2003 design, materials selection and marketing of successful products

7/29/2019 2003 Design, Materials Selection and Marketing of Successful Products

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Materials and Design 24 (2003) 519529

0261-3069/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/S0261-3069(03)00094-3

Design, materials selection and marketing of successful products

Lennart Y. Ljungberg , Kevin L. Edwards *a b,

Department of Engineering Science, University of Skovde, SE-541 28, Skovde, Swedena

School of Engineering, University of Derby, Kedleston Road, Derby DE22 1GB, UKb

Received 10 January 2003; accepted 6 May 2003

Abstract

There are many things that make products successful in the market place. This paper is a comprehensive tool for understandinghow to develop products with special respect to integrated product development. Materials selection, marketing and design analysisin the form of a design manual are presented as a tool for the product developer. Many different methods for materials selectionand design have been presented over the last couple of decades. However, most methods have been limited to the material as aphysical entity to give shape for a product. The method presented in this paper is an approach to present a materials selectionmodel that is an integral part in an integrated product development model, in which both physical and metaphysical propertiesare analysed for different types of products. The new integrated product materials selection (IPMS) model presented incorporatesfactors such as fashion, market trends, cultural aspects, aesthetics and recycling, as well as the target group. Interesting examplesof successful product contra failures are presented, as well as examples of materials selection for different products. Differentmethods for materials selection are discussed and analysed with respect to the IPMS method presented. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Product design; Materials selection; Marketing

1. Background

There are many different ideas on how materialselection for a product should be made. Many of theseideas only consider the creation of a functional product.However, a functional product is not enough for manyconsumers. For example, many consumers require morethan a simple watch for showing the time. For aprestigious customer an advanced design in combinationwith an expensive material could be the solution. Infact, the accuracy can be of less importance for a

prestigious watch buyer. The accuracy of a prestigiousmechanical clockwork watch can be inferior to a moreaccurate electronic watch and cost much more. Physicaland metaphysical aspects have almost been neglectedby some designers. Such aspects related to design,materials selection and marketing of a product havebeen important factors for the successful developmentof products, as shown in this paper.

*Corresponding author. Tel.: q44 1332 591729; fax: q44 1332597739.

E-mail addresses: [email protected](K.L. Edwards),[email protected] (L.Y. Ljungberg).

2. Recommendations for successful design and prod-

uct development

Development of a successful product is not usuallyan easy task. The place to start is with a definition ofthe problem:

2.1. The problem

There have been estimations made which tell us thatapproximately 90% of all good technical products arenot a success in the marketplace w1x. Note that a product

itself can be technically advanced according to function,materials selection, etc., but for many reasons the prod-uct is a market failure.

A product must be acceptable to people for a varietyof reasons, some technical and some non-technical.People must understand the products physical advantag-es, accept them and learn to like them. They must alsoappreciate the metaphysical advantages of the product.This demands good understanding of the problem, andmethods of ensuring more complete product knowledgeare key to achieving the successful development of aproduct to solve the problem.


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2.2. Product development

One reason for product development is to make aseldom-sold product into an article of consumption.Product development today is not only carried out forcustomer satisfaction, but also to make products that

attract more customers w2,3x.The ordinary telephone is a good example of a

seldom-sold product that was developed to an article ofconsumption during the 1960s. Today most familieshave more than one telephone and it is common tochange telephones quite often, for example for a newdesign or new options. A central aim today is to giveannouncement and publicity for a product both for theseller and the buyer in a society dominated by infor-mation from mass media research and the Internet.

A central task for a company today must be toestrange (alienate) from the traditional apprehensionwhere a product is just material. From the human sidea product is much more than material. For a customer aproduct also has values like (reputation) and our owninterpretation of the product.

The development of a product can be divided intotwo important areas, physical and metaphysicaldevelopment:

a. Physical development is the more materialistic andtraditional way to develop a product. The producthere is just a product with certain functions and aims.For example, the materials selection of such devel-opment typically aims for a technical fulfilment ofthe product, e.g. with a certain lifetime, service need

and acceptable recyclability.b. All products have a certain degree of existence

beyond the physical appearance, a metaphysical exis-tence. The metaphysical value of a product is relatedto how our senses, including imagination, knowledge,experiences and preconceived ideas apprehend theproduct. To simplify it, it is how we feel about acertain product.

Integrated product materials selection is a way tounderstand what a material means for a product. Clas-sical materials selection involves systematic specifica-tion of the requirements. Selection charts are a popular

theoretical way to select materials with mathematicalcalculations w4x. Such methods are interesting for thetheoretical selection of material, but in most cases areless useful in practise because the metaphysical valueof a certain product can never be simplified withmathematical formulas. Experienced designers and engi-neers know this fact, even if many of them do not thinkof it in the terms just mentioned.

2.3. Product image

The image of a product is related to the history behindit. Trademarks and logotypes have a great influence on

a product. Advertising of a product must be based onscientific investigations, which here means the analyticalpsychology w5x. The main reason is to generate interestin the product so people will buy it. Thus, the ultimategoal of an advertisement is not to make nice pictures orgood text, etc. An advertisement should give a mental

picture with a certain profile for a product. Marketingitself is not enough; an image and a history must begenerated for a product.

With regard to materials selection, natural materialsare popular for many products. A natural material suchas wood or wool can give a certain degree of history toa product: This product is made from a tree grown inthe Alps or This coat is produced from sheep woolfrom Scotland, etc.

2.4. Marketing

Marketing is typically oriented towards customers,competitors, distribution, trademarks and attitudes w6x.Marketing itself is a way to bring a product to theultimate user.

In a society dominated by mass media and computers,all marketing must be carried out with respect to thecustomer. How does a potential customer look at acertain product?

Product development some decades ago was moredirectly related to the production possibilities of a certainproduct. Today many successful products must be adjust-ed for the market and not for the cheapest production.Many car producers are aware of these ideas. A new

car model must suit the market and not the cheapestproduction methods.

There are at least three important possibilities formarketing w6x:

a. When a product offers something that is lacking ormissing;

b. When a product is offered in a new or superior way;and

c. When a new product is offered.

It is important for marketing to identify customergroups with unsatisfied needs. An example of this is the

development of the Chrysler Voyager motorcar somedecades ago. The need for a car with space for morethan five or six persons, including a lot of luggagespace, created a new niche for cars. Today, many othercar manufacturers have introduced their own models ofthe Chrysler Voyager concept.

Another example from the materials point of view isthe use of plastics for watchcases. Some decades agopeople realised the advantages of watches made mostlyof polymers. The price and weight were low and thepotential designs were interesting and trendy. Todaythese watches have a remarkable niche, attracting young-er and sportier customers.


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The material used for a certain product must beselected to fulfil the needs of the customer and not forthe price itself or for cheap production methods, etc.

2.5. Market contact

A company should avoid producing new products thatexceed their technical and marketing competence w7x. Itis too risky to enter a totally new field, which oftenleads to unsuccessful products.

A typical factor behind unsuccessful products is poorcontact with the market. For example, the time spent onidentification, understanding and drawing conclusionson a new situation is often insufficient. Competitionbetween companies is increasingly global; a typical riskis when this fact is neglected and market contact tendsto be too national w1,6x.

2.6. New ideas

A company must organise a system for collection andevaluation of ideas, or there is a risk that good ideaswill expire before product development starts. Successfulorganisation can be achieved as follows w6x:

a. Identify an experienced person responsible for newideas;

b. Regularly evaluate ideas using representatives of dif-ferent groups, such as engineers, researchers, buyers,marketing staff, economists, etc.;

c. Release a free-of-charge telephone line for consumers

to contact the person responsible for ideas;d. Encourage people from the production company tosend their ideas to the person responsible; and

e. Create a model for official acknowledgement andreward persons with good ideas.

Such a system will give a natural flow of good ideasinstead of letting them expire.

2.7. Product life cycle

Most products have a limited life and can be classifiedinto different phases: introduction, growth, maturity and

decline. Products should not be released when there isa risk of a decline in the market w8x.An example of this is the Itera project in Sweden.

The Itera project was an attempt to manufacture bicyclesfrom polymers. The Itera bicycle was released on themarket in the spring of 1982. However, the strangedesign caused by the inferior Youngs modulus of theglass fibre-reinforced polymer did not convince thecustomers. In fact, the torsional rigidity was inferior tothe traditional metal bicycle and the weight was ratherhigh (approx. 16 kg). After a short time, the problemwas obvious and many of these plastic bicycles wereconsidered as junk and could never be sold. In 1985

production was stopped for good. The price was com-parable with that of a metal bicycle when sold on themarket, but what were the benefits for a customer? Theplastic bicycle has now become a curiosity, with thefew remaining fetching quite high prices, with manythousands of pounds being paid by specialist collectors.

However, one of the main reasons for the productfailure was that the epoch for selling bicycles in Swedenduring 1982 was declining when Itera was released onthe market: all kinds of bicycles were sold in smallamounts in 1982, and of course the Itera project sufferedfrom this fact w9x.

In cases such as Itera, it is also important to state thata company must be extra careful when choosing amaterialsuch as plasticsthat is not known as a goodand prestigious material for most customers. The mate-rial used (plastic) was also conspicuous, with a greyybrownish plastic appearance; perhaps a trendy paint

colour could have extended the product life. The paintor surface finish is quite important for many products.

2.8. Life cycle assessment

For an idea of the life cycle assessment (LCA), it isnecessary to divide the whole life cycle of a productinto parts, such as mining of metals, refinement, manu-facturing, practical use of the finished product, recycling,etc. With such an analysis it is possible to determinewhich material is the cheapest in the long run and howthe material and manufacturing affect the environment

w10,11x.For example, in the X-2000 project (the Swedish

high-speed train) it became clear that stainless steel wasthe cheapest material in the long run. Ordinary steel ismuch cheaper, but needs a lot of maintenance (rustremoval, painting, rust prevention, etc.) which is quiteexpensive. Stainless steel is also easy to recycle whenthe life of a train is ended.

2.9. Environmental influences

The environmental aspects can be evaluated together

with the above-mentioned LCA. In this way, the influ-ence and damage to the natural environment w12x canbe minimised.

2.10. Laws for manufacturing and selling of products

Manufacture and release of products is typicallyrestricted by different laws that must be followed. Forexample, motorcars sold in many European countriesmust be equipped with exhaust emission control andsafety belts. In many countries freon gas is prohibitedfor use in refrigerators, etc.


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2.11. Ergonomics

Different people have different body measurementsthat must be allowed for when producing products suchas chairs, clothes, doors and so on. Measurements for95% of the population can be obtained from standard

ergonomic tables w13,14x.To be attractive for the market, a product must also

feel good to use and have an appealing design. Afunctional camera, for instance, can have quite straightlines due to cheaper production methods, but does notalways feel good in the hand. An attractive design witha camera body designed for the fingers and with controlsthat are easy to grip and influence is important for mostcustomers when choosing a camera. Today, attractivedesigns with ergonomic functions are quite easy toachieve with plastics, whereas metals for example aremore complicated to manufacture with reasonable costs.However, plastics do not give the quality feeling desiredby many customers and therefore metals are still usedin many cameras today, but with a typically higher costand a more traditional design. A traditional design is infact popular for many customers because the designvaries with time and many trends come back again aftera time. Today retro-design trends are evident for manyproducts.

2.12. Safety

The safety of products is in many cases controlled bythe law, such as earthing for electrical products and

welding regulations for pressure vessels. New safetyequipment for a product cannot be patented, because itis of importance for all to have safe products. However,new safety equipment can greatly influence the market-ing of a new product. In such cases, when new safetyequipment is invented, it is important to release it onthe market as quickly as possible and give it an attractiveor catchy name. For example, some years ago Volvoconstructed an impact system for side collisions. Theygave it the acronym SIPS for side impact protectionsystem. Some other motorcar manufacturers also hadquite similar and effective systems on their cars, butthey neglected to give it a name. SIPS became wellknown by a lot of safety-conscious customers and atopic of conversation, and for many customers a reasonfor buying a Volvo car.

2.13. What is the ultimate choice mechanism for buying

a certain product?

We can categorise products into categories to make itsimpler:

a. Hidden components, i.e. components within a system;b. Semi-hidden components, i.e. components covered by

e.g. a door or a hood in a motorcar; and

c. Uncovered components, i.e. the complex productitself, or the surface of a complex product that isassembled of many separate components.

An example of a hidden component is a cogwheel ina combustion engine or a single lens in binoculars. Such

components are typically made of materials selected fortheir physical properties. In these cases, the physicalproperties that can be quantified, such as a specificYoungs modulus or a certain refractive index, etc.,dominate over the metaphysical properties. Here, tradi-tional materials selection methods can be successfullyused in most cases.

However, there are exceptions. A combustion enginein a motorcar is for many customers a hidden componentin a system (the motorcar itself). However, for manytechnically interested car buyers the engine is of signif-icant interest. Today it is common to have the engine(cylinder) block made of aluminium. The popularity of

aluminium is mainly due to its low density and goodreputation as a construction material. In fact, a blockmade of cast iron can be thinner than an aluminium onebecause of the higher Youngs modulus of cast iron.This leads to quite minor differences in weight for castiron compared to aluminium engines. However, alumin-ium in combustion engines today gives an impressionof high technology to many customers. The engine ishere referred to as a semi-hidden component because itcan normally only be seen when the bonnet is opened.This is an example of how metaphysical properties canbe of importance for a semi-hidden component.

A typical example of an uncovered component is achair or a writing pen. For such products, both thephysical and the metaphysical properties are important.A chair can be made of many different materials, suchas wood, metal, textile, polymers, etc., and a pen canbe made of wood, metal, polymers, etc. In these casesthe materials and the design used are very importantbecause the materials also dictate the appearance of thesurface of the products. When we see a chair or a pen,we can usually immediately determine the materials theproducts are made of.

As previously mentioned, in the engine case the

bonnet must be opened to see the engine. The meta-physical properties become somewhat inferior here. Thismay be the opposite in the case of a motorbike, forwhich many of the mechanical components are visible.In the cogwheel case, a customer never sees the cog-wheel unless the engine is disassembled or repaired. Inthe latter case the metaphysical properties are often quiteinsignificant. However, there are exceptions. In the caseof a motorcar, for example, hidden components madeof low-quality materials will eventually be discoveredby customers. The reputation (obtained from servicerecords) of the manufacturer will rapidly become aproblem and is difficult to regain. Thus, the metaphysical


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Fig. 1. The direct relationships between metaphysical and physical properties for different components.

aspects for a hidden component are as important as thephysical aspects.

Thus, there is a balance for every product betweenthe physical and metaphysical properties. This balancecan never be formulated by a simple mathematicalcalculation; it is something that must estimated byqualified and experienced product developers. The directrelations between physical and metaphysical propertiesvs. different components are shown in Fig. 1. However,as mentioned above, these relations can change overtime.

Note that every specific product has a certain balancebetween physical and metaphysical values. This balancediffers from customer to customer, even for the sameproduct.

The flow of information for a product is always ofimportance. A lot of information is good for an advancedcustomer evaluating different products. However, formany customers a lot of technical information is just a

great problem. Many people do not have the time,interest or knowledge to compare technical informationbetween different products. Our experience determineswhat we see in a certain product. This leads to a specificcommunication between a product and every humanbeing. Every product will then have an immaterialcontentwhat we know about it and what we feel forit w2x.

How is the choice between products typically madein practise by a customer with too much technicalinformation? Such customers typically chose productsfrom well-known companies and often products made

in their own countries: freezers from Electrolux, carsfrom Volvo, computers from Dell and so on. However,many products from well-known companies are not evenproduced in the traditional country related to the specificcompany. Many products are produced from componentsmade all over the world, but many customers are notaware of that, they just consider the brand name. Forthese customers, the trust in a brand name is more orless enough.

In many cases it is not good to inform the customersof where a product is made. It can lead to unwantedassociations. For example, Swedish-produced Volvo carsare not advertised as a Swedish product in the USA. It

is then probably better to focus on other aspects in theadvertisement and to let people think that most Volvocars are produced in the USA.

2.14. Price and refinement

The traditional way to increase demand for a productis to advertise. Today a product typically receives ahigher value through advertisement. A careful balanceneeds to be attained between the cost of advertising,which can be significant, and the expected sales marginson products sold.

The price for a product gives interesting informationto a customer. It can give an indication of quality andeven of the prestige of a product. The value of a productcan in fact be related to metaphysical product develop-ment, leading to highly perceived quality w2x. Seikodeliberately do not sell cheap watches and as a conse-quence have a reputation for high quality.

An investment in good-quality material, which givesan attractive outer impression, and in good design canlead to a metaphysical product development at a mod-erate price. Successful materials choice combined witha good design can definitely lead to increased customerdemand and make it possible to raise the product price,even if the production cost for the product does notincrease much.

Another way to give products a higher value is tocertify the production, such as according to the ISO9000 quality assurance series of standards. In fact, suchcertification does not assure anything specific about the

quality of the products made in a certain company. Itonly guarantees that the production apparatus fulfils acertain specified standard. However, the manufacturingcompany can show this certification mark in advertise-ments and brochures, giving the impression that itsproducts have a higher quality.

The market value for a product can be expressedaccording to the criteria in Fig. 2.

The market value for a product is the sum of theprice for the physical product and the meta-product (Fig.2). The refinement value can be drastically increased byinvestments in design, advertisement and materialsselection. The value of the meta-product is typically


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Fig. 2. The breakdown of market value for a product w2x.

easiest to increase for uncovered components, as men-tioned in the text above.

2.15. Case studies

A simple and useful definition of a successful product

is a product that has been accepted by the target groupandyor is in demand.The British Scientific Activity Predictor from Pat-

terns with Heuristic Origins project was one of the firstprojects in which successful and unsuccessful productswere compared pairwise w15,16x. From more than 100factors investigated, over 40 were found that separatedsuccessful products from unsuccessful ones. Five factorsof particular importance for a successful project couldbe pointed out, as follows:

a. Close contact and relationships with the customershelp to meet their needs.

b. A successful project is characterised by effectivemarketing, including advertisement of the product.c. Innovators who develop successful products tend to

carry out their development work more carefully, butnot necessarily more rapidly. This means that theyhave time to eliminate different faults with the helpof a development group before introduction of theproduct to the market.

d. Successful innovators gather technology and infor-mation from outside sources and are interested intechnical solutions.

e. Responsible persons in successful projects are oftenolder and more experienced than their unsuccessful

competitors.

2.16. Cultural aspects

In order to be successful with a product in a certainmarket, it is important to know the cultural aspects themetaphysical product w1x.

The material itself can have a certain metaphysicalvalue. For example, villas made of wood are quitepopular in Scandinavia, but in Middle Europe suchhouses are often met with scepticism.

Many wooden villa producers in Scandinavia havetried to export houses to Germany, for instance. How-

ever, this is a tough market, since the German peoplenormally think that wooden houses are inferior andsimpler than houses built of stone or concrete. However,in Mediterranean countries, wood is quite rare andtherefore an expensive material, and is viewed more asa luxury material. In Scandinavian countries wood is

very common and a house built of stone is typicallymore expensive and therefore more prestigious. Supplyand demand are clearly determining factors for themetaphysical value, as well as the actual cost of thematerial.

In a country such as Turkey, kitchen worktops andsinks have traditionally been made of stone (e.g. mar-ble), while in Sweden stainless steel has traditionallybeen used. This is just another example of culture-related materials selection.

The design is also an example of a culture-relatedvalue. For example, stereo equipment made in Japan

has for a long time been equipped with many knobs,lamps and functional parts visible on the outside. Thisis a way of giving an impression of quality to theproduct. For many Asian customers it is a way toindicate that the equipment is advanced and has manyfunctions inside.

Bang & Olufsen (B&O) in Denmark has used anotheridea to give high metaphysical value to their products.Advanced design and materials with a high finish forthe uncovered components (as mentioned previously)and a unique look with a clean surface, with only afew controls and instruments, is a way to give animpression of a prestigious product. Some decades agomany customers were somewhat unsure of the perform-ance of B&O products, but most customers have nowrealised that the electronics in the products are also ofexcellent quality. Today B&O products are identified asprestigious, expressed to the customers by a uniquedesign and the use of valued materials such as alumin-ium, which gives a cold and somewhat Nordic feel tothe products. In fact, few Japanese customers buy B&Oequipment. For customers who want an outstandingproduct that looks and sounds different to the traditionalJapanese equipment, B&O products are a goodalternative.


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Table 1Examples of trademarks or materials for the different target groups

Product example Group P Group M Group FPrestigious Moderately priced Functional and cheap

Wrist watches Rolex Seiko CasioBreitling Citizen Q&Q

Cartier TimexCars Rolls Royce Volkswagen Fiat

Ferrari Peugeot HyundaiTelevisions B&O Sanyo Mark

DaewooFloors Kahrs IKEA Various importsClothes Gucci Melka H&M

BossPens Cross Ballograf BIC

Schaeffer ParkerCameras Hasselblad Minolta Halina

Leica Canon KodakKitchen worktops Polished granite Hardwood, e.g. oak Stainless steelJewellery Diamond Zirconia Polished stone

Gold (18 carat) Gold (9 carat) SilverPlatinum

Shoes Leather-predominant Synthetic combinations NylonGore Tex Simple leather Rubber-predominant

It should always be remembered that a product pop-ular in Greece, for example, is not always popular inCanada and vice versa. Experienced product developerswith international contacts are a prerequisite for therelease of quality products sold throughout the world. Asimple example is to have products with options fordifferent markets. Air conditioning and automatic gear-boxes are not as important for motorcars sold in Iceland,

while for cars sold in Texas they are almost prerequisites.Another example is the use of materials for different

markets. For example, a used Mercedes-Benz motorcarbought in Sweden and exported to Mexico can experi-ence problems with the plastic parts in the Mexican sun(cracks, colour changes, etc.), while a used Volvonormally does not suffer from these problems. Volvohas had a tradition of using the same materials fordifferent markets, while Mercedes cars have typicallybeen more optimised for certain markets.

2.17. Customer support

During new product development (NPD) it is ofimportance to make a comprehensive evaluation of thecustomer support requirements w17,18x. Good customerservice before, during and after the sales transactiongives a quality reputation, which must not be neglected.Important key elements of customer support are w19x:

1. Installation: this is especially important for complexproducts and where safety aspects are involved.

2. User training: the Efficient use of many complexproducts demands training programs.

3. Documentation: good documentation helps to savetime and reduce support costs.

4. Maintenance and repair: quick and good servicetypically minimises the costs of downtime.

5. On-line support: telephone support is essential forquick consultation.

6. Warranty: this is a way to reduce the financial risksof owning products.

7. Upgrades: the lifetime of a product can be increasedby upgrades of parts, computer programmes, etc.

2.18. Target group

The definition of a target group for a product mustbe clarified from the beginning of the development of acertain product. As mentioned earlier, trying to avoidproduct development that does not fit into the businessconcept of the company can be detrimental to thesuccess of that product. Different companies or trade-marks are more or less directly connected to a certainmarket group. As an example, three important marketgroups are pointed out as follows:

a. The market for prestigious products (P);b. The market for moderately priced products (M); andc. The market for functional and cheap products (F).

Examples of these groups are given in Table 1.Some companies span two groups, but rarely span all

three groups. A brand name is usually connected to acertain degree of quality, and therefore some companiesrelease products under different names. For exampleToyota produce moderately priced (M group) motorcarsunder the name Toyota, while for their prestigiousmotorcars (P group) the name Lexus is used. This is away of maintaining a certain image for a brand name.


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If we look at the groups individually we can discoversome common types of materials for each group.

a. Typical materials for Group P: Pure materials (or carefully improved with

additives);

Metals used are typically rare and expensive; Plastics are typically avoided or only used in very

specific parts, generally with expensive additivessuch as carbon fibres for reinforcement;

Ceramics are typically pure and dense; Natural materials are always popular (wood, stone,

cotton, silk, wool, etc.); No fake materials; Cheap materials, such as cotton or wood, are

typically carefully refined, selected and enhanced.b. Typical materials for Group F: Fake materials (laminates, veneers, plated surfaces,

etc.);

All kinds of synthetics and plastics are typical; Natural materials are popular, but in cheap forms; Cheap metals with or without an inexpensive sur-

face treatment; Refining, selection, ennobling etc. are only per-

formed to a minimum.c. Typical materials for group M are materials as close

to the materials for Group P as possible, but withmoderate prices and refinement.

When choosing material it is very important to lookout for trends, fashion and consumer demands, as

mentioned earlier. It is recommended that an opinionpoll is taken and that the products of competing com-panies are monitored.

An alternative to follow the trends is to be trend-breaking. This means choosing a new material for acertain product. This can lead to a successful product,but there is always a great risk of a failure. Examplesof trend-breaking materials selection are:

Itera: the bicycle made of plastics (mentioned earlier)became a product failure.

Dunlop: the outer surface of tyres for bicycles, wag-ons, etc., was typically made of wood and steel

during the 19th century. The pneumatic tyre was infact patented in 1845, but the breakthrough onlyoccurred when the Dunlop company started to userubber for making tyres in 1888. This trend-breakingmaterials selection for tyres is dominant even todaymore than 100 years after the invention.

Itera is today an almost forgotten name, while Dunlopis a company name that is well known to most people.These results occurred because of a trend-breakingmaterial in a certain application.

If a doubtful material is usedsuch as plastics in theItera bicycle caseit must be remembered that the

product must be superior to earlier products, e.g. lighter,stiffer or cheaper.

When choosing the target group there are someimportant things to be stated:

Firstly, the groups can be further divided. For exam-

ple, group P can be divided into a status symbolgroup and a connoisseur group. The status symbolgroup includes only the most attractive and expensiveproducts and materials, which will bring status to theowner, while the connoisseur products must havespecial and certain quality demands to satisfy thebuyers. The functionality is more important here.

Secondly, do not mix companies to produce productsfor different target groups. A company for productionof prestigious products needs to have staff with ahigh quality focus, while staff producing functionaland cheap items will have a different emphasis. Theaims of these two companies are different; with mixed

staff, production could be confusing. This is becausefor one product the measurements and product con-trols are very important and for the other, the toler-ances are not as important.

Thirdly, a company producing products for differenttarget groups must keep some sort of a wall betweenthe products andyor names. For example, the VAGcompany in Germany produces prestigious cars downto cheap cars with different names, such as Pheaton,Audi, Volkswagen, Skoda and Seat. Each name isassociated with a certain target group with individualneeds. In this case all the brands are separated from

each other more or less when sold. This means thatnew cars such as Audi and Skoda are not be sold bythe same business. The target groups are distinctivelydifferent for these two products.

In many cases the target group is already definedfrom the beginning. For example, when a new productis being adapted from an already existing product, theexisting product normally defines the target group. Thisis the case when for example a camera producer devel-ops a new lens for an already existing camera body. Anexception to this is e.g. when a company wants toproduce a cheap accessory for motorcars such as a

sunblind, which in fact can be used in both prestigiousand cheap motorcars.

How is market analysis developed for products?

a. Use qualified personnel to conduct the marketresearch. If necessary, use a professional marketresearch establishment. It is, for example, of greatimportance that the right target groups are questioned,otherwise the market research can be almost totalmeaningless.

b. If possible, check the market reactions by showing aprototype, but be aware that possible patents andprotection of designs should be in place, otherwise


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Table 2Design manual for integrated product materials selection

1 Product idea, market Consider the idea in terms of: market contacts; former casedemand or legal studies; customer selection mechanisms; identification of therequirement main functions to achieve

2 Definition of target Group P: prestigious products with ultimate quality

group for the product Group M: moderately priced productsGroup F: functional products for the low-price market3 Market research Evaluateystudy the following parameters: physicalymetaphysical

and pre-design balance; ergonomics; product image; legal implications; productlife cycle (LCA); environmental influence; recyclability or finaldisposal; safety; degree of uncoveredyhidden components;cultural aspects; total product cost, price and refinement;customer support; preparation of a prototype or model if possibleto check market reactions

4 Specification of Define the physical and chemical requirements for the product;requirements determine the limits (max.min. levels) the product must fall

within: e.g. temperature; density; UV radiation; price; pH value;Youngs modulus; density; lifespan

5 Property profile of Select some possible materials and check if they fulfil thepossible materials requirements; if no material is found, try to change the

requirements (e.g. design, expected lifespan

)6 Manufacturing method Plan and evaluate possible manufacturing methods for the

material(s) that fulfils the requirements above7 Final selection of Selection of material is dependent on manufacturing methods

materials, and ultimate design and must be simultaneously evaluated;manufacturing methods return to step 3 if a parameter changes before production startsand design

8 Product release One of the most important steps in the product development,but not the last

9 Market reactions and Collect customer reactions and reactions from workshops andfeedback during use service centres, etc.; early reactions and production changes are

of vital importance so that possible problems can be solved; ifmany inferior products have been released on the market, it canbe very expensive to guarantee products already sold and canlead to a poor reputation

10 Strategy for possible Close market contact is one important factor for the developmentredesign of of a successor to the product released; in an early phase it isor successors to normally enough to redesign the present product if necessary;the product for design of a new product or even minor redesign of a present

product, it is advisable to start from step 1 again

there is a small risk that a competitor could stealimportant ideas.

3. An integrated product materials selection model

A new integrated product materials selection (IPMS)

model is represented here as a simple step schedule orframework for the designer to follow, i.e. a designmanual for IPMS, as shown in Table 2 below andexemplified later.

Table 2 is initially used to obtain an overview of theidea during its estimated lifespan. For example, startwith the product idea and carry out a quick overviewfrom step 1 to 10. Then let the idea be influenced byeach step and, if it still seems to be of interest andworthy of development, continue to the next step,subjecting the idea to careful and appropriate analysis.

In a modern, integrated product development process,the materials selection must be integrated into the

development model. Physical product development mustbe carried out together with the metaphysical productdevelopment (as previously mentioned).

It must be remembered that the foundation for aphysical product (essentially mechanical) is the materialitself. This means that the integrated product design isbased on a systematic materials selection methodologyw4,20,21x. Here the method for selecting materials is theintegrated product materials selection model.

The product idea is the start of the development of anew product (step 1). The ideas can be quite different,as illustrated by the following examples:

A new material to replace an existing material; A new component or sub-assembly to improve an

already existing product; or A new product for a specific market.

The next stage is to scan the overall design manualin Table 2 to identify potential problems, or to refine


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the idea before continuing with steps 210. It is impor-tant to allow time to reflect at this stage, seeking advicefrom others where necessary. Typically, as a member ofa design team in a manufacturing company, it will benormal to perform this process co-operatively. The IPMSmodel is an ideal framework for concurrent engineering

environments. Attention should also be paid to protect-ing the intellectual property (e.g. registering patents) ofany new ideas. This will allow free access to suppliersand sub-contractors, although ultimate protection of anew idea is not assured.

The IPMS model typically starts with step 1, with anidea of a new product, market demand or a legalrequirement. Through steps 26, much work must thenbe carried out before the final material can be evaluated,together with the manufacturing methods and finaldesign, which is represented in step 7. Even after theproduct is released (step 8), it is of vital importance to

have close contact with the market in order to maintainmarket position for the product and, if possible, increasethe market demand (steps 9 and 10).

4. Discussion

This paper was mainly written to show the complexityof developing a new product according to the theoriesof the integrated product development concept as a basisfor successful product release. However, the new theo-ries presented have led to a broader perspective onproduct development. In this paper it has been shownhow non-physical factors, such as ideas, product images,

cultural aspects, case studies, etc., can be combined withthe physical factors, such as materials selection andmanufacturing processes.

Furthermore, the analyses made at the beginning ofthe product development process are the basis formaking a successful product. With this new IPMSmodel, it has been shown how these early analyses leadto the final synthesis, in which design, materials andmanufacturing processes are combined.

The IPMS model is not always rational, like tradition-al materials selection processes. For example, ceramicsand plastics are normally the best materials for a kitchen

floor with regard to lifespan and ease of cleaning.However, a parquet floor made of wood is very popularin some cultures. This floor is rather sensitive to waterdamage and is quite easily scratched, but it is stillpopular in many homes. The metaphysical aspects (e.g.to have a natural material with some sort of history) arethe determining factors over the strictly rational ones.

It takes time and experience to understand and acceptthe balance between the physical and the metaphysicaldemands of different customers and cultures. Futureproduct developers (whether they have a background inengineering, industrial design, marketing, etc.) must bemore aware of the integrated development process for a

product and the customer-related contacts in order to besuccessful.

Sometimes it can be of interest to think in differentways and to browse unconventional materials or designsfor a certain product. It is possible to make everydayproducts from unusual materials, such as a mobile

telephone of wood, a computer mouse of metal, acalculator of stone, etc. In the 1990s the rock watchby Tissot with the watchcase made of stone was popular.But is it what the market wants? Do not be afraid ofnew ideas, but confirm the ideas with the potentialcustomer first.

It must be remembered that the quality of a productis related to the customers experiences and personaltastes, and not the opinion of the engineer, designer, orsomeone else in the manufacturing company. If a productalready exists, then this has an important effect on thedecision by the customer to purchase a new version of

the product. In this situation, which is quite normal,marketing people tend to give an impression that theolder product is somewhat inferior to its replacement.This is typical of mass-produced consumer products,such as motorcars, with new models promoted as betterthan the older models. When the new model is radicallydifferent to the old model, it is often found that theolder model is generally more reliable than the newmodel. This is because the older model is at the end ofits development cycle and all the problems have beensorted out. The new model is at the beginning of itsdevelopment cycle and it takes time to sort out anyproblems. This effect is less of a problem than it was a

decade or so ago with advances in materials and man-ufacturing technology for components, build quality onassembly, and sophisticated design analysis and model-ling techniques.

5. Conclusions

The IPMS model is a modern method for increasingthe likelihood of successful product development. Themodel, accessible as a straightforward manual, is in aformat that is simple and lucid and can be used foralmost all types of physical product, ranging from simple

single-component products such as a spanner to morecomplex products, such as a motorcar comprising ofthousands of components. However, for a complexproduct it is necessary to use the IPMS model for boththe individual components and the whole product. Inthe case of the motorcar, the components making up thesub-assemblies, such as the dashboard, seats, lights,engine, transmission, suspension, etc., all have to beanalysed separately and concurrently with their sub-assemblies and with the whole motorcar using the IPMSmodel. The modelling process can therefore becomequite unwieldy in manual form if complex products areanalysed in fine detail. However, the underlying princi-


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ples are still valid, and significant improvements inproduct development effectiveness can be achieved bydisciplining the design process using the frameworkprovided by the model.

6. Future developments

Revisions of the IPMS model are expected as a resultof experiences in using the model on practical productdevelopment projects, and in order to keep up withrecent developments in market analysis techniques, lifecycle assessments, product image, new technologies, etc.There is also demand for more specialist IPMS modelsfor specific product types, markets, material classes, etc.,but based on the generic principles of the original IPMSmodel. The concept of a high-level generic methodologywith a set of underlying specific modules is envisaged.It is important, however, that the underlying philosophy

remains constant throughout different versions of themodel, ensuring continuity in future developments andin use. The authors believe that the model should besufficiently broad in its principles, i.e. not too prescrip-tive, allowing individuals and companies to tailor itsuse according to their own needs and normal practices.

A computerised program based on the IPMS modelis a likely outcome for more rapid analysis andyor foranalysing complex products. In computerised form, par-ameterisation of the handbook stages will facilitate rapidcomparison of alternatives and execution of what-ifscenarios, making it easier to chose the best material,manufacturing process or physicalymetaphysical bal-ance. There are a variety of design support tools avail-able to the product designer; some are manual, someare computerised and some are available in both forms.Interestingly, even when available in computerised form,many designers still prefer to use the manual tool inpreference to the computerised tool. It is anticipated thatthis will be the case for IPMS, which is essentially aframework to support the use of other tools and proce-dures. Furthermore, the market is not rational and trendscannot be totally predictable. This important aspect ofIPMS is therefore difficult to embody in computer codeand is probably best incorporated through conventional

means. However, the idea of making progress in thedirection of simpler methods for choosing optimummaterials and manufacturing processes, in conjunction

with good design practice, is a worthy challenge for thefuture.

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