2. hist of civ mesopotamia, egypt and near east

8/10/2019 2. Hist of Civ Mesopotamia, Egypt and Near East

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Chapter 2

Ancient Mesopotamian, Egypt and NearEastern Empires


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Mesopotamian Civilization


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Sumerian City-States (c. 3500-2300 BCE)Greeks spoke of Mesopotamia which means land between the riversTigris and Euphrates (modern Iraq and eastern Syria).Civilization emerged due to the fertile land and rivers . That is whyMesopotamian civilization is also called the Fertile CrescentMesopotamia was the place of one of the earliest centers of urban civilizationas early as 4000 BCESumerians first developed civilizationThe origin obscure (perhaps from northern India)Settled in 3500 BCEEmergence of the first earliest 12 independent walled city-states (c. 2900-2300BCE)Sumerian city-states were not unitedInvented symbol writing (cuneiform) in about 3200 BCEConstructed cities , Eridu, Erech, Adab, Isin, Kish, Larsa, Nippur, Lagash, Ur,Uruk. Sumerians used bricks for the construction of the buildings.Constant wars between the city-states and foreign invasions resulted in theircollapseStruggle and conflicts over the natural resources such as land and water and thecontrol of trade

Geographically Mesopotamia was open to foreign invasions unlike Egypt


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The city of Ur (in modern-day Iraq) was one of the oldest and most important cities of Mesopotamiain the days of the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians. The Great Stela of Ur is perhaps the mostsignificant monument ever found in Babylonia. The stela contains a pictorial record of the building of

the Ziggurat in about 2300 BC.


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The Akkadian Empire (c. 2300-2100 BCE)

Akkadians conquered Sumerian city-states in about 2300 BCEThe Akkadians, a Semitic-speaking people

Got the name after the city Akkad , which was situated in the northKing Sargon I founded dynasty of Akkad and won 24 battlesSargon build the worlds first empire and became the first king in the worldhistoryThe Akkadian empire extended from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean .

According to a legend, king Sargon washed his sword in the Persian Gulf.Semitic languagesThe Akkadian language replaced SumeriaThe Akkadians borrowed much from SumeriansThey spread Sumerian achievements beyond Mesopotamia

The Gutians ended Akkadian rule in about 2100 BCE


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Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-2000 BCE)

After disintegration of Akkadian empire warring city-states emergedSeveral Sumerian cities revived , especially Ur

Often this period is also called Sumerian Renaissance Influx of Elamites destroyed the city of Ur in about 2000 BC.Period of civil war and finally invasion by the Amorites100 thousand clay tablets were discovered from this period


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The First Dynasty of Babylon (c. 1800-1600 BCE)

Amorites , a semitic-speaking, headed by Hammurabi (reign. 1792-1750 B.C.) King of Justice

King of Akkad and Sumer Lawgiver

Hammurabi conquered almost whole of Mesopotamia and Assyria. He extendedcivilization to the northConquests due to well-disciplined army and his philosophy of divide and rule.He unified the whole Mesopotamia as during the Sumerian periodAfter him kings weak, which resulted in invasions by the Hittites in around1600 BCE.Having sacked Babylon the Hittites returned to their country.

New invaders the Kassites from Iranian Mountains and ruled for the next threecenturies.However this was considered as the dark age and very little is known about this

period.


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Gilgamesh, hero of the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh , sought the secrets of immortality fromUtnapishtim, who, like the biblical Noah, built a ship and escaped humankind's destruction by flood.Throughout his life Gilgamesh faced many tests, often against animals, as depicted in this 8th-

century Assyrian relief (Louvre, Paris). The Epic of Gilgamesh , composed about 2000 BC and foundinscribed on 12 tablets at Nineveh, is the earliest known epic. (Giraudon/Art Resource)
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The construction of ziggurats in Mesopotamiaprobably originated from an earlier tradition of

raising temples on terraces so that they would behigher than any of the surrounding buildings

Ziggurat at Ur circa 2100 B.C.
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Government and LawPrimitive democracy rule of the council of elders who appointed thetemporary king only during the war.However kings later became hereditary and permane ntKingship bestowed by the gods; the central institution. Theocratic politicalsystemKing did not consider himself as god but as great men selected by gods torepresent them on earth. It means that gods ruled through kings.The king as everyone had to implement and obey divine laws.Social stratification of the society : kings, priests, specialists, free farmers andslavesThe Code of Hammurabi, a collection of 282 laws. Western concept of law

and justice Similar to the biblical commandments Fragments of this code survived Basic philosophy of law was an eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth. The code rested on the authority of gods and it prescribed different kinds of

laws. To violate them meant to violate the divine order. Penalties varied on the social status. (nobles, commoners and slaves) so

people were not equal before the law. Slaves didnt have any rights The code provided

consumer protection lawscommercial lawslegal laws for the society

laws dealing with morality if a son has struck his father, his hand shall be cut off.


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The law code of Hammurabi, king of Babylonia from 1792 to 1750 BC, is recorded on this stele,which also bears a relief portrait of the king standing before Shamash, the god of justice. The stele

was found in Susa, Iran, in 1901. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)


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Writing, Mathematics and Astronomy

First schools of scribes in history in around 2500 BCEWriting for record keeping and teaching purposesDeveloped first textbooks and dictionariesClay tables in form of text-booksStudents employed after completion of the school as archivists, secretaries andaccountantsCuneiform (wedged shaped), about 3000 BCEMathematics

devised multiplication and division tables devised cubes and cube roots developed digit and place value of numbers determined the area of right-angle triangles and rectangles divided circle into 360 degrees geometry used to measure fields and erect buildings

Astronomy observations of the stars and planets devised the first lunar calendar based on the cycles of the moon 12 months mythical interpretation of universe

Others arch, dome, brick, wheel, chariots, money


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Pictograms evolved into the cuneiform system of writing, in which a sign refers to the name of an

object. This Sumerian tablet has been identified as a numerical list. (The Bettmann Archive)


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Cuneiform

ClayTablet3200 B.C.


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Egyptian Civilization


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IntroductionThe Fertile Valley of the Nile

Nile originates in Burundi and flows through Uganda, Sudan, Egypt andempties in the Mediterranean sea. It is around 6650 km long.

Herodotus called Egypt the gift of Nile Control of river included engineering and administrative skills Fertility, crops, transportation and communication Geographical position provided Egypt with protectionEgyptian history

Manetho , an Egyptian priest provided basic frame for the study ofEgyptian history More than 3000 thousand years of history 31 royal dynasties 6 major historical periods Menes or Narmer often called unifier of the Upper and Lower Egypt

unified Egypt in 3100 BCE and established the first dynasty Last Ptolemaic dynasty ended in 31 BCE


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Th E l D i P i d ( 3100 2700 BCE) (D i I II)


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The Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2700 BCE) (Dynasties I-II)

The earliest phase saw the formation of the Egyptian stateEgypt was divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Eg ypt

Before unification settlements along Nile took place. So settlement and Nilefacilitated foundation of the stateUnification was important. It was geographical and political unification .Even the royal double crown represented unification.Important developments that led to the foundation of the state

Kingship cultural regionalism disappeared social structure and hegemony of Egyptian culture/ self -identification administration at Memphis, which was strategically located for control of

both Upper and Lower Egypt establishment of trade and organized economy introduction of hieroglyphic writing

Th Old Ki d (2700 2200 BCE) (D i III VI )


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The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BCE) (Dynasties III-VI )The Old Kingdom lasted for about 500 hundred years. This periodsymbolizes peace, stability, no standing army and only internal interestBy the III dynasty Egyptian kings achieved full supremacy and ruled fromtheir capital at MemphisThe royal power was absolute. Rule through royal family and nobilityThe word pharaoh literally means great house The best symbol of the Old Kingdom were great pyramidsDuring the 4th dynasty main pyramids were built

The first pyramid was Zoser pyramid built by architect Imhoteph in around2600 BCEGiza Complex and the largest Khufu pyramid:

481 feet high 756 feet long on each side Built of 2.3 million stone block Each block 2.5 tones 100 thousand people spent 20 years building it

Pyramids symbolize

political and military authorityeconomic strengthreligious motives


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The earliest pyramidal structure of the ancient world, the Step Pyramid ( c.2630 BC) of King Zoser atSaqqara, Egypt, consists of six terraces of receding sizes with a mastaba (tomb) at its nucleus.

(Corbis/MIT Collection)


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A camel caravan passes the pyramids of Khufu (Cheops), Khafre, and Menkaureat Giza, Egypt, on the eastern edge of the Sahara. (Corbis/Jonathan Blair)


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The Great Sphinx is among the world's best known and most admired ancient treasures. Itsextraordinary monumentality attests to advanced engineering and construction methods whichcontinue to baffle contemporary scientists. The body (of a recumbent lion) and the head (of a divineking) of the Great Sphinx are carved from living rock. The outstretched paws are added masonry.The whole figure was originally covered with painted plaster, traces of which are still visible. (Deni

& Will McIntyre/AllStock/PNI)

The First Intermediate Period (c 2200 2000 BCE) (VII XI )


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The First Intermediate Period (c. 2200-2000 BCE) (VII-XI )

Causes: declining of royal power

growing provincial power of priests and nobles rise of independent rulers economic decline due to the construction of pyramids civil war dynasty ruled only part of Egypt


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The Second Intermediate Period (1800 1600 BCE): Hyksos Invasion


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The Second Intermediate Period (1800-1600 BCE): Hyksos Invasion(XIII-XVII)

A plot by Hyksos and Nubians to control entire Egypt. Nubians occupiedsouthern while Hyksos occupied northern part of Egypt. Supporters ofEgyptian royal family were in between.Dominated by Hyksos king shepherds invaders since around 1800 BCEDesert and geographical position could not save Egypt this timeThey were Semitic-speaking people and their origin was not certainEstablished rule, controlled trade links and had Egyptian governors.Introduced use of bronze and new warfare tactics . They were the first to usehorse chariot in the battle.The pharaohs Camose and Amose drove the Hyksos out of Egypt in 1575BCEEgyptians conquered the capital city of Hyksos Avaris

The New Kingdom Empire (c 1600-1200 BCE) and After


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The New Kingdom Empire (c. 1600 1200 BCE) and After King Thutmose III built powerful army and began extending EgyptianfrontiersConquests of Nubia, Palestine and Syria resulted in conflict with HittitesEmpire

Struggle between the two weakened bothAmarna Period (1346-1364 BCE):

religious struggle and priests challenged pharaoh Amenhotep IV resisted the priesthood of Amon and devoted himself to

Aton sun -disc His wife Nefertiti supported him in the foundation of new religion Changed his name to Akhenaten satisfies Aton and moved capital from

Thebes to place called Tell-el-Amarna, which means Horizon of theSun

God Aton universal and creator of the universe; [monotheism] Opposition to the worship of Aton and persecutions of Amon-Re

followers Economic decline, foreign invasions, and revolution. Tutankhamen restored the old religion and returned capital to ThebesRamses the Great , who ruled 67 years, was among the last powerfulEgyptian kings. He was also known as tomb builder and fought Hittites in the

battle of Kadesh

After 1200 BCE Egypt fall under control of Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians,Persians, Greeks and Romans


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Ramses II, the third king of the Egyptian 19th dynasty, is depicted in this stone sculpture. His 67-year

reign was a time of great prosperity and marked the height of Egyptian military power, culminating ina peace treaty (1283 BC) with the neighboring Hittites. (Scala/Art Resource, NY)


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The gold funerary mask of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (r.1361-52 BC) was among the

items that were discovered in his tomb by Egyptologist Howard Carter in 1922. Tutankhamenwas only nine years old when he succeeded to the throne. (Corbis/Charles & Josette Lenars)


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Religion: The Basis of Egyptian Civilization


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Religion: The Basis of Egyptian Civilization

Religion shaped political and social life of Egyptian society. It is illustrated ingreat pyramids, mummification and religious literatureReligious beliefs the basis for art, medicine, astronomy, literature..Deities worshiped by Egyptians numbered in thousandsBeliefs in animism, polytheism and monotheismSpirits could take forms of humans and animals and were present everywhereOver a time special deities emerged such as Horus, Amon, Re, Isis and Osiris.

Egyptians spend money and resources to please deities. That is why therewere many ceremonies and rituals.Immortality of the spirit and the quest of pharaohs for immortality.Valley of the kings in the West life goes from one shore to another Mummification and pyramids stone medium of immortality divine kingship+ the concept of maat [truth and justice]


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The Temple of Luxor , or Southern Sanctuary, at Luxor, Egypt, was begun by the 18th-dynasty kingAmenhotep III (r. 1417-1379 BC) and dedicated to Amon-Re, king of the gods. It was built of

sandstone from the quarries of Gebel Silsila. (Corbis/Vanni Archive)


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Osiris, god of the dead and the underworld, was one of the most important deities of ancient Egypt.

The Egyptians expected to be judged after death and to be presented before Osiris when foundinnocent. (Corbis/Rober Wood)
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In this image is a portion of the text of the Book of the Dead . Inthe representation, the deceaseds heart is being weighed underthe observation of the deities Isis, Osiris, and Nephthys. Alsopresent are Maat, Thoth, Hor, and Anubis. The creature kneelingbefore the shrine is a monster who will eat the heart if it fails to

pass inspection.

Contributions in Sciences
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Religious activity stimulated literary activityHieroglyphic writing in 3200 BCE found on stone and papyrus. This writingsinfluenced Phoenician alphabetArchitecture represented in tombs and pyramidsAstronomy

movements of the stars 365 day calendar, influenced Julius Caesar calendar

Mathematics

system of numbers 360 degrees of a circle Pi ratio

Medicine surgical techniques and drugs

accurate diagnosis human anatomy

Arts and architecture pyramids, tombs and temples


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From the end of the 4th millennium BC, hieroglyphics, which are pictorial symbols used in early

writing systems, were an integral part of Egyptian writing. These hieroglyphics were engraved on atemple wall in the ancient village of Karnak, in southern Egypt. (Corbis-Bettmann)


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As far as the science of Egyptology is concerned, the Rosetta Stone might well be the most importantrock ever found. Discovered in 1799 by French soldiers during Napoleon's occupation of Egypt, itcontains an inscription carved in both Egyptian and Greek. Since scholars could read the Greekversion, the Rosetta Stone served as a tool for deciphering the previously mysterious hieroglyphics.(Corbis-Bettmann)

Egyptian Civilization: Political, Economic and Social Life


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gyp

The key to Egyptian civilization was political systemPharaoh supreme power. He literally owned Egypt and peopleAdministrative system

Pharaoh Vezier or DPM was responsible directly to king. He managed all

departments Nomarch was royal official or governor Nomes were administrative units [22 in the Upper Egypt and 20 in the

Lower Egypt]Classes

Pharaoh, priests, nobility, the middle class [merchants and artisans],soldiers and slaves


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The Ancient Near East:Peoples and Empires

Introduction


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In about 1500 BCE emergence of international empires beyond the rivervalleys

Emergence of empires led to the extension of civilizationIndo-European migration one of the causes for the emergence of newempiresIndo-Europeans originated from wide regions ranging from South-easternEurope to the region beyond Caspian Sea or Southwest Asia [Iran,Afghanistan and former Russian Republics].Started migrations in about 2000 BCE , which brought them to Italy,Greece, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Persia and India.Family of Indo-European language include Greek, Latin, German, Slavic,Sanskrit

The Hebrews: "The Children of Israel [c. 1800 BCE]


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[ ]

Early History The Hebrews are Semitic-speaking people

They had a tradition concerning their origins and history Written down in Hebrew Bible known as Old Testament Descendants of Abraham who migrated from Mesopotamia to the land

of Palestine in about 1800 BCE Since then Hebrews were identified as "children of Israel"

This migration took place in around 1800 BCE Due to food shortage they migrated to Egypt in around 1600 BCE Enslavement, "Exodus" and Moses in about 1300 BCE Period of wandering and in 1220 BCE Jewish tribes entered Palestine Conflict with Philistines

United Kingdom (c. 1000 BCE)


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Power vacuum in the Near East Around 1000 BCE emergence of a monarchy under Saul, David and

Solomon

By the time of King Solomon (c. 971-973 BCE) controlled all Palestinewith Jerusalem as its capital

Under Solomon expansion and political, economic and militaryorganization of life

Solomons building projects

Solomon is best known for the construction of the Temple in the city ofJerusalem

Hebrews began viewing the Temple as the symbolic center of theirreligion and hence of the Hebrew kingdom.

The Divided Kingdom


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After Solomons death emergence of tensions between northern andsouthern Hebrew tribes

Kingdom of Israel [10 lost tribes]Samaria

Kingdom of Judah [2 tribes]Jerusalem

Assyrians emerged as power in the 9 th century and in 722 BCE theydestroyed Kingdom of Israel while Kingdom of Judah had to pay tribute

to the Assyrians. Then Neo-Babylonians conquered Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE and

destroyed the Temple. Babylonians deported many Hebrews to Babylon[Babylonian Captivity]

Persians destroyed the Neo-Babylonians in 536 BCE and allowedHebrews to return and rebuilt their temple.

The revived kingdom of Judah survived until the conquest of Alexanderthe Great in the 4 th century.


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The reading of the Torah is a fundamental part of Jewish liturgical services. The Torah, or firstfive books of the Bible, presents a system of moral and religious conduct and is revered as the

essence of divine revelation received by Moses on Mount Sinai. Here, a boy reads the Torah as part of his bar mitzvah ceremony. (Miro Vintoniv/Stock,


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This is Herod's Temple as reconstructed in a model of ancient Jerusalem by archaeologist Michael

Avi-Yonah. The actual temple, built by Herod the Great in the 1st century BC, was destroyed by theRomans in AD 70. (Archive Photos)

The Hittites Empire (ca. 1600-1200 BCE)


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In around 1600 BCE Hittites established empire in Asia MinorThe first Indo-European group to rise to the level of civilization

Remained virtually unknown until very recently, because 100 thousand tabletswere discovered dealing with Hittites historyIndo-Europeans originated from wide regions ranging from South-easternEurope to the region beyond Caspian Sea or Southwest Asia [Iran,Afghanistan and former Russian Republics].

They were in Asia Minor before 2000 BCEHittites were warlike peopleRuled Asia Minor, northern Syria, raided Babylon and challenged Egyptfor control of Syria and Palestine.

Mursilis I in 1595 BCE raided Babylon but returned backThey succeeded due to well-trained armyDeveloped iron industryBorrowed several features of Mesopotamian civilizationThe Hittite Empire declined in around 1200 BCE

The Assyrian Empire


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Emerged after fall of the Hittites in around 1200 BCEEstablished powerful states and extended civilizationSemitic-speaking peopleTheir homeland was northern Mesopotamia

Their capital Nineveh (modern Mosul, Iraq)The Assyrian military machine : army; pioneer corps; guerrilla warfare;siege; terror tactics; iron weapons; horse-drawn war chariots; belief that theirgods commanded them to conquerBy 700 BCE their empire included: Mesopotamia; parts of Iranianplateau; sections of Asia Minor; Syria; Palestine and Egypt down toThebesIn 612 BCE Assyrians defeated by a coalition of Medes and Neo-Babylonians. Capital city of Nineveh burned downTheir rule was successful due to the following:

King enjoyed absolute power [greatest king was Ashurbanipal]

Developed efficient communication system Developed effective military leaders and fighters Able to deploy troops ; Their army was between 100,000 and 200,00

strong. Army well-organized and disciplined. Used Iron weapons ; The Assyrian spearmen, archers, and cavalrymen

were equipped with weapons and armor of iron.


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Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 600 BCE)


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Leader Nebuchadnezzar II612 BCE destroyed Assyrians

Conquest of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple in 586 BCEDefeated by Persians in 536 BCEKnown for

Hanging Gardens [built for emperors wife] Ishtar the Gate of Babylon

Tower of Babylon Biblical accounts


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The Persian Empire or The Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-


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330 BCE) Aryan people were on Iranian plateau as early as in about 1100 BCEPersian empire developed from that of Medes, which became very strong inthe 6th century. It is also called The Achaemenid Empire In 612 BCE Medes and Neo-Babylonians defeated AssyriansIn around 560 BCE the Persian Cyrus defeated Medes

Cyrus the Great (559- 530 BCE) father of Persia Lydia and Greek city-states taken in 547 BCE

Mesopotamia taken in 539 BCE. Jews could return to Jerusalem; Cyrus showed mercy and tolerance Cyrus was:

Skilful organizer of empireProvided tolerance

Was favourable by priesthoodPermitted local people to be officialsHad a reputation for mercyCreated a "world empire"

Expanding the Empire Cambyses (530-522 BCE)


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y ( )Captures EgyptTitle of pharaoh, 525 BCE

Darius I (521-486 BCE)Codified Egyptian law; built a canal to link the Red Sea andMediterranean; build PersopolisPersian greatest extentAdded the number of territoriesRevolt in Asia Minor [499 BCE Ionian Revolt]In Battle of Marathon, in 490 BCE, Persians defeatedAlexander the Great in 330 BCE ended ancient Persian Empire

The Parthians (c. 240 BCE-220 CE) The Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE)Governing the Empire

Stable rule and tolerance ; Considered generosity and tolerance to bemore effective than terrorism and brutality. Captured Babylon without a

battle

Administrative ability (provinces). 20 satrapies with governors Royal road Sardis to Susa; a network of roads Monarchy/Persian king Uniform language/ Aramaic; empires basic language of commerce and

administration Economy; taxing; agriculture, irrigation; Taxes could be paid with official

coins [The gold daric & the silver shekel] Professional army and Postal service; a huge army of 300,000 men; Built


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The architectural remains and relief sculptures of Persepolis, the Persian city of the great kings of theAchaemenid Empire, are among the most impressive monuments of the ancient world. These are partof the ruins of the Apadana, the great, palatial audience hall. When the Apadana was built, stone was

used for the foundations, door casements, columns, and stairways. Walls of colorfully glazed brickfilled in and around to connect these elements.


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Darius I was the greatest of the Achaemenid kings. He ruled from 522 to 486 BC. He is seen here(seated) in a relief sculpture, along with his successor, Xerxes. Darius is famous as a lawgiver, and

many stories were told about his severity yet impartiality in administering the law. It appears that hestrove to standardize legal practices all over his vast empire. (The Bettmann Archive)

Persian Religion Zoroastrianism; it influenced Judaism Christianity and Islam


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Zoroastrianism; it influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Zoroastrianism was also similar to Vedic Aryan Religion Zarathustra/Zoroaster (628-551 BCE) was founder or prophet-reformer Zoroaster preached a message of moral reform during an age of

materialism, political opportunism and ethical indifference Holy Scripture of Zoroastrianism was Zend Avesta, which was written in

300 CE Concept of belief

Ahuramazda was god of goodness [wise god]

Ahriman was god of evil [spirit of evil]Struggle between good and evil

Addituional beliefsAfterlifeHell and heavenPunishmentFree will

Importance of water and fire as means for the purification and sacrifice

2. hist of civ mesopotamia, egypt and near east

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