the pupils are required to fill the blanks with the appropriate word using
contextual cues within the passage. Here this pupil has circled key words which she thought
was essential as contextual cues and arrows to link these words with the blanks to highlight a
connection or relationship. The introduction of such a ‘familiar’ task- a section of the English
assessment- shows the development of teaching the skill of inference.
Lesson 4: Application of Skill
The concluding lesson was a practice session in which the pupils were required to
complete two full length close passages on their own, using the skills learnt- identifying
contextual cues to infer. Pupils were reminded of what was taught and were posed the same
question- Which contextual cue (sentence, phrase, description) allow you to infer that…? A
sample of the tasks is as shown:
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In summary, the design and delivery of teaching the skill of inference is carefully
thought and progressive in nature. Essential questions are part of the pedagogy and guide the
pupils’ thought process. The chart below shows the development of the lessons:
Time Lesson Focus Essential Questions TasksWeek 1 Introduction to Making
Inferences Were there any clues from the object or background information that helped you confirm your decision?
Has the introduction of the second object changed your opinion of what the first object is?
Anchor Chart
Week 2 From Concrete to Contextual Cues
What ‘hints’ are there in the passage that help you understand the passage better?
How have your own prior experiences make that connection to better understanding?
Identifying ‘hints’
Week 3 Identify Cues & Making Connections
Which contextual cue (sentence, phrase, description) allow you to infer that…?
Focused Close Passages
Week 4 Apply Skill of Inference
Which contextual cue (sentence, phrase, description) allow you to infer that…?
Full Length Comprehension Close Passage
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Table 2: Summary of Lesson Development
4. Reflections
Reflections of the Team
The team divided our reflections into 3 parts – the planning stage, the lesson observations and
the post-lesson conferences.
Planning:
During the planning stage, the team had to make a deliberate attempt to craft our
questions such that they would scaffold the pupils’ thought process. The team also tried to
use authentic material for the passages so passages were modified from the Internet and from
magazines such as The Readers’ Digest. A concerted effort was also made to plan the lessons
such that they were progressive in nature. For instance, the pupils started off with concrete
objects as clues, then moved on to short paragraphs comprising of two or three sentences.
Finally, they progressed to a full-length cloze passage. Upon reflection, the team felt that this
was a right move because as the confidence of the pupils to tackle the cloze passages grew,
the team presented them with passages of greater difficulty.
Lesson Observations:
Our team members made it clear to one another that the focus of this lesson study was
the lesson, not the teacher. So, it was agreed upon that the lessons would be observed in a
totally stress-free and non-threatening manner. The focus was on pupils’ responses and on
how engaged they were during the lessons. The observing team did however point out
observations like how certain questioning techniques could be improved or how more wait
time could be given for the pupils to answer a question. These lesson observations in turn
helped to increase the teacher’s capacity in the classroom.
Post-lesson Conferences:
During the lesson observations, each observer would focus on a particular aspect of
the lesson, such as questioning technique or pupil engagement. The post-lesson observation
was an important part of the process for the team members to meet, share and discuss their
observations, and how plans for the following lesson could be refined.
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Reflections of the Pupils
After the whole journey of this lesson study, the pupils were asked to share what they
had learnt from the series of lessons and what parts of the lessons they had enjoyed the most.
It was heartening to read the responses of the pupils. Clearly, majority of them felt
that they could now make more informed guesses of the blanks in a cloze passage. Many also
responded that they had learnt that contextual cues are important to identify the answers in
the passage. Several pupils also said that although they now took more time to search for the
cues, they were in a better position now to conquer this section. As expected, most pupils
enjoyed the part where the teacher brought in concrete objects such as the tea infuser and
orange peeler to guess their use.
5. Conclusion / Recommendations
The biggest challenge that the team faced was that of time constraint. We needed to
find a common time to plan the lessons and passages, observe the lessons and carry out post-
lesson conferences. All three of the team members were Primary Six teachers, so it was a real
challenge to find a common time to meet.
The other challenge we faced was the initial apprehension of lesson observation.
However, the close rapport and warm relationship that the team members shared helped to
ease that initial fear of being observed.
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References
1. Lewis, C., & Tsuchida, I., (1998) A Lesson is like a swiftly flowing river.
2. Amaral, O.M. & Guerrero, Yolanda (2005) Lesson Study: A New Frontier for the
Professional Development of Teachers. San Diego State University, Taken from
http://www.innovec.org.mx/IIIconferencia/ingles/lesson.htm
3. Kispal, A. (2008), Effective Teaching of Inference Skills for Reading Literature Review.
National Foundation for Educational Research. Taken from
http://www.education.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/DCSF-RR031.pdf
4. Questions & Questioning Techniques (Chap 15) Taken from
http://www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/5140/5140_chap1.pdf
5. Cherney, E.E (1986), Definitions and Strategies of Critical Reading as presented in
textbooks on reading and Learning in the content areas.
104
The effectiveness of using role-play to improve pupils’ composition writing skills
Mdm Cheong Hwee Hua
Ms. Eu Lee May
Ms. Kek Sor Ling
Ms. Bernice Cheng
Mdm Tan Lee Siang
1. Abstract
With the increasing number of children and adolescents growing up in an English-
speaking home environment, Chinese Language has gradually become a second
language prior to pupils of today’s generation. Pupils are encouraged to converse
and express their ideas using Mandarin in a role-play. Therefore, this enhances their
learning in the language. Most importantly, role-playing takes the learning of the
Chinese Language beyond conventional boundaries by infusing fun and interactivity
into the lesson. This arouses the pupils’ interest in Chinese language and
encourages them to give a greater depth of content and input in essay-writing. The
project involves pupils enacting various scenes, which create an environment for
pupils to experience and navigate in real-life situations. It investigates the
effectiveness of using role-play to improve composition writing skills of pupils
belonging to the Middle Ability (MA) group. Results of the pupils’ composition are
recorded before and after the implementation of the program, in order to access the
success of the research.
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2. Introduction
Role-playing refers to the changing of one's behaviour to assume a role, either
unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act out an adopted role. Children
and adolescents have always picked up skills from mimicking or duplicating the
actions of others, including their parents and peers. Role-playing is a continuation of
such learning. As the young enjoys playing1, they are motivated to learn through fun
and interactive activities. It also encourages the use of critical thinking because it
involves analyzing and problem solving. Hence, role play is a cognitive learning
method. Role-playing teaches many important lessons that are required in society,
competition, cooperation and empathy.2
Participation in role-play allows pupils to make decisions. They are able to witness
the results of their actions through the feedback they receive in a role-play. They
learn to adjust their words and actions to produce more likeable results. In addition,
role-play promotes interaction between classmates and peers. It allows introverted
pupils to speak out and English-speaking pupils to converse in Mandarin.
Furthermore, pupils exchange their knowledge, ideas and thoughts among
themselves, allowing the teacher to see their various capabilities throughout the role-
play. To a large extent, these benefits of role-play build up their knowledge on the
scenario/situation given in the picture of the composition. This knowledge might not
be knowledge that the pupils have in the first place therefore; it requires creative
thinking and imagination, an element that is crucial to composition writing. Writing is
defined as a manifestation of a writer’s imagination as he/she interacts with his/her
mental text of ideas and transforming it into an organized text in form of print. 3
'We would hardly expect a child to do otherwise than to draw upon his speech
resources when he wants to write.' [Britton (1970) p165] Children need to learn the
skills of telling a story, recounting an event, constructing a report. They need time
1 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4223842.stm (7th September 2005)(Dr Sue Rogers of the University of Plymouth~144 four
& five year olds in three areas of south-west England in a year-long study funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. Her report
says role play is valued highly by both children and adults and that it can make "a significant contribution" to learning and development.)
2 http://www.ntlf.com/pod/roleplay.htm (The National Teaching & Learning Forum~POD Network)Role-playing is an especially effective
teaching-learning tool within the social sciences and occupationally oriented disciplines, contributing to long-term retention of fundamental
concepts.3 http://www.lsesnet.com/blog/?p=49 (An Introduction to Literacy)
106
with adults to develop a story, for example, by telling the story in simple terms,
organizing the chronology, and then embellishing the parts. 4
Therefore, by carrying out role-playing, it allows pupils to come up with their own
dialogues (development of storyline) and helps students in organizing the events that
happened in chronological order.
3. Methods
1) Role-playing
2) Skillful teacher pedagogy – Mental imagery E.g. What would happen if the stall
vendor were to___________?
3) Creative questioning: What ways could the stall vendor has attracted customers to
his stall?
3.2 Subject
Two classes of primary two middle-ability pupils have been selected to be involved in
this project. One of these two classes serves as a control group, where by role-plays
are not carried out in class before the pupils start writing their compositions.
3.3 Design
The students were tested on two composition pieces: A day at the Food
Centre(Informal Assessment 1) and A day at the beach(Informal Assessment 2). The
following compositions were chosen based on their similarities to the test pieces.
Role-play scenarios
Scenario 1: Composition 4(Pre-test): Pupils in Group 1 have to “buy” various
ingredients from different stalls, to prepare a sumptuous dinner for a Reunion dinner.
No script is given to them, so that they are able to express their ideas freely.
4 http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/managing-writing-868 (Managing writing in the early years)
107
The following suggests the assigned roles of various groups.
Group 1: The family visiting the wet market (customers)
Group 2: A stall selling seafood
Group 3: A stall selling fruits
Group 4: A stall selling vegetables
Group 5: A stall selling chicken
Logistics: (Toy) Seafood, fruits, vegetables, meat, basket, money.
Scenario 2:Composition 7: A day in the Park
The pupils are enacting a scene of a day in a Park. This creates an environment for
pupils to experience the sights and sounds in an actual park and translate what they
see, smell, feel into writing.
Participation in this role-play allows pupils to experience through the sights and
sounds he/she receives, thus be able to describe the environment around him. It
also allows the interaction between classmates and peers, and allowing the
teacher to see the various capabilities of students throughout the role-play.
The following suggests the roles being assigned to the various groups.
Group 1: A group who is playing badminton
Group 2: A group who is enacting the scene of a parent teaching his/her child how to
ride the bicycle
Group 3: A group who is conversing/enjoying the scenery of the park
Group 4: A group who is taking a stroll in the park/enjoying the scenery of the park
Group 5: A group who is doing exercises.
No script is given to them, so that they are able to express their views freely.
Logistics: (Toy)Badminton
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Scenario 3:Composition 9: Late for class
The pupils are enacting a scene where a pupil is late for class and the reactions of
the teacher and his fellow classmates in this situation. This creates an environment
for pupils to relate to the situation and translate what they saw and felt into writing.
Participation in this role-play also allows pupils to view from the respective
interaction /reactions of the pupil who is late for class, the teacher and his fellow
classmates, thus be able to relate to the thoughts and feelings of the respective
parties involved in this scenario. It allows the interaction between classmates and
peers, and allowing the teacher to see the various capabilities of students
throughout the role-play.
The following suggests the roles being assigned to the various groups.
All groups took their turns in re-enacting the scenario.
No script is given to them, so that they are able to express their views freely.
Logistics: School bag, and individualized props.
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3.4 Measure
Results of their compositions have been recorded before and after the execution
of the various role-plays i.e. pre-test versus end-of-year examination (SA2)(post-
test).
Interviews are also carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of using role-play to
improve pupils’ composition writing skills.
3.5 Procedure
Role-playing exercises are being carried out during lessons. The pupils are given
the chosen topic to analyze and brainstorm from the perspective of a character. To
further familiarize the students with the composition scenario, pupils were first asked
to have a brief discussion on what would happen first in the story and then next so
that they can have an idea of the outline of the story and also to ensure that the role-
play is carried out smoothly. The teacher then shows pictures of various market
stalls and asks open-ended questions to stimulate and create a thinking atmosphere.
For example, what the various vendors might say or do to attract customers? What
does the wet market smell like or look like? What are the other customers doing?
How do they do their shopping? For students with prior experience, they can join in
the sharing and give the other students ideas about buying things in the wet market.
Secondly, roles were assigned and props were distributed to the pupils. The
teacher acts mainly as a facilitator in this activity, providing guidance and necessary
resources, whilst the pupils decide on their characters’ lines and actions. The pupils
may do some research on their characters to make informed decisions. Ground
rules, such as fair play, respect for others etc, are also introduced to facilitate the
smooth process of the role-playing. For most of the role-play exercise (mostly
unscripted), these scenarios are open-ended thus there is no “correct” outcome.
Lastly, students were asked to recount the events in the role-play in chronological
order. They were also asked to work out alternative events and then decide which
was the most exciting. Pupils played with the props and were asked to describe
them. The teacher then asks if there’s a better word to substitute or to describe the
objects in more detail in terms of texture, appearance, etc. Pupils then have to
110
translate these into the written form. Feedback from pupils was gathered of the role-
playing experience from the interview.
Results
Interview
Feedback from pupils:
“The role-play was fun and engaging. My parents and I usually visit the
supermarket, instead of the wet market, to do our groceries. Hence it is a very
different experience for me. I can now write my composition better, since I am
more familiar with the environment in a market.”
Wen Xuan
“I enjoyed myself and had fun “selling” vegetables to my classmates.”
Yue Jun
“I have fun acting out the scene and was able to understand how the pupil felt to
be late for class.” Zhi Yan
“I understand how each person felt and know it is important to be punctual for
class.“ Si Ying
“I can smell the flowers, and I feel happy.” Zi Xuan
“I enjoyed myself and had fun playing with my classmates. “ Jun De
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Quantitative results:
Results
The experimental group performed significantly better than the control group in the
post-test. As shown in the Table 1, the experimental group has a mean of 9.1 after
the treatment (using role play in daily teaching) compared to a mean of 7.6 for the
control group.
Table 1: Results of the experimental group and control group(pre test)
Mean SD
Experimental group 8.1 1.2
Control group 7.1 1.4
Table 2: Results of the experimental group and control group(post test)
Mean SD
Experimental group 9.1 0.8
Control group 7.6 1.2
Figure 2: Mean Results of the experimental group and the control group
As seen in Figure 2, the experimental group had shown significantly better results,
hence demonstrating the effectiveness of the use of role play to improve students’
writing skills.
Figure 3: Standard Deviation of the experimental group and the control group
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Analysis
T-Tests ResultsComparisons were also made between the control and experimental groups using
the independent t-test. The independent t-test ran on the scores yielded a p-value of
0.00001 (close to zero and less than 0.05), indicating that there is a highly significant
difference and unlikely to be a chance occurrence. Hence, it is convincing that our
method is effective for this group of students.
Discussions and Recommendations
(I) Advantages
1) Many positive feedbacks from pupils. Most of them mentioned that they
enjoyed themselves during the role-play; and gained greater knowledge and
“experience” prior to the given composition topic
2) Results (the Content component) have shown that pupils are able to produce
a greater depth of content in essay-writing.
3) Allows students to look at the material they are learning in a new lightà
persuading pupils to alter their mental maps of the world instead of just filling
them in (Assimilation).
4) Students develop real-life skills:
- Allows students to develop an understanding of others' perspectives.
(empathy)
- Gives students the chance to gain insights into interpersonal challenges they
are likely to face in real life;
- Encourages students to work with others in analyzing situations and
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developing workable solutions (Teamwork)
5) Offers a constructive channel through which feelings can be expressed and
feedback processed
6) Presents students with a forum for building self-esteem and confidence
7) Motivating Students
8) The creative aspect of the exercise will make it seem more like play than like
work.
9) Some students may be too self-conscious. Through role-play, shy students
can participate more easily in small groups. Students perceive interacting with
small groups to be easier than writing for the teacher or presenting to the
whole class.
10) Creates a context for vocabulary learning so students remember it very well.
(II) Limitations
1) Better results of the project will be evident if pupils are brought to the actual
scene of the composition picture. For example, visiting the zoo instead of
enacting a similar scenario in a classroom setting. The role-play may turn out
too “artificial” and hence affecting the pupils’ learning.
2) Students are awkward when carrying out role-play. (Lack in interpersonal
skills/ hates being the center of attention)
3) Some pupils don't pay attention to others and try to overwhelm less assertive
ones.
4) Having a greater depth of knowledge on the situation/scenario may not
necessarily improve the pupils’ writing skills. Pupils need to have a
considerably strong foundation in the language to excel in essay-writing. Only
that, pupils can benefit from the program at a larger extent. In other words,
pupils may share many ideas on the given topic but are unable to express
them in written words due to their limited language skills in the Chinese
Language.
5) Not all topics are appropriate for role-playing, for example, a day at the zoo.
6) Role-playing helps the pupils to get into roles and gain a new perspective on
the story but to see a marked improvement in the students’ writing skills; the
teacher might need to plan more in-depth writing lessons after the role-
playing. Scaffolding has to be done. Firstly, to allow pupils to recognize the
structure of a composition, teachers can show pupils model compositions with
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similar themes. Then, the teacher has to teach explicitly how to construct
sentences, to prevent grammatical mistakes. Thus, an effective role-playing
lesson doesn’t just stop at one lesson; a few lessons will be required in order
to see an improvement in writing. However, this can pose a problem as
curriculum time is limited.
Recommendations:
1) Apply drama techniques such as hot-seating and interview them "in role," drawing
them out regarding their thoughts about associated aspects of their role and not just
throw them into the roles to ease shyer students into their roles.
2) Students who are trying to overwhelm other less assertive students can be
removed from the exercise immediately as ground rules have been set.
3) If role-playing is not appropriate for some topics, alternative methods could be
used.
4) Teachers have to be trained on how to deliver an effective writing class despite
tight curriculum time.
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References
http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~mr9643/Benifits%20of%20Role%20Play.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing
http://www.blatner.com/adam/pdntbk/rlplayedu.htm Dr. Adam Blanter, MD (Role-
Playing In Education)
http://www.ntlf.com/pod/roleplay.htm (The National Teaching & Learning
Forum~POD Network)
Britton, J (1970), Language and Learning, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd
http://www.lsesnet.com/blog/?p=49 (An Introduction to Literacy)
http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/managing-writing-868 (Managing writing
in the early years)
http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/roleplaying/howto.html (Advantages of role-play)
http://www1.georgetown.edu/departments/psychology/resources/researchmethods/
statistics/8318.html (calculation of t-test)
116
The Effectiveness of Using Scaffolding Technique (扶-放-收) to Improve Students’ Composition
Writing Skills.
Leader Choo Chee Keong, Ben
Group members Grace LokeLeow Ching LeeCheung Ka LaiCheong Mei Yuan
117
“The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the distance between what children can do by
themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent
assistance” - Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild
Disabilities (pp. 176).
Abstract
Due to an increasing number of students who face difficulties in writing Chinese
compositions in proper sentence structures, our group has decided to embark on this project.
One class of students, who belongs to the tier end of the middle-ability band, was selected for
this research study. Results were collected to determine whether the use of the scaffolding
technique of (扶-放-收) has helped the students to develop better composition writing skills.
Introduction
The “zone of proximal development (ZPD)” is a concept originated from Lev Vygotsky
which captures the child’s cognitive skills. He believed that the development of children’s
learning is a gradual process and teachings are endorsed with “scaffolding” techniques.
“Scaffolding”, instead of traditional teacher-centred teaching and rote-learning, is an
approach whereby the teacher takes on the role of a facilitator or coach to help the students in
their path of attaining skill competency. The teacher recognises the different abilities of
students and act on students’ prior knowledge of the particular skill or subject to come up
with a pace and range of activities that are suited to the students.
118
Zone of Proximal Zone of Proximal DevelopmentDevelopment
Diagram taken from: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/zone-of-proximal-development.html
Figure 1: Zone of Proximal Development
Stage One: The first stage demonstrates how children develop skills by relying on others such
as instructors for performing the task.
Stage Two: In the second stage, the children uses prior knowledge to carry out the task
without any guidance. The zone of proximal development occurs between the first and
second stages.
Stage Three: In this stage, the task is performed automatically after being internalized, and
according to Vygotsky, is fossilized.
Stage Four: At this juncture, the process is de-automatized through addresses and recursion.
As shown in Figure 1, during the learning process, the teacher provides a lot of ‘teaching’ in
the initial stage, but as the learning progresses, the ‘teaching’ will gradually become more of
a ‘guidance and support’ one. Students are given opportunities to engage in different
activities and learn to be more independent in their learning. Meanwhile, the teacher will
provide necessary feedback until students attain mastery of skills.
119
An important aspect of scaffolding to be highlighted is the eventual development of students
as independent learners through the skills learned, as opposed to the traditional products of
rote-learning. With the skills of scaffolding mastered, students can infuse them with other
subjects and skills, thus benefiting them in the future.
Recognising the positive attributes of scaffolding, our Action Research (AR) team has
integrated the concept of scaffolding with a similar Chinese teaching strategy known as “扶
(fú)-放 (fàng)- 收 (shōu)”. In such a strategy, the process of scaffolding is divided into the
mentioned three stages.
In the initial stage of “扶 (fú)”, the learning process is a teacher-centered approach, whereby
the teacher teaches the students the desired skill. In the “放 (fàng)” stage, students are given
more independence to complete activities on their own. The teacher will only step in to give
necessary support deemed necessary. In the last stage of “ 收 (shōu)”, students are supposed
to handle the given task completely on their own with no aid from the teacher. This is the
stage for the teacher to determine the learning outcome of the students, as well as to reflect on
the given activities and room for future improvement.
Our Focus
We decided to adopt the teaching strategy of ‘scaffolding’ of “扶 (fú)-放 (fàng)- 收 (shōu)”
to improve our students’ writing skills. Our intention stems from the fact that an increasing
number of students face difficulties in writing Chinese sentences, with their sentences
invariably strewn with grammatical errors.
Our Experimental Group and Methodology
Our experimental group consists of 29 students whose composition marks range between 7
and 11 (out of a maximum mark of 20).
In the first step of handholding ( 扶 ), students were shown a model essay and a detailed
description of the pictures and explanation of the helping phrases (refer to appendix A).
120
For the second step of guidance-aided ( 放 ), students were given worksheets to complete,
much like the Comprehension Cloze in English Paper Two at Primary 5 and 6 (refer to
appendix B). By filling up the blanks, teachers are able to gauge the level of understanding.
On top of that, students need to think of the words they can use in their compositions which
were mentioned earlier in the handholding section. In the worksheet, most of the blanks
would require students to fill in connectives and adjectives. This exercise trains their skills in
writing compositions in terms of honing their language component rather than merely on
content.
After the coaching and assistance, the third step is Let-go (收). Students were tasked to write
an entire composition on their own. With the help of picture description, the students could
then focus on the language, instead of thinking about the content. In addition, we provided
students with the explanation of the helping phrases. Students would at least have an idea of
how they should express themselves in the composition. They can emulate the model
composition. They are given 40 minutes, which is the duration of the SA1 and SA2
examinations.
Results
The scaffolding methodology in writing composition was adopted for the experimental group
in term 3. Hence the effectiveness of this methodology was evaluated, using the SA2
composition results to benchmark against the SA1 results. The difference in results is shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Difference between the results of SA1 and SA2
121
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Student
Marks
SA1 Result
SA2 Result
Mean and Standard Deviation
Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Composition Marks
As shown in Table 1, the students performed better for their SA2 composition examination.
The mean mark for SA2 is significantly higher, with a mean mark of 11.1 (base mark of 20),
as compared to 8.88 for SA2. This works out to an increase of 11.1 per cent in the mean mark
from SA1 to SA2.
Although the mean mark for SA2 is significantly higher, the standard deviation is also higher
for SA2, as compared to SA1. A higher standard deviation means that the students scored
marks which were spread over a larger range of values. This implies that there are a number
of students who had scored below or above the mean mark, contributing to its higher standard
deviation.
Figure 3: Analysis of Students’ Composition Marks for SA2
As seen in Figure 3 above, there were nine students who scored below the mean mark of
11.1. Conversely, there were 14 students who scored above the mean mark. Therefore, we
Mean Standard Deviation
SA1 8.88 2.06
SA2 11.10 2.38
122
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Student
Mar
ks SA 2 Result
SA 2 Mean
derive the conclusion that the use of scaffolding technique to teach composition writing skills
seems to be effective, but whether it is significant would depend on the t-test result.
T-Tests Results
We used paired sample T-test here which is commonly used for ‘before after’ studies. By
using the paired sample T-test, we can statistically conclude if the scaffolding technique has
been effective in improving pupils’ writing skills.
D = mean of the difference between the 2 results= -2.224
S = standard deviation of the difference between the 2 result = 2.552
N = sample size = 29
Figure 4: T-test Formula
123
ResultsResults
Paired Sample T- test• Based on the table of the T
distribution
• As t = 4.694 › 2.048, the diff erence between the marks is significant
Table taken from: http://www.microbiologybytes.com/maths/t.html
2.0481.7011.3130.683df = 28
0.050.10.20.5: Two Tails:
Figure 5: T-test results
We did a two tailed test, with alpha = 0.05 and degree of freedom = 28. The table value is
2.048 as shown below.
The t-test shows that the difference between the marks is significant which proves that this
strategy is effective in improving students’ composition writing skills.
Limitations of the research
Firstly, the sample size of the research is small as it is only carried out in one of the eight
Primary Four level classes. Moreover, the research is only carried out in one term and the
limitations of such short term interventions will have to be taken into consideration. As such,
more studies will be required to validate the results.
Secondly, there are nine students whose composition marks for SA2 were below the mean
score while six students maintained their score. These 15 students already make up more than
50 per cent (15 out of 29 pupils) of the sample group. Hence, it is apparent that not everyone
benefits from this particular scaffolding technique.
124
Conclusion
A statistical analysis of student results had shown that there is a notable improvement for
those students who had participated in the intervention.
Students, teachers and facilitators also indicated that other observable and positive results of
this intervention were in the areas of confidence, improved participation in classes and
enjoyment. We propose additional investigation in this area for the upper primary levels.
125
References1. Lev Vygotsky Archive. (No date). Retrieved November 15, 2002, from
http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/
2. Margaret Montet, No date “What is Scaffolding in Teaching?”
http://www.ehow.com/facts_5162695_scaffolding-teaching.html
3. Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild Disabilities
(pp. 169-201).Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company.
4. Rachel R. Van Der Stuyf (2002) Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy, Adolescent Learning
and Development, Section 0500A - Fall 2002
http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~group4/Van%20Der%20Stuyf/Van%20Der%20Stuyf
%20Paper.doc
5. Author unknown, No date “Scaffolding as a Teaching Method”
http://www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1707844.html
6. “语文科，教法篇”http://www.ycve.js.cn/ebook/gljx/ts006021.pdf
7. Standard Deviation – From Wikipedia the free dictionary. Retrieved November 11, 2010
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation
8. www.minitab.com
9. http://www.asiaone.com/News/Education/Story/A1Story20100111-191137.html
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky
11. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/zone-of-pro ximal-development.html
12. http://www.educ.utas.edu.au/users/ilwebb/Research/scaffolding.htm
13. http://www.microbiologybytes.com/maths/1011-20.html
14. http://www.microbiologybytes.com/maths/t.html
15. http://www.statisticssolutions.com/methods-chapter/statistical-tests/paired-sample-t-test/
126
Appendix A
2010 年 四 年 级 看 图 作 文 (P4) SA1-1仔 细 观 察 下 图， 运 用 所 提 供 的 参 考 词 语 写 一 篇 作 文， 字 数 不 少 于 80 字。
参 考 词 语
故 事 书 吩 咐 煮 食 物 疲 倦 不 知 不 觉
梦 乡 黑 烟 惊 醒 求 助 后 悔
Appendix B
姓名：____________ 日期：____________
127
班级：P4.( )
作文练习
一个______________的星期天下午，我在看故事书。妈妈在____________。妈妈正想____________的时候，____________家里没有油，就____________出门 去买。出门前，妈妈____________我十分钟后要关火。说完，妈妈就出门去了。我看着故事书，_____看_____累，不知不觉地睡着了。
____________，我从梦乡中____________了过来，看到了黑烟。我马上打电话给妈妈。
__________，妈妈回来了，____________用水灭火。过后，她生气地__________________________________。经过这件事，我_________________________________________________________________________________。
128
加油！
Enhancing Students’ Interest in Reading Using Book
Review Strategy – Visual Mapping
by
Mdm Ng Xiaoyan
Mdm Koh Ah Lek
Mdm Loh Sin Fah
Mdm Poon Hui Kiang
Anderson Primary School
129
1. Abstract
With the increasing number of students coming from English-speaking backgrounds, Chinese
language teachers face the challenges of getting students to be interested in learning the
Chinese language. As it is clear that pupils may not be provided with a Chinese speaking
environment at home, there is thus a need to deliberately construct a rich Chinese speaking
environment in school to expose them to the Chinese language. This is an especially pressing
need for lower primary students because it is very important to start from young to establish
their interest in learning the Chinese language and to build a strong and stable foundation. In
this action research, our team places priority in terms of interests for students. This got us to
seriously think of how we can effectively stimulate students’ interests in reading. We feel that
in order for students to learn language well, they must first develop interest in the subject
before they can proceed to build on other competencies.
This paper reports on the investigation of the effectiveness of using visual mapping as a form
of book review strategy to enhance students’ interest in reading. Primary Two students of
mixed abilities were selected for the study. They were asked to use the visual mapping
procedure to map out key ideas or events in the books they had read. Pre and Post test survey
results were collected to determine if visual mapping had motivated the students to read.
2. Introduction
Visual mapping was first developed by Tony Buzan in the 1970s. While visual mapping is
universally acknowledged as a powerful learning tool for diagramming ideas and concepts, it
could also build on other competencies of students.
“When students doodle on their papers or draw while listening, it seems they aren't paying attention. However, for many
learners, creating images can become a powerful tool for recording ideas and making meaning of what they hear in class.”
Nancy Margulies said.
As teachers, we can build upon our students' interests by incorporating drawing into reading
lessons. Students can learn to create visual maps as a form of book review. This form of book
review engages the students in recording ideas and grouping them instead of hastily writing
sentences or letting their attention wander. As a result they are able to focus on learning in an
active manner.
130
Interest and enthusiasm in reading varies from every individual. Reading can either be a
passion or simply a tedious chore, when a mammoth effort is required to read short passages
or even a sentence.
The objective of this research is to ascertain how useful visual mapping is in enhancing
interest in reading as a way of reviewing books read.
3. Methods
3.1 Visual Mapping
Visual mapping procedure is a “free-form variation” of standardized mind maps; it assumes
a whole brain approach to capturing ideas and taking notes. It starts with a central image
that is extended through key words, colours, codes and symbols. (Nancy Margulies) Colours
enhance memory, delight the eye and stimulate the right cortical process (Tony Buzan).
3.2 Subject
Two classes of primary two middle-ability students have been selected to be involved in the
Action Research. One of these two classes serves as a control group, where experiments are
not carried out in class. Another class serves as an experimental group, whereby visual
mapping is taught in class. Both control and experimental groups consist of 27 pupils
respectively.
3.3 Design
Four lessons of one and a half hour each were conducted with the experimental group. A pre-
survey questionnaire was given to students in both control and experimental groups to
determine their interest level in reading Chinese storybooks. Students in the experimental
group were requested to do a post-survey questionnaire after completion of the four lessons.
3.4 Measure
Pre and Post test survey results were collected to determine if visual mapping had motivated
the students to read.
3.5 Procedure
Prior to the first lesson, a pre-survey questionnaire was given to students in both experimental
and control group to determine the interest level of reading. The first lesson with the
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experimental group was conducted to inform pupils about their involvement in the action
research. A video of how to mind-map was played and students had a glimpse of how mind-
maps were drawn. Samples of visual maps of stories were also shown to students for more
reference. Next, students were taught the basic concepts of visual-mapping such as the use of
connecting lines, and how to create images to represent ideas.
In the second lesson, a storybook was introduced to the students. Using visualiser, the story
was shown and read to the students. Students were then taught how to do a simple visual-map
to review the book read by the teacher.
In the third lesson, another storybook was introduced to the students. Using visualiser, the
story was shown and read to the students. Students were again taught how to visual-map to
review the book read by the teacher.
Before the last lesson, students were told that they were supposed to review a book read using
the visual-mapping method. In the last lesson, students brought their storybooks and did their
own visual-maps during the lesson. Students were invited to talk about their book review
visual-maps. After completion of all lessons, students were asked to complete a post-survey
questionnaire.
The following procedure was adopted for the research study:
1. Teachers were briefed on how the research study should be carried out.
2. A discussion was done to prepare for the survey questionnaire.
3. At the end of seven weeks, the post-survey questionnaire was given to students in the
experimental group.
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4. Results
The following results were obtained from the pre-survey questionnaire conducted with the
students of both experimental and control groups:
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
No. of students
P2.1 (Experimental Group) P2.3 (Control Group)
Pre-Survey Questionnaire
Like
Dislike
A pre-survey questionnaire was given to students in both control and experimental groups to
determine their interest level in reading Chinese storybooks. Both groups had the same
results; whereby 10 students in the class like to read and 17 students in the class dislike
reading.
Students in the experimental group were asked to do a post-survey questionnaire after
completion of the four lessons.
The following questions were asked in the post-survey questionnaire:
1. Are you able to understand the content of the book through visual-mapping?
2. Does visual-mapping enhance your interest in reading storybooks?
3. Do you hope to include visual-mapping in your lessons?
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The following results were obtained:
0
5
10
15
20
25
No. of students
Q1 Q2 Q3
Post-Survey Questionnaire
From the results, we can see that 22 students are able to understand the contents after using
visual-mapping. We can also see that 17 students feel that visual-mapping has enhanced their
interest in reading. Out of 27 students, 22 of them hope that visual-mapping will be continued
in their lessons.
From the pre-survey, only 10 students like to read Chinese storybooks. After conducting the
post-survey, 17 students like to read Chinese storybooks now.
5. Discussions and Recommendations
5.1 Advantages
The post-survey results have indicated that visual mapping is an alternative for book review
and can thus enhance pupils’ interest in reading. Many students said that they like using
visual-maps to review a book read. Their feedback shows that visual-mapping is a tool that
schools can use for enhancing students’ interest in reading.
5.2 Limitations
Some of the students do not enjoy drawing and colouring. Visual-mapping might not be
suitable for these students who are not skilled in drawing. Hence, we feel that visual-mapping
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as a form of book review is recommended to Primary Three students who are in the ARTS
class in Anderson Primary School IMAS programme.
6. Appendices
6.1 Pre-survey Questionnaire
安德逊小学2010 年行动研究问卷调查（一）
姓名：__________________（ ）班级：2（ ） 日期：__________
1.你喜欢读华文故事书吗？□ 喜欢 □ 不喜欢
因为 因为□ 对华文有兴趣 □ 对华文没有兴趣□ 其他原因 □ 看不懂汉字___________________________ □ 华文故事书不好看
2.你每个月读几本故事书？□ 无 □ 一本 □ 两本 □ 三本或以上
3.爸爸妈妈有没有陪你读华文故事书？□ 有 □ 没有
6.1 Post-survey Questionnaire
安德逊小学
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2010 年行动研究问卷调查（二）
姓名：__________________（ ）班级：2（ ） 日期：__________
1.通过 visual mapping, 你可以更容易理解华文故事书的内容？□ 是 □ 不是
2.通过 visual mapping, 使你更喜欢读华文故事书？□ 是 □ 不是
3.你希望老师以后继续让同学们用 visual mapping 吗？□ 希望 □ 不希望
6.2 Samples of visual-maps
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6.3 Samples of Students’ Work
137
138
139
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7. References
1) Tony Buzan (2010), Use Your Head, BBC Active, England
2) How to Mind-Map: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWz88RHQS4s&feature=related,
accessed May 2010
3) Mind-map guidelines:
http://www.informationtamers.com/WikIT/index.php?title=Buzan
%27s_mind_map_guidelines_in_practical_use
4) Terms of Nancy Margulies
http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/graphic_tools/margulies.htm
5) Official site of Nancy Margulies
http://www.nancymargulies.com/
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The effectiveness of using Mixed Reality to enhance creative writing skills of Primary Four students
By
Chong Shi YanKoo Eng HuatLee Seh Lat
Wong Yuen San
Anderson Primary School
Abstract
This paper reports on the investigation of the effectiveness of using Mixed Reality
technology to enhance creative writing skills of Primary Four students. Primary Four
students of middle abilities were selected for the study. Pre and Post test scores
were collected to determine if Mixed Reality technology had enhanced the creative
writing skills of the students. The results of the tests will be statistically analyzed with
a range of procedures, including multivariate analysis to minimize the impact of
uncontrolled variables.
Introduction
Mixed Reality (MR) incorporates both augmented reality and augmented virtuality. It
merges real and virtual worlds to re-enact new environments and visualisations
through 3D digital objects, where physical and digital objects co-exist and interact in
real time.
5wIzDirector is the software used in the project. The programme is a highly
revolutionary Mixed Reality application that uses a webcam and computer to let
users employ physical "markers" on the surface of a printed card, i.e. wIzCards,
which can be seen in the "real" world on the computer screen. These animated
virtual objects can even be programmed to interact with each other or the user's
"real" environment.
5 Source: www.mxrcorp.com
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As students are generally weak in the writing component, this project aims to raise
the learning interest of the students in the language, as well as the proficiency of the
students to plan and write coherently.
The project attempts to answer the following research questions are:
1) Do the students show greater interest in the learning of Chinese Language with
the use of Mixed Reality technology as compared to conventional teaching
methods?
2) Are the students able to enhance the story plot and content in Chinese Language
through Mixed Reality technology?
A directional hypothesis is used to indicate the direction of the expected outcome. It
is expected that the performance of students who experienced the Mixed Reality
lesson will show improvement in their essay writing.
Method
Subjects
The students selected for the project are Primary Four pupils of age 10 years old and
of middle ability. The students selected for the project are average to above average
achievers in Chinese. In the experimental group, there are 30 pupils from the
Primary Four level consisting of 13 girls and 17 boys.
Measure
The experimental group had been administered with a pre-test and post-test to
evaluate the effectiveness of Mixed Reality towards enhancing creative writing skills
of the students. The pre-tests and post-tests were administered by the Chinese
teacher. The tests are marked and students were scored against the content criteria
as prescribed by the examination composition writing rubrics.
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Procedure
Firstly, as the pre-test, the students were required to write a composition based on
one of the school core values ‘Courage’. The theme is line with the school core
values SPICES. The compositions were graded against the content section of the
examination composition writing rubrics. The scores were taken as the pre-test
scores.
After the pre-test, the scene/background and story characters cards were given to
the students. They are to select what scene/background and characters they wanted
to use in the story. Based on their selection, they then drafted the storyline.
When the draft was completed, students then created the script for the story. Next,
the students began recording as they enacted the story using wIzDirector. Based on
the recorded video, students reviewed their performance and proceeded to finalise
their script. Thereafter, they recorded the final video for submission. The final script
was translated to an essay. At the end of the project, the students wrote another
composition with the same theme ‘Courage’. The scores were taken as the post-test
scores. Duration for both pre-test and post-test is set at 50 minutes.
Analysis
A matched pair t-test was used to assess if the students showed significant
improvement in the post-test.
As shown in the table below, the students scored a mean of 5.47 and 5.94 for the
pre-test and post-test respectively. The difference in the mean scores for the pre-test
and post test was 0.41, an improvement of 8.6%. The students made improvement
in their creative writing skills.
Mean (Pre Test) Mean (Post test) SD (pre- test) SD (post test)
5.47 5.94 0.72 1.34
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Results
Comparisons were made between the pre and post-tests using the matched pair t-
test at significance level 0.05.
The matched pair t-test yielded a t-value of -1.52 and p-value of 0.075. Since p-value
is more than 0.05, this indicates that the difference between the pre-test and post-
test scores is not significant. Therefore, we cannot conclude that the usage of the
Mixed Reality software is effective to enhance the creative writing skills for this group
of students, though the students on the whole showed improvement in the post-test.
Matched pair t-test p-value
Pre-test scores vs Post-test scores 0.075
Limitations of the research
New program – small sample size
Time constraint
Firstly, the sample size of the research is small, because the project was only carried
out in one class. Hence, this limits the validity of the results.
Secondly, the school timetable is scheduled such that it only permits a maximum of
one hour per session, when it was carried out during the Mother Tongue lesson.
Therefore, the actual time available to perform the activity is insufficient, when the
need to setup the equipment, movement of the class to the computer laboratory, the
amount of time needed to carry out the activity are taken into consideration.
The need to complete the syllabus is also a critical factor that restricts the amount
time that could be used in this project. The limitations of such short term
interventions will have to be taken into consideration. As such, more studies will be
required to validate the results.
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Hardware issues
The system requirements of computers in the laboratory were unable to cater well to
that of the programme. Hence, there is a lag in the system when the programme ran
for a period of time. Next, the positioning of the webcam is also a vital problem that
we faced. It is time consuming as we need to setup the webcam during every
session. Moreover, an ideal distance is required for the webcam to capture the
markers on the wIzcards accurately. Thus, it is difficult to achieve the ideal distance
each time due to the physical restrictions in the computer laboratory.
Teacher-student ratio is big
The teacher to student ratio is 1:30. It is difficult for the teacher to manage the class
as the students needed much help to carry out the activity. Close monitoring is
required to ensure that the activities were implemented smoothly. Therefore, more
manpower is needed so that the students have the assistance they needed, should
they face any difficulties in carrying out the project.
Discussion and Recommendations
Information technology is apparent in our daily lives. It is a good learning tool as the
visual and auditory aspect can capture the students’ learning interest. Through
verbal interviews, the students gave positive feedback stating that they enjoyed the
activity very much. It is a refreshing change from the conventional classroom
teaching.
The research will continue next year on another group of students, with the support
of the IT department to minimise the hardware issues that may occur. The team will
look into how we can further reduce the waiting time, such as to have a permanent
classroom setup for the implementation of the Mixed Reality programme. This will
help greatly in minimising the loss of time used for setting up and moving from
classroom to the computer laboratory.
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Conclusion
Mixed reality makes the learning of the Chinese language more fun and engaging.
This is an interesting way to teach and develop the student’s language, creativity,
interaction, reaction and expression skills. Besides the focus on writing the content, it
also allows the students to visualise, auditory and sensory. The group work synergy
for each group is apparent as they work together for the project. The ability to see
the 3D characters in action does aid the students’ visualisation of the characters
when writing.
References
Arhar, J.M., Holly, M.L.& Kasten, W.C.(2001).Action Research for
teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
Z.Y., Zhou, J. Tedjokusumo, S.O., Gilani. (2008).wIzQubes™, A Novel
Tangible Interface for Interactive Storytelling in Mixed Reality;
International Journal of Virtual Reality
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The Use of Videos In Effective Teaching of Composition Writing
Cik Sabariah Bte Abdullah
Cik Wan Wardah Woojdy
Muhammad Aidil Bin Ishak
Anderson Primary School
Abstract
The purpose of this action research is to investigate the perception of pupils on
videos aided lessons which is employed to the enhance the content quality of their
composition writing. This research aims to examine the effectiveness of using videos
in improving the pupils experience and knowledge, thus helping them to write better
composition.
15 Primary Five Malay pupils were involved in this study which is conducted over a
seven week period. Using a combination of perception analysis, interview and
impressionistic assessment. The research attempt to determine pupils’ perception
towards the use videos in inciting better composition writing. A pre-test and a post-
test were carried to assess the outcome of the research. After the duration of the
tests,the post test results showed an improvement in the pupils’s performance.The
results suggest that the use of video has a positive impact in arousing interest and
creativity thus enhancing pupil’s skills in writing.
Introduction
In a general classroom setting, composition writing lesson would usually involve a
teacher centered form of learning. The outcome of such instructional practise tend to
encourage the ‘spoon feeding’ of information or over reliance of the teacher’s
narration of possible experiences , rather than the pupil’s expressing their own
feeling and experiences. With every reference that the teacher shares, the pupil
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seem to be influence and bound to build ideas along the experiences which has
been mentioned. and forming a conclusion
Pupils at Primary 5 level need to write a composition based on a series of six related
pictures with an independent conclusion. In addition, they were also provided with
an optional vocabulary list. At this level, pupils are guided in the basic skill of
constructing a composition, which involves the introduction, simple paragraphing ,
development and forming a conclusion. Limited to that, their compositions would
usually lack in depth as they fail to infer and see beyond the pictures. Hence, their
compositions are often dull and uninteresting. They seem to be limiting themselves
to construct ideas upon what only what was depicted in the pictures. Perhaps, due to
the lack of visual or real life experience, they are unable to vividly relate their ideas in
writing.
“Children and adults feel their interest quicken when language is experienced in a
lively way through television and video. This combination of moving pictures and
sound can present language and ideas more comprehensively than any other
teaching medium. And more realistic too” (Stempleski & Tomalin 1990).
The purpose of this study was to investigate pupil’s perception on the use of videos
for writing. As a stimulus to enhance creative imagination while writing, video could
be an instrument which can be incorporated in the lesson as Bearne says ,“ … being
able to explore and express meaning comes from experience and watching
stories ,playing a role, becoming familiar particular story or kinds or story. They may
be watched on video, listened to as story tapes, enjoyed as puppet plays, danced or
acted out in drama.” (Bearne 2002)
Based on this point of view, the purpose of this study was to investigate pupil’s
perception on the use of videos for writing and the reasons for their perception.
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Method
The process of this research is divided into three components. The first component
involves the pupils to write their composition based on a series of 6 related pictures
independently so as to gather samples for a pre-test .
Before the start of the research study, training was provided for all Primary Five
pupil to familiarise themselves with the basic skill set of writing composition, simple
paragraphing, and forming a conclusion. Resource for this training was limited to the
minimal verbal explanation of the picture and the helping words .
A separate intervention will be introduced as a form of new learning style. The
difference in perception brought by this intervention will be accounted for as an
evidence of research.
Subjects
The participants of this research are a class of mixed ability Malay Language Pupils
from Primary 5 .This lot, comprising of 15 pupils, are in the basic stages of learning
composition writing based on a series of 6 related pictures . The class consists of
mixed ability pupils ranging from low ability to high ability.
Procedure
Pupils were introduced to a new composition learning strategy which incorporates
video excerpts related to the same series of pictures. Pupils were engaged in group
discussions, brainstorming on words and phrases related to the videos, and drafting
their experiences. Pupils are encouraged to give more time to deliberate and focus
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on each picture. They are expected to enrich their group discussion with vivid ideas
in the form of re-enactment, dialogues and role play .This intervention process was
conducted over a span 5 weeks.
.
Upon completion on the intervention process, a post test was carried out. Pupils
were asked to write a complete composition based on the same series of pictures
with a independent conclusion. Assessment was based on the content of the
writings.
Results
In contrast, the pre and post test indicated a positive result. The findings showed that
the content of the writing is more in depth, interesting and planned. During the
impressionistic assessment, it was evident in the pupil’s writing that that the choice
of words portray the given situation in more vivid manner coupled with creative
imagination which is consistent with the storyline. Pupils are able to quote dialogues
which gave life to the characters in their composition. From the ideas they derive
from the videos , they were now able to narrate them creatively in writing.
The lower ability pupils showed improvement in their writing. From limiting their ideas
to the given pictures, they have now been encouraged to include appropriate words
and creative ideas to string more interesting sentences.
Discussion and Recommendations
Finding the appropriate video excerpts for specific pictures was a great challenge.
Often, the suitability of the video was not coherent to what is being discussed.
This approach has benefited the pupils as clearly they are more actively engaged in
the learning of composition writing. Taking into account from a perception survey, it
is found that the video gave pupils inspiration and have encouraged them to
generate better vocabulary and expand creativity. The videos have also helped them
to visualize the real scenario. It gave them clarity of thought and motivated them to
write more.
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Whilst it will require more preparation to expedite a program like this, the strategy
was effective in engaging pupils to take ownership of the learning process as while
teachers can focus as facilitators.
REFERENCES
References & Appendices Bearne, Eve (2002) Making Progress In Writing :London : Routledge Falmer
Stempleski. S & Tomalin B. (1990) Video In Action. New York. Prentice Hall.
“Coast Guard Resave 3 from Capsized Boat” (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t8qvikosVCM)
“Dark thunder clouds at dusk” (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csU0MBtL8kU)
“Boat in huge storm at sea”
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The Effective Use of Rubrics in the Teaching of Oral and Composition Writing
Mrs StevenMrs RamathasMrs MohanAnderson Primary School
Abstract
This study explores the usage of rubrics in reading, oral and composition writing in the Tamil
Language classroom. Students from Primary 2 to 6 participated in this study. Participants
underwent sessions over a period of 2 terms which was conducted during the Tamil
curriculum time. Explicit instructional support was given for participants to engage in active
oral and writing exercise in the class. The use of rubrics made the teacher’s expectations very
clear and thus enabling students to set their target and to achieve it. The study will continue
with fine tuning.
Introduction
After The Tamil Language Curriculum and Pedagogy Review in 2005, it was concluded that
to ensure Tamil Language remains a living language in Singapore, pupils should be able to
converse confidently and fluently in Tamil. The new curriculum placed greater emphasis on
the use of Spoken Tamil and as such, the weightage for the oral component of the Tamil
Language paper was increased to 50 marks, that is 25% of the total score. On the other hand,
we also realised that it was not possible for a pupil to score a A* in Tamil if he does not do
well in his Paper 1, composition writing, which constituted to 20% (40 marks) of the overall
score. Therefore, at the beginning of this year, we decided to focus on both these areas. To
kill two birds with one stone we agreed to use rubrics to motivate pupils to improve in both
oral and writing skills. And obviously to kill another bird with the same stone, it became our
Action Research project also.
Generally most pupils do not enjoy writing compositions. Normally when we mark pupils’
composition, we underline the mistakes, write the correct word, phrase or sentence above it
and at the end of it put a numerical score for content and language. When pupils receive the
compositions to do corrections, they simply rewrite the compositions with the corrections
made by the teachers. Even though when teachers write guiding questions to encourage the
pupils to elaborate, for example, why did that happened or how did that happen, pupils make
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no attempt to improve their compositions. This only increased the workload of the teacher to
do another round of marking for the corrections done. The truth is pupils are not aware of the
teacher’s expectations, not motivated to improve and did not know what or how to improve.
Similarly when pupils read aloud or do picture conversation in class, they are not clear what
makes a good reading or ‘quality product’, or of their mistakes or weak areas.
Many experts believe that rubrics improve students' end products and therefore increase
learning. Composition writing and oral assessments are subjective. As such when pupils
know implicitly what makes a good final product and why, it makes the teachers’
expectations clear and shows students how to meet those expectations. A rubric is a scoring
guide that seeks to evaluate a student's performance based on the sum of a full range of
criteria rather than a single numerical score. It is a powerful tool for both teaching and
assessment.
The use of rubrics saves time for the teacher from having to write remarks or feedback on
every work and helps to monitor student performance. Besides these, 21st Century skills and
SEL competencies are infused when pupils are encouraged to do self and peer evaluation.self
evaluation. Based on Skilful Teacher principles and Differentiated Instruction strategies,
rubrics facilitates engagement, motivation and independent learning. It can be used in mixed
ability classes to reflect work of higher ability pupils and those with lower ability pupils.
Gradations of quality for each criterion from excellent to poor, provides pupils the
scaffolding necessary to improve the quality of their work and to increase their knowledge
accordingly. With PERI recommendations and the emphasis on holistic development and
informal assessment, rubrics is an effective tool to provide concrete and specific feedback to
pupils and parents.
There is no need to delve into how effective is the use of the rubrics. More important is how
it can be used effectively as a teaching and assessment tool. In the Review article, The use of
scoring rubrics: Reliability, validity and educational consequences by Anders Jonsson and
Gunilla Svingbya several databases were searched for research on rubrics, which resulted in a
total of 75 studies relevant for this review. Based on these reviews it was concluded that
rubrics enhances the reliable scoring of performance assessments and it has the potential of
promoting learning and/or improve instruction. The main reason for this potential lies in the
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fact that rubrics make expectations and criteria explicit, which also facilitates feedback and
self-assessment.
We used the rubrics provided by SAEB in the PSLE for assessing both composition and oral
to show pupils how they will be assessed. These were combined with the rubrics used by
CPDD (TL) for SAIL, Strategies for Independent Learning pilot project and modified to suit
our need.
Method
The study was carried over for a period of two terms. It involved reading for the Primary 2
students, oral conversation for pr 3 to pr 6 students and writing of composition from p3 to pr
6 students. The study did not have any control group. The study was carried out weekly and
comprised of students of higher, middle and lower abilities. The TL teacher made the rubrics
available to the students during the first lesson itself and explained to the students what is
being assessed explicitly. Teacher also showed students by which their assignment will be
assessed and showed students how to meet their target.
For reading, teacher gives out the reading passages to students. Teacher models by reading
the passages for the first two weeks. Then, she asks them to read individually focusing on a
particular skill that is taught on the week. For example, pronunciation of the short and long
vowels. These skills are included in the rubrics. Then the students read the passage by
themselves. The students then assess themselves using the rubrics. Then the pupils will read
to the class and the teacher solicits feedback from the other pupils before she gives her
feedback. Thus, the students are exposed to self directed learning and self assessment. As
these students come from lower primary group peer assessment was also conducted. Students
will sit on the reader’s chair and reads in front of the class. Students enjoyed assessing their
peers and positive comments acted as stimuli to help them reach their target.
A study on oral conversation was conducted amongst primary 3 to primary 6 students. At
present, the teacher will ask the students a series of questions based on the picture .Students
are then given the opportunity to respond to the teacher’s question one at a time. While one
student responds to the question, the rest of them sit passively, listen and wait for their turn.
Thus, during the lesson, students can only be engaged in limited practice. Consequently,
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many of the students find the lesson uninteresting because they are not actively engaged in
the conversation practice. The limited practice also affects the students’ fluency which results
in them obtaining lower scores for conversation in the oral communication examination..
Thus, on the first lesson, the teacher goes through the rubrics as mentioned above with the
objectives reinforced. At lesson 2 onwards teacher gives out pictures based on different
themes. Co-Operative strategies such as think,pair,share and round robin were used in the
practices. The students worked in pairs and did self assessment and peer assessment when
working in pair and in groups. Then, they came infront to do presentation.The use of the
strategies for conversation practice was necessary as the student will become more familiar
with the strategies of conversation such as the content and the quality of delivery. Through
such practices of listening repetitions from partners and peers, students gain a certain degree
of automaticity resulting in enhanced conversational fluency.The rubric was very useful
because it focused students on their learning, involved them in their assessment and set
explicit standards for them to achieve. The students became more confident with the feedback
they received and recognised their strength and their area of weakness. They were able to
express themselves in detail.
The study also involved the usage of rubrics in composition writing. The present scenario
was that pupils merely rewrote the essays while doing the correction. They gave no notice to
the kind of mistakes done nor the comments by the teacher. There was no improvement and
students dread writing composition with the expected number of words. Therefore, teacher
developed a rubric for a composition which explicitly showed students that their work will be
judged on purpose, organization and details.
The teacher discussed the picture and students wrote essays with the infusion of the TL
department’s learning circle strategies. The students became more focused with the use of
rubrics which were made available to them.The rubric also described levels of quality for
each of the criteria. Under mechanics, for example, the rubric define the lowest level of
performance as "many misspellings, grammar, and punctuation errors," and the highest level
as "all words are spelled correctly; your work shows that you understand subject-verb
agreement, when to make words possessive, and how to use punctuation.
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It was evident that when students used rubrics regularly to judge their own work, they begin
to accept more responsibility for the end product. It cut down on the "am I done yet?"
questions. At every lesson, teacher focused on a skill and at the end of the lesson the rubric
was modified to the specific need of the students. The students felt very confident in their
level of achievement and made them to move to next level. There was an improvement in
pupils writing and they wrote more words than what was required. The rubric was very useful
because it focused students on their learning, involved them in their assessment and set
explicit standards for them to achieve. The peer assessment motivated each student .
Teacher can tell them to 'reach for the stars,' but if they're just grappling out there in the dark,
they are not going to make it. With the rubric they've got a clear-cut route. They know what
has to be done. Therefore, self assessment, peer assessment and teacher assessment were the
method that was employed in the study.
In this study, data, in the form of students’ responses had to be collected in order to track the
positive trend in using rubrics in teaching of oral and composition. The students were given
the rubrics introducing a skill at each lesson. And students have to look out for the skill and
record their responses. Some students found it difficult as they were in different stages in
acquiring the skill. However, their assignment had shown positive trend.
At the sametime, it cannot be said that we have completed the study but we have started the
journey and will continue into the next year with focus on other areas.
Results
The purpose of this study was to determine the effective use of rubrics in the teaching of oral,
reading and writing . It shows that the use of rubrics had a significant impact on their
learning. Students’ responses clearly showed that they liked the method of instruction using
the rubrics in the learning of Tamil language. The increased enthusiasm of the pupils made it
apparent that they enjoyed the lessons. Their enthusiasm was reflected on their feedback
forms. Pupils wrote longer essays, expressed themselves more clearly and were able to write
within the given time. They were able to express themselves clearly and became more
confident too. The peer encouragement boosted them to do better in their oral conversation.
The Primary 2 pupils were able to read the given passages with confidence and made
improvements in their reading through this programme. Pupils were able to motivate, assess
and give feedback on their peers’ reading ability.
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Recommendations
The use of rubrics is an effective strategy for improving oral, reading and writing skills. The
TL Department will continue to use this technique in the future to help both high and low
achievers in the classroom. In the spirit of action research, the TL department has embarked
on the use of rubrics as a teaching and assessment tool. Next we hope to further fine tune the
rubrics and make it part and parcel of the teaching and learning of Tamil Language.
References & Appendices
Heidi Goodrich Andrade. 1997 Originally published in Educational Leadership,
54(4) Understanding Rubrics
Anders Jonsson and Gunilla Svingbya, Review article, The use of scoring rubrics:
Reliability, validity and educational consequences.
Curriculum Planning & Development Division (2005). A Toolkit for Engaged Learning
http://rubistar.4teachers.org
http://www.ncsu.edu/midlink/ho.html
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Sport Stacking & Its Effect on Reading Scores In Primary 4 Students
PE Group members: Mr Alphie, Ms Zheng Ying Si, Mdm Jumiati, Mr Roseman, Mrs Wendy Yap
Introduction
Sport Stacking (also known as cup stacking or speed stacking) is an individual and team sport that involves stacking specialized plastic cups in specific sequences in as little time as possible. Participants of sport stacking stack cups in pre-determined sequences, competing against the clock or another player (Wikipedia)
Literature Review
Researchers from the Department of Kinesiology of the Towson University, Towson, MD studied the influence of participation in a 6-week Sport Stacking program on Grade 5 students' reading achievement (Uhrich and Swalm, 2007)
A significant increase was found for the experimental group on Comprehension skills, proving that Sport Stacking may improve students' reading comprehension skills, regardless of gender. This study was published in June 2007.
In another study entitled ‘Sport Stacking and Its Effect on Reading Scores in Sixth Grade Elementary School Students’ done by Shirlene Davis of University of North Carolina-Pembroke, used cup stacking, (sport stacking), to see if there are any differences on the STAR Reading Test Scores for those who participate in cup stacking and for those who did not.
The STAR Reading Test was used to assess students’ reading level before and after the study. The experimental group received cup stacking sessions twice a week for four weeks between testing, while the control group did not.
It was found that the experimental group who used cup stacking achieved higher scores on the STAR Test during post test than the control group.
Methodology
Our research study will be based on the second study (Davis) mentioned above.Two groups were established, the experimental and control groups. 5 pupils each from the English Reading Recovery Programme were identified from two P4 classes, 4.5 and 4.6. Pupils from the control group attended their reading programme without any intervention. The Experimental group went through 30 minutes sport stacking session thrice a week for 4 weeks (the intervention) before attending their Reading Recovery Programme. A pre and post- test was conducted for both groups on their Dolch 220 Word Test. This is a word test that includes the most frequently used words in the English language.
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Analysis and Results
The table below summarises the pre and post-test scores of each pupil in the Control and Experimental group on the Dolch 220 Test.
From these results, it is evident that every pupil from each group had improved their scores in the Dolch 220 Word Test . However, pupils in the experimental group had made the greater improvement
Control Group: Dolch 220 Pre Dolch 220 Post Diff. Pre/Post
Student A 204 212 +8Student B 209 219 +10
Student C 212 220 +8
Student D 212 217 +5
Student E 212 217 +5
Experimental Group: Dolch 220 Pre Dolch 220 Post Diff. Pre/Post
Student F 206 218 +12Student G 208 218 +10
Student H 204 216 +12
Student I 204 218 +14
Student J 202 219 +17
The table below shows the comparison of means between the two groups. The independent T-test was employed to see if the improvements shown in both groups were significant. Both group registered significant differences in their T-score but the Experimental group had registered a larger significant difference in their Pre-post test scores (p<0.0001 against p<0.001 for the Control group)
Mean Score & T-Score Dolch 220 Pre Dolch 220 Post T-Score
Control Group 209.8 217 P<0.001
Experimental Group
204.8 217.8 P<0.0001
Discussion and Recommendation
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From the results shown in the 2 tables, it is evident that both groups had shown significant improvement on the Dolch 220 test. However, pupils in the Experimental group had shown greater improvement in their post-test scores compared to pupils in the Control group. This seem to strongly suggest that sport stacking does indeed have a positive effect on the reading scores. Brain research has confirmed the benefits of students using both sides of the brains and bodies (NASPE, 1995). With Sport Stacking, students are performing cross lateral activities which causes increased blood flow to all parts of the brain, thus making it more alert and energized for stronger , more cohesive learning (Blaydes). Other research studies have suggested that activities that requires eye tracking aids in the development of reading. Moreover, the brain learns best when more of the senses are involved.
This study implies that sport stacking has a role to play in the reading development of our pupils, especially the weak readers like those in the LSP.
References
Uhrich TA, Swalm RL(2007): A pilot study of a possible effect from a motor task on reading performance. Perceptual Motor Skills.;104(3 Pt 1):1035-41.
National Association For Sport & Physical Education (1995). Moving into the future: national standards for physical education: a guide to content and assessment. Boston, MA:WCB McGraw-Hill.
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