2007.6.11. indigenous peoples in vietnam

7/31/2019 2007.6.11. Indigenous Peoples in Vietnam

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Indigenous Peoples in Vietnam(Case study of Ma Lieng minority group in Ke village, Lam Hoa commune,

Tuyen Hoa district, Quang Binh province, Vietnam)

Written by: Pham Van Dung

Part I. General Information of Indigenous Peoples in Vietnam

1. Position of indigenous peoples in Vietnam

54 ethnic groups are officially recognized in Vietnam, of which Kinh majoritycounts for 85 percent and 53 other minority groups 15 percent. Most of minoritypeoples live in mountainous remote areas representing three fourths of Vietnams

total area of 331,100 km2

. Ethnic minority peoples keep a very important role toprotect watershed forest, where they create evolution with their own wisdoms forlong time.

While such ethnic group as Muong has been living in Vietnam as long time asmajority Kinh group, some such ethnic groups as Mong, Thai, Dao have migratedinto and around Northern Vietnam since 300 to 400 years ago. Southwardsmigration and migration from lowland to highland have been happening in Vietnamstrongly in 20th century. During 1991 to 2005 period, 130,000 households migratedto Central highland provinces. However the amount of migration reduced sharplyfrom 47,000 during 1996-2000 periods down to 4,600 during 2001-2005.According to Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), difficult livingcondition (shortage of water and other facilities), shortage of land, environmentalchanges (landslide, land degradation) are the main causes of migration.

In comparison to Kinh majoritys lowland- and midland-dominated areas, themountainous areas remain higher percentage of poverty, more difficulty ofinformation access and poorer infrastructure. In many areas, minority people faceshortage of cultivating land, on the other hand, shortage of rights to decide onallocated land as the land user because of top-down planning. According toNational General Statistics, in 2004, monthly income per person in Northwestmountainous region is VND 265,690 compare to that in Northern Red River DeltasVND 488,180 and. The relevant figure comparison in the Southern Vietnam is:VND 390,180 against VND 832,970 for Central Highland and Northeast ofSouthern Vietnam respectively. Government report of May, 2007 released that

there are 85,000 households or 383,000 people suffering from hunger, the most ofthem live in mountainous areas of Northeast, Northwest and North of CentralVietnam.

2. Recent national policy and developments on indigenous peoples

The Constitution of Vietnam provides in Article 5 that:


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The State carries out a policy of equality, solidarity and mutual assistance among allnationalities, and forbids all acts of national discrimination and division.

Every nationality has the right to use its own language and system of writing, topreserve its national identity, and to promote its fine customs, habits, traditions andculture.

Land Law 2003, for the first time, recognizes land using actor for village-levelcommunity sharing similar culture, customs or lineage. However, land is providedas the ownership of entire people, and the state is the representative for theowner.

Under laws, there are some noteworthy Prime Ministers decisions relating tominority peoples land rights and development:

Decision 132/2002/Q-TTg dated October 8th, 2002 on solution of cultivated landand residential land for local minority people in Central Highland. The minimumarea of allocated land per household is 1 ha of slope swiden land or 0.5 ha ofyearly-one-crop wet rice or 0.3 ha of yearly-two-crop wet rice. Each shall allocateforest land to households in case of no available cultivated land. The land usersshall direct manage and use land and shall not be allowed to transfer or mortgageallocated land within 10 years. In case of violation, the land shall be taken back bythe state without any compensation.

Decision 134/2004/QD-TTg dated July 20th, 2004 on policy of assisting poordifficult ethnic minority households with cultivated land, residential land, housesand fresh water. The minimum area of allocated land per household is 0.5 ha ofslope swiden land or 0.25 ha of one-crop-annum wet rice or 0.15 ha of two-crop-annum wet rice. The poor ethnic people with bad houses shall be assisted of VND5 million from central budget plus other sources of assistance to build new house.Local people can access forest to take wood for their house improvementaccording to specific provincial regulations. Central budget assist an equivalenceof 0.5 ton of cement or VND 300,000 per household. Assistance of 100% and 50%

expenditure for common fresh water system shall be offered from central budget tocommunity, which consists of more than 50% and 20-50% of ethnic minoritypeople respectively.

Decision 146/2005/QD-TTg dated June 15th, 2005 on taking land back from statefarms and state forest enterprises to redistribute to poor ethnic minorityhouseholds. The receivers should use land according to the laws and can getyields from existed trees on the reallocated land. They have to use land accordingto state planning and cannot legally transfer land within 10 years after the date ofreallocation. If they are not in need of land usage, the state will take land backwithout compensation.

Decision 304/2005/QD-TTg dated November 23rd, 2005 on piloting models of

forest allocation, contract to local ethnic minorities village-level community andhouseholds in the Central Highland for forest protection. The allocated forestreceiver shall gain entire yields from the forest. The forest contractor shall receiveVND 50,000 per hectare annually. The forest users and contractors shall beobliged to protect forest according to the laws to fulfill obligations according to thecontract.

Decision No. 18/2007/QD-TTg, dated February, 5th, 2007, by the Prime Minister toenclose Vietnam Forestry Development Strategy for Period 2006 2020 gave


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priority for using forest extension agents belonging to ethnic minority groups inremote, isolated areas. Other attentions are paid to ethnic groups: Firstly, quicklydevelop voluntary forestry extension organizations for the communes and villages,particularly in remote, isolated areas. Secondly, focus on training and forestryextension activities for the poor, particularly ethnic minorities and women, so thatthey are able to generate stable incomes from diversification of crops and

livestock. Thirdly, pay special attention to training for ethnic minority youth andforestry staff in remote, isolated areas. Fourthly, create favorable conditions toattract young researchers, women and ethnic minority peoples to be involved inscientific research and teaching.

3. Vietnam and the Outside World

Vietnam has started its formal integration since the event of its access to WTO inNovember, 2006. While concerning budget investment to improve material life ofethnic groups, land management decentralization and reallocation for the landlessremained so slow in reality compared to the will in related legal document. The

government is not interested in opening up forum of encouraging minoritiesancestor domain.

Vietnams entering into the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD) would be hardly effective in this situation, because of shortage of localethnic peoples ownership, participation and interest in very large portion of forest,which are still under management of ineffective state forest enterprises andprotected forest management boards.

4. IP Non-Government Organizations and their alliances in Vietnam

Please see the attached case study of Ma Lieng group, which may somehow

depict one of the Vietnamese NGOs efforts although it is not popular andrepresentable for every relation between NGOs and ethnic minority people.

5. IP's, poverty alleviation and environmental protection: links andconnections

During the last 40 years, Vietnamese government has launched differentprogrammes, which affected to minority peoples and their land, natural resources.Resettlement programme initiated since the early 1960s and existed to 1990s, toresettle lowlanders to mountainous areas and stabilize the lives of both resettledand local people. Since early 1990s there were big government programmes

focusing on improvement of ethnic minority living condition and protectenvironment in the area. Programme 327 started in 1993, aimed at plantation onbare hills. Programme 661, as continuation of Programme 327, focused onplantation on 5 million hectares of forest, which started since 1998. Othernoteworthy development programmes are Programme 135, which focused oninfrastructure in remote area, or Programme 134, which aims at assisting poordifficult ethnic minority households with cultivated land, residential land, housesand fresh water.


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Through those programmes, the government introduced concept of land rights,land boundary, forest contract, that made local ethnic people confused. Eachethnic people have founded their own customary laws and concept relating to landand forest. Base on this they have been living in harmonious environment forcenturies and could solve disputes within and between community by their ownnorms and customs. That is rationale for confuse and even conflicts if

governmental imposing laws, regulations do not thoroughly learn, respect and tryto integrate into local values, customary laws. For instance, the state forestenterprises introduction of forest land contract, which offer people with VND50,000 (approximately US$ 4 that time) to protect one hectare of forest per year,but they simultaneously concieve people as employee and take them out of theirtraditional ownership of forest land. By this way, forest enterprises play tragic andmagic game to claim their legal rights over the inherent land of local people. Thistype of project favour giving-and-receiving manner rather than encouraging targetgroups to actively find and solve problems by themselves. By causing dependencyto the people, this approach does not make any contribution to sustainabledevelopment, of which people should become users of natural resources andowners of development process.

Besides government programmes, different international programmes wereimplemented since early 1990s. With large scale and big fund, the World Bank(WB), Asian Development Bank (ADB), United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF,FAO) and other governmental agreement (such as Vietnam-German cooperation GTZ, Vietnam-Japan cooperation) invested in improvement of infrastructure, livingconditions and partially in reforestation, which also affect minority peoples. Theyare welcomed by the government because of large amount of money, their greatpro-government objectives of fighting poverty, and close relationship withauthorities. Since the close relationship to the government, they hardly avoidbureaucratic or top-down approach to poor people. To ease the work as well asprocedures at localities, they cooperate with so-called mass organizations

(provincial or district women unions, youth unions, farmer associations) to carryout projects. In this situation, who can assure the proclaimed bottom-up approachof those projects wherever the implementation agencies are inherently familiar totop-down approach? A popular example from one of this type of projects was that,the project managers agreed with local authorities that, they only allocate forestland to a certain household, who follow the project planning of cutting down allrecovering forest for planting mono crop of pine trees. No other way, villagers hadto cut down trees otherwise they would not have chance to receive forest land.This type of actions undermined ethnic peoples local knowledge of cultivationwhile bothering local peoples link with the forest as well as their practice oftraditional customs.

On the other hand, international and local NGOs tried to introduce bottom-upapproach, which was very new in Vietnam, and firstly precautious by thegovernment because of its inconsistent to that of the governments top-downapproach. Vietnamese NGOs initially, known as science technology organizationsbloomed up during 1990s. However, many of them kindly follow state-likeorganizations to avoid such so-called sensitive issues as indigenous land rights.Only a few NGOs committed and challenged with this issue. At the beginning time,those NGOs were suspected and disturbed by some authorities. Then they gainedmore and more understandings and support from open-minded officials, scientists


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because of their transparent objectives and engagement for grassrootsdemocracy, social equality and development. Although success and lessons fromland allocation to ethnic poor people assisted by challenged progressive NGOscould not be replicated by all related organizations, but they partially influencedradical changes of legislation. Derive from those consistent NGOs works, therecognition of community as one of subject to land user, the equal rights of both

wifes and husbands name on land certificate are good examples for legislativereform.

Part 2. Case study of Ma Lieng ethnic group in Ke village,Lam Hoa commune, Tuyen Hoa district, Quang Binhprovince, Vietnam

1. Brief introduction ofMa Lieng ethnicgroup

The Ma Lieng is formallyrecognized as Chut minoritygroup. The reason is that,the government combinedMa Lieng and four othergroups of Ruc, Sach, May,Arem into one officiallygroup, which is called Chut.

However, those groups donot share the samelanguage, identity, culturalvalues or customs. Thepeople of each grouprecognize themselves intotheir own specific ethnicgroup. They only repeat thename of Chut when contactto outsiders formally.

The Ma Lieng belongs to

Viet-Muong language family.This ethnic group consists ofapproximately 1,000 peopleliving in 7 villages inprovinces of Quang Binhand Ha Tinh, central of Vietnam.

Ma Lieng

area


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Ma Lieng population of 2004, September(according to SPERI1 research)

# Village Households Residents Location

1. Lom 71 447 Dan Hoa commune, Minh Hoa district,

Quang Binh province

2. Rao Tre 22 116

3. Ke 35 139 Lam Hoa commune, Tuyen Hoa district,Quang Binh province

4. Chuoi 25 99 As above

5. Cao 20 94 As above

6. Ca Xen 23 92 Thanh Hoa commune, Tuyen Hoadistrict, Quang Binh province

7. Bach Tai 10 41 As above

Total 206 1,028

While facing many difficulties, Ma Lieng people have been keeping their owntraditional values, customs for generations, which can specify them from people ofother ethnic groups. However side effects of free trading and other outsideinfluence challenge the strengths and maintenance of community spirits of MaLieng people as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam.

2. Case of Ma Lieng in Ke village, Lam Hoa commune, TuyenHoa district, Quang Binh province

2.1. Situation of Ke village before 2003

2.1.1. Transition process

Ma Lieng people traditionally practiced swidden cultivation on slope land. By thatway Ma Lieng people used to live with the forest in harmony. Since 1993, Kevillagers settled permanently at the current area at the effort of resettlementprogrammes stabilization of ethnic peoples life. Since then they gradually gave upand entirely stopped traditional cultivation due to the government policy on stopshifting cultivation.

The community has been isolated in terms of geographical location, educationalsystem, access to information particularly policies frame and implementing

1SPERI: Social Policy Ecology Institute, an independent research institute established in Vietnam,

www.dolame.org.


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process, and infrastructure. On the other hand, different government programmesdid not pay enough attention to learn and understand the communitys culturalvalues. Therefore their staff, especially those of resettlements unrespectedbehaviour and attitude have led to the loss of trust and confidence of Ma Liengtowards their local authorities.

At the beginning of sedentary cultivation, Ke villagers faced various difficulties.They suffered from hunger because they could not get used to requirement of newcultivation techniques. They had to go to forest to take non-timber products just tosurvive. The Ma Lieng difficulties created opportunities for Kinh free traders to takeadvantages to sell rice and necessities at high price while products from Ma Liengpeople remained low price. Besides some traders offered Ma Lieng youths withwine, cigarettes, which caused drunk and conflicts within and between Ma Liengcommunity and outsiders.

As a result, Ma Lieng people found it so hard to recover community spirits as wellas to relief and escape from growing loan.

The government introduced a programme of helping poor ethnic people to improvetheir living, especially housing condition since 2003. Decision 134/2004/QD-TTglegalized this programme, which made worrisom and confuse to both communityand state implement staff. The implementing department could not find bettersolutions for improvement of approaches of previous resettlement programme,which had been evaluated as unsuccessful and ineffective. If they continue top-down plan and implementation, they would be repeatedly observe their builthouses unsuitable and useless to villagers. On the other hand, villagers have tochoose either to refuse state-imposed houses, go back to forest and keepcommunity spirits or to stay at the offered unfamiliar house and gradually forgetand lose their own identity.

With regards to the dilemma, as a developmental organization, SPERI should playan active role to advice for preservation of Ma Lieng human-ecology system

simultaneously contribute to building up suitable approach to such vulnerablecommunity. Therefore, SPERI introduced the term Ngoi hoa2(housing style) toimply this approach.

2.1.2. Leadership crisis

As many other ethnic peoples, Ma Lieng people traditionally respect ong pauorgia lang(village elder), who lead, advice the villagers in both material and spiritualaspects of life. Village elder traditionally plays an important role in advisingvillagers, makes final decision on settlement of a certain village, finds location of ahouse, represents entire villagers to contact to superpower holy spirits in

community actions, ceremonies, especially worshipping.Ke villagers experienced traditional leadership crisis, and the hardest happenedduring 2001 to 2003. This broke inherent community atmosphere, which wasindicated by mutual support, various such common activities as housingceremonies, worshipping forest spirits lead by village elder. Nice behaviour

2Ngoi hoa (housing style) refers to holistic activities for improvement of accommodation condition, while

keep traditional Ma Lieng house style and therefore their own cultural values by their own contribution tobuild houses.


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between elder and villagers, between the old and youths, men and women wasconfused. Traditional respect towards elders is eroded. One of the elderscomplained that, Our community value shall be destroyed by market value Howpainful I feel when I sit here next to the window but am unable to control mygrandchildren.

Traditional elders role was vulnerably undermined due to the challenge from theboost of outside influence during the period transferring from traditional tosedentary cultivation. In this situation, no one amongst the elders can fully meetrequirement and act as actual inherent traditional village elder. If the crisis exist fora long time, young generation will not gain any opportunities to learn and practiceMa Lieng customs, belief, values through community ceremonies or commonactivities, therefore Ma Lieng group may face threat of cultural and spiritualdisappear although their physical persons remain and develop.

2.2. Approach to Ngoi hoaprogramme

2.2.1. Learn and encourage strength of cultural values

SPERI tried to avoid any subjective view to development plan by learning ethnicpeople prior to every intervention. The villagers would never openly talk to those,who do not show respect to them or who impose things to them. They only feelfree to tell their belief, values, customary laws, and taboo to trusted close friends.Luckily, at that moment SPERI had built quite good relationship and got friendlyimage towards villagers.

SPERI staff learnt that, Ma Lieng house do not only consist of roofing or materialmeaning, but essentially, it requires and retains Ma Lieng belief, values andthereon, identity. A Ma Lieng house-on-pillar should consist of a sacred room, asacred pillar for ancestors spirits, and a sacred window for specific transferringdeath body out of the house, pillar for son-in-law and pillar for daughter-in-law. Tocomplete a house, a family must follow such ceremonies as choosing andbreaking land, starting of wood selection, setting up house, setting fire andentering new house. That reflects strong link between human and their nature, inwhich human must respect natures holy spirits for any of resource utility, hencethey should care for land and forest for sustainable harmonious life.

Ma Lieng people define good and bad days for events of starting any crucial work.They do not accept trees without top, or being covered by clockwise rope-trees fortheir house pillars. Those customs relate strongly to belief, customary laws of thepeople as well as their identity and community spirits. Therefore, they would feel ahouse cold, uninspired and meaningless if building process does not follow their

customs. That partially answers to the fact that Ma Lieng and other similarvulnerable minority people do not care for and easily give up supported houses,which are designed and built by outsiders.

2.2.2. The role of community traditional leadership

Through learning community, SPERI understood that development of Ma Lienggroup must contain promotion of their own identity, of which traditional leadership


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should be encouraged. However, no one could be sure Ke villagers to vote andadopt one person becoming a new elder. To deal with this dilemma, SPERIadvisor facilitated villagers to discuss and vote leaders of every clan, who wereexperienced elders. Those elders came together to establish a new form, knownas hoi dong gia lang(elders council), as the reform of traditional leadership. Sincethe representatives for every clan, elders council reflects clans or every members

thinking, feeling, willing to engage into community activities. Interaction betweendifferent clan leaders and members create good environment for every involvers toshow their wisdoms, capacity in the competition for the sake of the community.Thanks to attention and motivation to involve in community works, villagers,particularly elders council have made efforts to regenerate communityatmosphere, which used to perform strongly without outside and market impacts.

Elders council brought various opinions from different clans into democratic opendiscussions aiming at community solutions for crisis and embarking upon Ngoi hoasimultaneously. They gave advice to villagers, who were their children, relatives tosolve any difficulties deriving from Ngoi hoaactivities. Sometimes they acted asthe judges to settle disputes between members of different Ngoi hoaimplementing

groups or between villagers and outsiders. They gained further confidence andactive role in community works while SPERI field staff worked as learners,secretaries for elders strategic planning and coordination. SPERI staff would beadvisor or facilitator only for community necessity, whenever the elders councilfound it unable to fulfill their own responsibilities.

Thanks to elders council, Ma Lieng traditional values are encouragingly practiced.While the eldest man became advisor for elders council, one of the councilsmembers traditionally succeeded and played the role of spiritual leader, who is theholder of all worships for ceremonies of every house building. During the sacrifice,the holder (worshipper) of the ceremony would refer to all holy spirits of thewatershed areas, where their ancestors had settled. This indicates villagersacknowledgement of the nature, which offer them necessities for happy life. This

practice creates available opportunities for youths and children to learn to respectand care for nature, historical move of their ancestors. Ma Lieng people thereforegradually recover confidence and proud of their own cultural values, communityspirits, as the foundation for keeping community identity.

2.2.3. Interest groups: environment for civil society

In order to involve all members of the community, especially youths, women inNgoi hoaand development activities, it is necessary to develop those interestgroups for each specific target groups. While youths are interested in such groupsas wood harvesting and transporting, carpentry or house setting, women prefer to

join ground leveling, domestic affairs and services. Those groups becameimplementation groups for Ngoi hoaand other development activities.

Different interest groups create free environment for villagers to choose, join,discuss, decide, contribute, cross-check and supervise. Each group set up theirown regulation through discussion between members. Amongst the best reputablepersons, the head of the group will be chosen by members. One can becomemember of a certain group, which is found the most suitable for her or him. Amember from a certain group can move to others according to the members wish,


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community requirement, and groups regulations. A group should first self-control,to suggest and implement plan, so that to suit to the whole communitys scheduledworks. Group members and their head should solve difficulties; disputes derivefrom their own operation. Elders council only helps a group, which seems unableto solve problems themselves.

During implementation ofNgoi hoa, every interestgroup has amended their ownregulations according tocommunitys changing needsand requirement. Forinstance, at the beginningtime of Ngoi hoa, everymembers of wood collectingteam should work together,so that to regain communityspirits, community

atmosphere, which used tobe neglected that time. Afterone year, this group decidedto split the group, so that tospeed up the process,simultaneously create goodcompetitive environmentamongst members. However, the members of new splited groups may exchangeto get better support to each others. Every group requires more and more suchcontributions as food, necessities from their members to the group or community,and reduces outside support simultaneously while the members income is gettingbetter. Therefore, members as well as the community have been gaining further

decisive roles and confidence through Ngoi hoaimplementation.

2.3. Natural resources and Ma Lieng community

Before 1993 Ke villagers shift houses and therefore the whole village from an areato another according to their cultivation circle. They define their own boundary byacknowledging watershed areas, where their ancestors have lived. Since theestablishment of Tuyen Hoa state forestry enterprise, most of traditional boundaryof Ke village became forest land of the enterprise. They applied forest contract toKe villagers according to Programme 327, which did not confirm the villagersforest land rights. Practically Ke villagers could not access and use forest in farareas according to their traditional boundary. On the other hand, more and moreKinh people have been making pressure by getting into Ke forest to take woodwithout the communitys consent.

During 1999-2000, SPERI conducted supporting land allocation to Ke villagersaccording to their needs and suggestions. SPERI staff facilitated villagers to makeplan to clarify forest area of the whole community and division betweenhouseholds, so that to transfer into mapping and land use certificates. Villagersactively apply their own customary laws to discuss and find out solutions forsolving any disputes derived from field work of land allocation process. Because

Ma Lieng youths learn and practice carpentry

techniques to set up houses themselves


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NGOs have not rights to decide on land allocation, SPERI helped villagers to bringtheir needs to district authorities. Upon the agreement of district leaders, SPERIcoordinated between villagers and technicians from district forestry and cadastraldepartments to ensure to suit villagers actual forest border recognition to that oftechnicians. After processes of land allocation at the field and in the office, allcurrent 28 households and 3 community organizations (elders, youths, women)

received land certificates on 305 ha of forest land.After receiving land certificates, Ke villagers discussed to make planning on theirresidential area, rice field, crops, community forest, and community area. Theycould make use of the allocated forest in Ngoi hoaprogramme; they harvestedtrees from forest for building new houses.

So far villagers of Ke as well as other villages have been facing the pressure ofillegal forest exploitation by outsiders. This is caused by surrounding Kinh peoplesjobless and shortage of land for cultivation, weak support and weak fulfillment oflocal authority, especially forest protectors to stop violation. As a small groupfacing hunger simultaneously, Ma Lieng people are unable to ensure entirely theirforest users rights. It will become problematic to villagers if the government

evaluates land allocation programme and its beyond. Understand this problem, Keelders council are trying to contact and share their experiences to elders fromother Ma Lieng villages. They have set up network of key-persons of Ma Liengcommunity. According to the network regulation, Ma Lieng elders gather monthlyto discuss problems and try to find out solutions, practical plans to solve gradually.

Hopefully, in the process of recovering community spirits, development of MaLieng traditional leader network, the communitys further strengths, and hungereradication, Ma Lieng people will step-by-step reduce the cases of outsidersillegal forest exploitation.

2.4. ConclusionThe government and foreign programmes have invested a great fund to ethnicminority people. However, they have inherently faced unanswered question ofadaptability and effectiveness. Top-down centralized way of management couldnot help to ensure effective improvement of poor ethnic minority peoples livingstandard, cultural identity as well as protection of forest. Good policy may nottranslate into reality effectively if implementation staff do not understand, respectand encourage target groups values and strengths. The policy may be distortedthat way, leading to distrust between target groups and implementing staff.

On the other hand, the bottom-up approach, which relates to learning from people,encouraging what people have should be shared and further applied for better

quality of support for ethnic people and their natural resources. In this process,ethnic peoples customary laws should be respected as good instruments toprotect their specific traditional cultural values. Completion of legal system and itsenforcement is necessary to clarify authoritys responsibilities, to create legalenvironment for NGOs and peoples initiatives and organizations effective work forthe sake of sustainable and harmonious development.


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Reference

http://dolame.org

Van Nghe Dan Toc (Ethnic Literature), 2006, series of articles relating to Ma Lieng group,

issues 6 to 12

Thoi Bao Kinh Te Sai Gon (Saigon Economic Times), 2006, Special Themes ofEnvironment Policy and Sustainable Development

Prime Minister, 2007, Vietnam Forestry Development Strategy for Period 2006 2020

(Decision 18/2007/QD-TTg, dated February, 5th, 2007)

www.ethnologue.com--maps--VNMI_ETH.jpg

http://vietnamnet.vn/xahoi/doisong/2006/07/592150/

UNDP, 2004: Briefing report for Vietnam

http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page?_pageid=33,1935663&_dad=portal&_schema=PORT

AL&item_id=2056666&thth_details=1

2007.6.11. indigenous peoples in vietnam

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