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Introduction to Korean Architecture

July 4, 2006 1:30-3:30 pm.Instructor: Heekyung Lee

This course is a selective survey of major developments in Korean architecturehistory.We will study the relationship between architecture, religion and the ideology ofThree Kingdoms Period, Koryo and Choson dynasties. Examination will also be madeon the differences between the Korean architecture history and that of other part ofEast Asia, and the environments in which such diversities arose.

Course Topics

1. Ancient Period

Tombs and Monasteries

City Planning and Palaces

2. United Silla Dynasty

3. Koryo Dynasty

Monasteries

City planning and palaces

4. Choson Dynasty

MonasteriesCity Planning and PalacesSowon

Select Bibliography

Yun, Changsop, Hanguk ui Konchug (Korean Architecture), Seoul, 1996.Kim, Won-yong, An, Hwi-joon, Hanguk Misul ui Yoksa (Art History in Korea), Seoul,2003.Evelyn McCune, The Art of Korea, Tokyo, 1962.Kim Dong-uk, Palaces of Korea, Seoul, 2006.Kang, Woobong. "Bulguksa Temple and Seokbulsa Temple." Korea Journal 41:2(Summer 2001): 320-344.Kang, Woo-bang. The Art of Avatamsaka Sutra in the Unified Silla Period: TheSanctuary of Sokkuram and Hwaom-kyong Pyonsangdo (Narrative Portrayal in theAvatamsaka Sutra). In Washizuka Hiromitsu, Park Youngbok, and Kang Woo-bang,eds. Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan.New York: Japan Society, 2003

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Introduction to Korean Architecture

The origin of Korean architecture traditions may be traced back to Northeast Asian culture, namely the

scytho-Siberian origins.

Since the introduction of the Chinese culture of the Han dynasty the basic system of wooden building

frames has been passed down to recent years. Such structures blended with other architectural details that

were affected by a number of Oriental thoughts: Yin and yang, Interpretation of the five elements (metal,wood, water, fire and earth), Geomancy, Taoism and Confucianism. .

In architectural design, Korean architects took full notice of the surrounding terrain in their effort to

create harmony with nature. Traditional Korean buildings give an impression of coziness and tidiness,and are far from being overpowering or imposing. The Koreans wisely tried to make the best use of

nature prior to artificial rendering in terms of both technique and beauty.

Thus, the aesthetics of Korean traditional architecture can be characterized by moderate elegance indecoration and humble openness in architectural design.

1. Ancient Period

Traces of architecture from the Neolithic period can be found in ondol , theunique Korean floor panel heating system. The evidence was found at the remainsof the burnished plain pottery culture. The development of the vertical wall was alsoevident in the primitive houses of this culture.

Dolmens, which were primitive tombs of important persons, have been found allover the Korean peninsula. Archaeological remains show that on the Koreanpeninsula, the building technique of houses evolved from a pit dwelling to that of aearthen wall with thatched roof, then to that of a log cabin construction, and finally,to a raised floor construction.

The kingdom located in north Korea, Koguryo, began as a small tribal unit whoseheadquarters were near Mt. Paektu (Paektu-san) on the upper reaches of the Amnok

river around 37 B. C. It grew until it included half of Manchuria and after the fall ofLolang, the Chinese colony in the Korean peninsula in 313, all of north Korea.Paekche was founded in 18 B.C. and its territory included the west coast of theKorean peninsula, extending from near the 38th parallel to the southern tip of thepeninsula. Being situated in Korea's most fertile land around the Han River and itsvicinity, was marked by fruitful foreign relations with southern China on the onehand and with the emerging imperial clan in Japan on the other. Due to itsgeographical isolation, the growth of Silla was delayed. Because of the geographicalelement, Silla, however, concentrated on overseas trade activities through searoutes that eventually increased its wealth that then provided a broad basis for theunification of the peninsula.

Tombs and Monasteries

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A number of Koguryo tombs remain up to the present time. These can be dividedinto two groups according to the materials used. The stone pyramid type, thosefrom an earlier period and found in the Amnok river area, and the later earth mound

type, found both on the Amnok river and to the south, usually containing murals.The former are believed to have been related to the similar tradition of stone tombswidely seen in Siberia and the adjacent areas.

Among tombs in the shape of square and round as usually found in Chinese tombs,the square shaped tombs were oriented to the four points of the compass. Theirchamber walls leaned slightly inward, and the vaulted construction of the ceilingwas topped by a single slab. These domed ceilings were generally made up ofseveral corbels, some of which were parallel to the walls, with others were acrossthem. This tradition was observed remotely in Asia Minor, and also in cavemonasteries at Kizil in Central Asia and northern China.

As for the treatment of walls, all were stone, some were plastered, and others weresmoothed, polished, and painted. The stone masonry in all the tombs showed ahigh order of skill in terms of cutting, fitting, and finishing of large blocks of hardstone such as granite. The mural paintings constitute their chief claim to glory.Before the sixth century, the dominant subjects were genre scenes and heavenlyspirits in combination with stylized floral and geometrical decoration, and they weredrawn on lime walls. Buddhist influences are also visible in certain subjects such asa Buddhist ceremonial practice scene and lotus flowers. After the sixth century, thefour cardinals spirits emerged as the central subject drawn on brick walls. Muralsalso reveal a great deal about the architecture of that period as many of themdepict buildings which have pillars. The murals reveal that the wooden bracketstructures and coloring on timbers, all characteristic of later Korean structures, werealready in use at that time.

With the official introduction of Buddhism in the late fourth century, Koguryoconstructed a number of Buddhist monasteries as can be observed in a series ofexcavations unearthed sites near Pyongyang. The monasteries were built in aKoguryo style known as the "three Halls-one Pagoda," with a hall to the east, west,north, and an entrance gate to the south. In most cases, the central pagodas hadan octagonal plan. Palace buildings appear to have been arranged in this way aswell. The architectural techniques are believed to have been transmitted by the Handynasty through Lolang.

Among extant remains in Korea, the tombs in the vicinity of the three capitals ofPaekche offer the best clues as to construction methods and materials. Tomb No. 6of Songsn-ni and the tomb of King Muryong also in Songsan-ni had a feature unique

in Korea that is similar to those found in the Southern Dynasties in China. This typeof tomb had a vaulted ceiling and the laid in alternate vertical and horizontal blockswith bricks that are similar in size and shape to the brick of tombs built in the periodof the Laing Dynasty (A.D. 502-587) of southern China. Subterranean channels, alsomade of bricks, were constructed to drain off water, and small niches were let intothe brick walls to accommodate Buddhist images. The stone tombs were frequentlycomposed of granite slabs of great size, were highly polished, and often showedtraces of paintings of the Four Spirits and other themes similar to those of themurals of Koguryo

Paekche introduced Buddhism officially in the late fourth century. The plans ofBuddhist monasteries were characterized by one centrally located pagoda, anentrance gate, main hall, lecture hall and rectangular cloister enclosure; all were

arranged in a symmetrical layout along a north-south axis. Given that Paekche

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exercised influence to Japan, the Buddhist monastery of Horyuji in Japanmight help to visualize a similar example of Paekche monasteries.

Several surviving stone pagodas exhibit the calibre of their architects. The earlieststone Pagoda of Miruk-sa (Miruk Monastery) in Iksan county is of particularinterest because it shows the transitional features from the wooden pagoda to the

stone pagoda. The pagoda of the Chongym-sa (Chongyim Monastery) in Puyois one of the most beautiful pagodas with its simple dignity, manifesting superbproportions and the impression of massive strength.

Silla has a unique method of tomb construction. Wooden-chamber tombs withstone mound are most typical for those of power and wealth of the period. Abovethe wooden chamber where burial goods were placed were heaped mounds of riverboulders. These were covered with a great mound of earth. While the origin of thistype of tomb is not known, the similarity between them and those in the Altai regionof Siberia indicates some relationship. The burials of golden crowns and beltornaments also denote a close relationship with objects found in North Eurasia andCentral Asia.

In Silla, Buddhism was recognized as the state religion in 528. The monasteryarchitecture was also well developed, as can be observed in the remains of the

state monastery, Hwangryong-sa (Yellow Dragon Monastery or Monastery ofthe Imperial Dragon). One of the earliest Silla monasteries, Hwangnyong-sa, wasexcavated and found to have been of considerable magnitude. It stood in a square-walled area enclosed by corridors, which alone comprised about 19,040 square

meters. Another major Silla Monastery was Punhwang-sa (PunhwangMonastery) on the site of which still stands three stories of what is recorded to havebeen a nine-storey pagoda. As the remains show, the pagoda was made of stones

cut to look like bricks. A set of stone flagpole pillars in addition to other stone relicsalso remain.

Apart from monasteries, one of the distinctive buildings of this dynasty include

Chomsong-dae . The earliest stone observatory in Asia was constructedduring the reign of Queen Sondok(r. 632-646).


We are not left with much information on the appearance of cities or palaces fromthe Three Kingdoms Period. With reference to textual sources, however, we canglimpse that the capitals of the period were usually built on hilly ground beside a

river. A fortress was usually constructed at nearby mountain for refuge in times ofemergency. An inner wall was constructed within the outer wall which surroundedthe city, particularly around the core of the city where the royal court was located.

Kyongju, the capital of Silla, was laid out in a grid pattern. In the sixth century,inside the city walls was constructed the state monastery, Hwangryong-sa. Withinthe walls is a royal complex of a villa and its garden located with a beautifully

landscaped lotus pond entitled Anapji, (Wild Goose and Duck Pond). It wasmade after Silla's unification of the peninsula for the commemoration of the event.While the royal palace constructed beside it did not survive, the pond, fully alivewith its natural landscape curves and protrusion of rocks, provides us with a hint ofthe ideal beauty as perceived by the Silla elite.

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2. United Silla (688-935)

Through Buddhist initiative and skill at organization and financing, a great spurt of

building took place as the peninsula was unified in the late seventh century.Dozens of great monasteries were built, many of them similar to those of thepopular Buddhist sects of Tang China.

Pulguk-sa (Buddha Land Monastery) is built in a series of stone platforms onthe foothills of Mt. Toham. First founded early in the sixth century and later repairedunder King Munmu (r. 661-80), it was entirely rebuilt and expanded by KingKyongdok (r. 742-765) during a time frame ending in 752. The original foundationsof Pulguk-sa have survived to the present.

The core of the monastery site is the complex of Taeung-jeon (Taeung Hall), themain hall built in 681 CE, which houses the statue of the Shakyamuni Buddha, and

that of Kungnak-jon (Kungnak Hall or Hall of Western Paradise), which housesthe gilt-bronze statue of Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise. Behind the

main hall stands Musol-jeon (Musol Hall or Hall of Silence), one of the oldestconstructions in the monastery presumably built in 670. The Kwanum-jon

( Kwanum Hall or Avalokitesvara's Hall) houses an image of the Avalokitesvara,the Bodhisattva of Perfect Compassion and stands at the highest point of the

complex. The Piro-jon (Piro Hall), which sits below the Kwanum-jon houses theVairocana Buddha statue. At the foot of the regaining wall of the first terrace therewas originally located a lotus pond which was bridged by the first flight of steps. Asthe pilgrim mounts the steps, crosses the bridge, and passes through the entrancegate, he symbolically leaves the world behind him and enters "Buddha Land." Onthe high platform before the worshipper stands the Daeung-jon. Two pagodas (in

Korean, tap, ) are placed in front of it, one, Sokka-tap (Pagoda of

Shakyamuni) simple in construction and the other, Tabo-tap (Pagoda ofPrabutaratna ) complex, complement one another. The simple pagoda representsthe Buddha absorbed in transcendent calm; the complex one symbolizes hismanifestation in a diversified universe. This helps the worshipper to realize that ashe leaves behind the samsarof everyday existence, he enters the Gate of Deliverance, proceedspast the pairs of opposites that are characteristic of creation, and enters Nirvana, which is the last stage ofhis journey. The Sokka-tap is located to the left of the entrance. The style of Tabo-tap to the right that

may have been built when the monastery was founded is unique in north Asia. The first story is aplatform provided with four stone stair cases leading up to an enclosed area which is thought at have

accommodated a Buddhist image at one time.

Sokku-ram (Grotto Shrine) is located about a mile away from Pulguksa, on thecrest of Mt. Toham. The Sokku-ram cave shrine was artificially built with stones. Thebasic layout of the cave-style monastery includes an arched entrance which leadsinto a rectangular antechamber and then a narrow corridor, lined with bas-reliefs,and then finally leads into the main rotunda. The centerpiece of the granitesanctuary is a Buddha statue seated in the main chamber. The Buddha is seated ona lotus throne with legs crossed. The Buddha has a serene expression of meditation.The Buddha is surrounded by fifteen panels of bodhisattvas, arhats and ancientIndian gods in the rotunda and is accompanied by ten statues in niches along thewall. The top of the ceiling of the Seokgu-ram grotto is decorated with a lotusflower. Silla architects used symmetry and apparently employed the concept of thegolden rectangle. The cave is skillfully constructed by hundreds of different granitestones. There was no mortar used and it was held together by stone rivets. The

construction of the grotto also utilized natural ventilation.

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3. Koryo Dynasty (918-1392)

On the basis of the architectural tradition of United Silla, Koryo developed its uniquestyle partly incorporating elements from contemporary China.

Monasteries

Buddhism was further encouraged and promoted in this dynasty. In the earlyperiod, the palace and monasteries were built with a columnar bracket set systemwhich was put on columns to support the massive overhang eaves. The Kungnak-

jon of Pongjong-sa (Pongjong Monastery) in Andong built at the end of thetwelfth century is the oldest and one of the most beautiful existing woodenstructures in the country and expresses the typical architectural characteristics of

the early period of Koryo. The pagoda style of United Silla was maintained in theearly period, while a special trend emerged to reflect regional styles originatingfrom the ancient Three Kingdoms Period.) The middle period of Koryo developed thewooden building style that seemed to be affected by the cultural influence of Fukienprovince along the southern coastal area of China as can be observed in

Muryangsu-jon (Muryangsu Hall) at Pusok-sa (Pusok Monastery) in

Yunju, built in the middle of the thirteenth century, and the Main Hall of Sudok-sa,

(Sudok Monastery) in Yesan, built in 1308. The columnar bracket sets weremade up of transverse members only with a unique single spreader at the top ofthe columns. The transverse horizontal beam was constructed on the top ofcolumnar bracket sets and the beam ends projected out to the eaves. Theprojecting beam and bracket ends were shaped into an ox-tongue. The ends ofcolumnar bracket arms and the ends of the single spreader bracket arm werecarved out in the shape of a brace. Stone pagodas evolved into somethingdistinctively unique in style with eclectic qualities in appearance and detail.

The later period of Koryo was under Mongol control, and artistic activities weregreatly hampered. In this period the intercolumnar bracket set system was adoptedin building construction. To support intercolumnar bracket sets between thecolumns, the upper plate member was placed over the lintels and the columns, so

as to compose a T-shaped section. Pokwang-jon (Pokwang Hall) at Simwon-sa

(Simwon Monastery), built in 1374 and located in Yontan county of NorthKorea, is the oldest building of this style. A tall marble pagoda of ten stories,

located originally at the site of Kyongchon-sa , (Kyongchon Monastery),displays features of the intercolumnar bracket set system. Upon three tiers ofpedestals, the lower three stories of the pagoda have the plan of the Greek crossshape, while the upper seven storey of the pagoda have a square plan. The corniceof each story was exquisitely carved so as to represent the inter-columnar bracketset system with rafters and roof tiles which were also carved elaborately.

City planning and palaces

The capital of Koryo was Kaegyong, the present day, Kaesong. Kaegyong was

located in a natural basin surrounded by the hilly Mt. Songak. Owing to the naturallandscape of the city, the non axial arrangement of buildings developed throughout

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the city. The palace and monasteries in the city clustered along the flanks of Mt.Songak was enclosed by a meandering irregular city wall. The lengthy fortress wallbuilt with twelve gates protected the city. Originally the city had two layers ofwalling, its inner and outer walls. Towards the end of the dynasty, amid of the

instability of the states political situation and economy, the outer wall and theliving complex situated in the area were all destroyed and never reconstructed.

Geomancy was one of the significant principles of the blue print of the city. Themain idea was to make the best and scientific use of nature as healthy and efficientliving environments for people. The architects did not attempt to overcome thenatural landscape but rather they respected the existing physical environment intheir architectural design and town planning. Mountains provide shelters from wind,and rivers became resources of water. The concept evolved by incorporatingcertain Daoist religious elements such as astrology. The palace was located at ahilly corner in the north-west. With the city surrounded by mountains, and thepalace having two streams of water from a hill met in front of the palace, Kaegyongwas the best place in terms of Geomancy.

The palace at Manwol-dae, (Full moon Terrace) was laid out according to thenorth-south axis, and because of the hilly topography the complexes wereconnected from one level to the next by flights of stone steps. The palace attractedconsiderable attention for its size, elegance and beauty during the period, but waslater burnt down under foreign invasion. The platforms, flights of steps andfoundations can still be seen on the empty site.

4. Choson Dynasty (1392-1910)

Choson was established with the support of Neo-Confucian scholar-officials in thelate Koryo dynasty. The dissemination of Neo-Confucianism had already begunaround the late period of the Koryo dynasty. This new trend of Confucian studiesprovided intellectual fulfillment to the new literati class of that time. The growth ofNeo-Confucian philosophy eventually brought in its train a growing repudiation ofBuddhism, and exercised significant influence over wider society.

In the early period, architecture inherited the traditon of the previous dynastyincorporating the new political guiding principles of Confucianism that displacedBuddhism. In building technique, the inter-columnar bracket set system was used inbuilding the most important edifice on the premises. The columnar bracket setsystem and the eclectic bracket system, which consist of architectural elements

from both columnar and intercolumnar systems, were also used for monasteriesand other important buildings.

Monasteries

In the Choson dynasty many Buddhists monasteries were moved away from thecities to remote mountainous areas. The arrangement of the monastery buildingswere, thus, determined by the terrain and natural surroundings of the hillytopography. Most of the Buddhist monasteries were, however, founded early in theUnited Silla and the Koryo dynasty. Ever since, some monastery buildings have beencontinuously rebuilt and renovated.

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Two years after the establishment of the new dynasty, King T'aejo (r. 1392-1398)relocated the capital to Hanyang on the bank of the Han River, the present daySeoul. A grid pattern for the street system was applied in general, but it wasmodified due to existing terrain with many spontaneous irregularly curved roadsand detours. The capital city planning was laid out to harmonize with the naturalterrain which was surrounded by beautiful hills and mountains.

The stone wall of sixteen kilometers encircling the capital was completed with eight

principal gates. After the establishment of Kyongbok-gung (Kyongbok Palace)as the main palace, a number of palaces were additionally constructed. They

include Changdokgung , Changgyong-gung (Ch'anggyong Palace),

Kyonghee-gung (Kyonghee Palace) and Tuksu-gung (Tuksu Palace) in thecapital, as well as royal villas outside the city. The main palace was constructed onthe flat plain at the foot of Mt. Pukak, located in the north-west area of the city,

facing south. The main ancestral hall of the Choson dynasty, Chongmyo , is

located to the south-east of Kyungbok-gung. The altar for Sajik (Land God andGrain God ) was also established to the south-west of the palace in accordance withConfucian principles.

A thoroughfare ran from the East gate to the West Gate and the curved broad

avenue from the South Gate extended toward the north to Chongru (Bell tower)where the city signal bell was hung at the central location of the east-westthoroughfare, creating a T-shaped intersection. One broad avenue from Kyongbok-gung located at the foot of Mt. Pukak ran to the south, and another broad avenue

from another palace, Ch'angdok-gung (Ch'angdok Palace) also ran southparallel to it. Both avenues reached the great east-west thoroughfare at a T-shapedintersection. Along these broad avenues and the main part of the greatthoroughfare, long linear buildings of stores, shops, and work rooms were built onboth sides of the road to create a busy street front.

Palaces, shrines, government edifices and other important buildings were carefullyoriented in relation to the north-south axis. Most of these buildings were locatedalong the T-shaped road intersections to create terminal vistas of townscape. As aresult, the overall townscape of the city had a much different quality in comparisonwith other capital cities of Asia.

Kyongbok-gung (Kyongbok Palace)

The forty-acre palatial area of Kyongbok-gung was laid out in 1395. This palace wasruined during the Japanese invasion and rebuilt by the Prince Regent in l870.

The lay-out of the court is rectangular and the court was surrounded on four sidesby walls. Watch towers were constructed at the outer foot of the southern palacewall. In the middle of the southern wall is the main gate of the palace. Thus, themain gate, main hall, halls of state, and the royal bed-rooms were all arranged in astraight line running from north to south. This layout also follows the Confucianoutlook specifying the ideal structure of a royal palace having the court at the front

and, sleeping quarters at the back.

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The layout of the main buildings is in the north-south axial pattern of the magicsquare with the enclosed space by covered colonnades. On the east of theKyongbok palace is Mt. Inwang while to the west is Mt. Naksan, and to the south,Mts. Namsan. Thus, against mountains to the rear, the north, and also guarded by

two other mountains to the right and left and front, the court overlooks the city.

In the palace construction, great efforts were made that all the architecture in thepalace created the best harmony with the curves created by the mountain slopeswhich surrounded the city. The builders took special care to create windows of anappropriate size and in the right position so that the beauty of these mountains, sowell-balanced with combination of rocks and trees, could be fully appreciated frominside the buildings.

The areas inside the royal court were divided into the inner palace and the outerpalace. In the outer palace located to the front are halls where formal events orceremonies were carried out. The main throne hall or the center of the outer

quarter was Kunjong-jon (Kunjong Hall, Hall for Diligent Administration). Theinner palace was that for the royal family's residence. At the center of the innerpalace were the halls of the royal residence, again, directly north of the halls ofstate.

Both the courtyard and the main hall, Kunchong-jon, had an important function for

state ceremonies and events. The large size of the Kunchong-mun (Gate tothe courtyard of Kunchong-jon) and subjects of decorative motifs carved on thebuilding complex, for example, phoenixes symbolizing the sovereign decorated onthe steps leading up to Kunchong-mun - were all carefully chosen underconsideration of its function. Kunjong-jon is built as a two-storey wooden structure,standing on a two-tiered stone platform. The platform is decorated with balustradeposts carved with the guardian spirits of the four directions and the twelve animalsof the zodiac cycle. The large stone slab on the center of southern stairs to theplatform is carved with phoenixes. Inside Kunjong-jon has a two-storey roof, is, butit creates a single space. Various motifs symbolizing the majesty and orthodoxy ofa monarch is colorfully and elaborately painted on the wooden beams under theceiling as well as on the ceiling and the wall. The throne is placed on a woodenplatform situated in the centre to the north side of the hall. On all four sides of theplatform are steps carved with dragons which signify the sovereign. Setting upbehind the throne is a screen adorned with the sun, moon rising above fivemountain peaks. A wooden structure in the shape of two large dragons holding themagic pearls of the sovereign is attached to the ceiling.

The quarters specifically built for the purpose of entertaining foreign missionaries

and court officials is Kyonghoi-ru (Kyonghoi Pavilion). A huge rectangular lotuspond and a two storey open-air building on stone pillars against the background ofMt. Inwang and Mt. Pukak which screen the palace, orchestrate a panoramic view.The present building is part of the overall reconstruction done in the mid-nineteenthcentury.

Ch'angdok-gung (Ch'angdok Palace)

Ch'angdok-gung is located in the center of the north side of the capital at thefoothills of Mt. Unbongs southward slopes. The palace was built on this ruggedhilly land amidst a number of small streams.

The relatively small palace was constructed as a royal villa in 1405. Thus, thedesign was centered on the peaceful rest and comfortable living of the royal family,

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not on state ceremonies or formal occasions. For this reason, the palace came tohave distinctive features, particularly, in the way in which its buildings fully live upto the natural landscape, preserving the irregularity in the topography. The palacecomplexes were not made in accordance with a grand plan from the beginning, but

were formed gradually over time by the incorporation of buildings, one afteranother, whenever necessary. Buildings are not laid out in precise straight lines,and they face different directions. This also helps their architecture to harmonizewith nature. The intentional breaking of the symmetrical order is observed in mostof the palaces. Ch'angdok-gung also underwent a major reconstruction inaccordance with the original structure after its destruction by fire during theJapanese invasion that occurred at the end of the sixteenth century, and again later.In particular, there were further changes in the palace buildings due to destructionby fire in 1920 and the subsequent reconstruction. Many buildings were alsodemolished after the death of the last sovereign of the dynasty. Since the mid1990s, some buildings have been reconstructed.

The main gate of the palace is in the southwest corner of the palace wall. To mainhall is not located in the straight line from the main gate. One has to make two orthree 90 degree turns. Both the walls around the main gate and the main halldeliberately avoid using sharp right angles. At glance, the walls look square; in fact,they were set at a variety of angles, which bring about the general harmonybetween the buildings and their surroundings. At the back yard of the palace, inseclusion from the quarters of administration and the residence is a garden called

huwon (rear garden), representing the culmination of the beauty of the garden. Aspacey lotus pond and pavilions of various designs in the vicinity of the pond, wereembraced by the rich woods and rugged hills with meandering streams. Fully livingin the original landscape, artificiality is reduced to a minimum. The buildingsdesigned to complement the lotus pond with - the elegant and exquisite lines made

by the arch-shaped roof overlooking the pond in the vicinity include Chuham-nu

(Heavenly Cottage). This most aesthetical spot in the palace was also used toinvite those who passed the civil service examination, where they were presentedwith a cup of wine by the king.

Chuham-nu was built by King Chongjo (r. 1776-1800) as the royal family's library.

Neighboring to this is Sohyang-gak (Pavilion of Fragrant Tomes), with aspecific design to facilitate good ventilation and moderate sunlight thus preventingbooks and documents from being ruined by unnecessary high proportion ofmoisture in the air. A number of dilapidated pavilions of smaller size are also placedin the area. These were built by successive kings as for their scholarship.

Sowon (private Confucian schools)

During the Choson dynasty, many private Confucian schools were built to educateyoung men in their provinces. The best example is Tosan Sowon, built in l574 by thefamous scholar Yi, Hwang. Some of the educational buildings, shrines, and housesfor these scholars still exist.

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