2. approaches and methods in foreign language teaching_updated

8/14/2019 2. Approaches and Methods in Foreign Language Teaching_Updated

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Language, Language Learning &

Methodology

Le Van Canh

[email protected]


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Approach, Method, & Techniques

(Anthony 1963) An approach is a set of assumptions about

the nature of language, learning, and

teaching. Method is an overall plan forpresentation of language based on a chosen

approach. Techniques are specific

classroom activities in line with a method,and hence, in harmony with an approach


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Language Teaching Methodology

Language Teaching

Methodology

Theories of Language

and Learning

Instructional

Design Features

Observed

Teaching Practices

Objectives

Syllabus

Activities

Roles of Teachers

Roles of Learners

Materials


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Approaches, methods, procedures, and

techniques

Approach : this refers to theories about the nature of language andlanguage learning that serve as the source of practices and principles inlanguage teaching. It offers a model of language competence. Anapproach describes how people acquire their knowledge of thelanguage and makes statements about conditions which will promote

successful language learning.

Method : a method is the practical realization of an approach.Methods include various procedures and techniques as part of theirstandard fare.

Procedure : a procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques. Aprocedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such asfirstyou do this, then you do that Smaller than a methodand bigger thantechnique.


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Technique :a common technique when using video

material is called silent viewing. This is where the

teacher plays the video with no sound. Silent viewing is a

single activity rather than a sequence, and as such is a

technique rather than a whole procedure.

A term that is also used in discussions about teaching is

modelused to describe typical procedures, usually for

teachers in training. Such models offer abstractions of

these procedures, designed to guide teaching practice.


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Elements and Subelements of Method

Approach

Assumptions and beliefsabout language teaching andlearning

Design Objectives

Syllabus

Activities

Roles of Teachers

Roles of Learners Materials

Procedure

Implementational Phase

A method is theoreticallyrelated to an approach,is organizationally

determined by a design,and is practicallyrealized in procedure


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Second Language Learning: A

Sociocultural View

Input is sociallyconstructed

Motivation issocially determined

Co-construction is asocial phenomenon

Language is used

for social purposes

Intake: the process of

intemalising what has

been socially input

input

Negotiation

and co-

construction

of meaning

Intakeviacognitivelearningstrategies

motivation

Practice

> Output

> Use


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Biological/Genetic factors

(including intelligence)

Environmental- especially

sociocultural - factors

(including instruction)

LEARNING

Vygotsky attempted to reconcile alternative views

of the source of learning into a synthetic theory

Developmental factors -(cognitive, affective etc.)


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core knowledge gives ability to

perform autonomous actions

zone ofproximal

development action requires help from

colleagues or tutors

Zone of Proximal Development


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POTENTIAL LEVEL

ACTUAL LEVEL

INSTRUCTION

LE

A

R

N

I

N

G

ZPD


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Scaffolding

Designing activities which break down thelearning task into manageable stages;

Designing activities that build on previousactivities;

Helping learners see how the knowledge theyalready have is useful for making sense of the

new knowledge. Deciding when learners are ready to move on

to the next stage.


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What is Teaching?

Teaching is, fundamentally, aboutworking with peopleand about

remaining alive to the many differentthings that go on when people hack theirown path through the jungle towards newlearning.

Scrivener, J. 1994. Learning Teaching: A

Guidebook for English Language Teachers. MacmillanHeinemann


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WHAT IS TEACHING?

TECHNIQUES

CRAFT

ART


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An Effective Teacher

Understands learners language needs and responds tothem positively;

Designs lessons which reflect the learners needs and

develop their communicative skills; Monitors and corrects sensitively

Provides feedback and encouragement whenappropriate;

Tells learners not to worry about making mistakes

Encourages good learning habits inside and outside theclassroom;

Keeps track of progress, gaps in learners ability, andrepeated errors;

Creates an input-rich environment in the classroom


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Teachers as Applied Linguists

(Widdowson, 2003, p.3)

An applied linguist is a mediating agentwhose role is to make (linguistic) insightsintelligible in ways in which theirusefulness can be demonstrated.

Teachers acquire expertise by reflectingon their own practice, and that of others.

To reflect on practice in this way is totheoriseabout itto abstract and makeexplicit the principles that inform certainways of doing things.


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Introduction: Accuracy and Fluency

Language teachers need to keep a balance betweenaccuracy and fluency.

Accuracystudents know and can produce

correct forms of languagelinguistic competence Fluencystudents produce language with ease

communicative competence

Over the years, and in different contexts, the

emphasis has changed. In this session, we will take a broad overview of

approaches and methods in foreign languageteaching


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Overview: Approaches and methods

Grammar Translation

The Direct Method

The Audiolingual Method The Natural Approach

Communicative Language Teaching

Competences

Roles of teacher and learner

Activities and channels

Strong and weak versions of CLT


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Grammar Translation

Aim: The conceptualunderstanding of grammatical

constructions (forms) and the acquisition of vocabulary;

awareness and appreciation of the cultural values of the

target language

Procedure: The teacher explains grammar rules (in the

students first language); students mentally process the

grammar, translate paradigm sentences and texts, and

memorise vocabulary lists No attention ispaid to speaking and listening skills

No student-student interaction.


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The Direct Method

see Titone, R. (1968) Teaching foreign languages

Aim: The understanding of meaning through systematicoralskills-training and the exclusive use of the targetlanguage

Procedure: Teacher carefully uses demonstration, picturesand realia to teach everyday vocabulary in sentences;learners develop listening and speaking skills through acarefully graded progression of question-and-answerexchanges in small, intensive groups

The emphasis is on correct pronunciation and grammar(taught inductively), and immediate correction of mistakes.

Never translate or explain.


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The Audiolingual Method

Mackey, W.F. (1965)Language teaching analysis

Aim: The control of language structures, the learning ofvocabulary and the understanding of literal meaningthrough conditioning and habit-formation

Procedure: Teacher models target structures, conductsdrills and other controlled practice, reinforces correctbehaviour and eliminates errors. Learners listen, repeat,memorise, reproduce

Grammar taught inductivelyafter learners have practiseda pattern in a variety of linguistic contexts

Reading and writing skills are developed only after oralfoundation

No student-student interaction.


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Information

SourceTransmitter

Message

Sent

Signal

Sent

Non-observable processes

Signal

Received

Receiver

Message

Received

Destination

Transmission Model of Communication


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Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)see Brown, H.D. (2001)Principles of language learning and teaching

The CAH argues that the main problem in learninga second language is interference from the firstlanguage (negative transfer)

Strong version of the CAH: Difficulties can bepredicted by contrasting the two languages

Weak version of the CAH: L1 interference maysuggest difficulties

The CAH greatly influences syllabus design,teaching materials and teaching methodology inGrammar-Translation, the Direct Method, and theAudiolingual Method.


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Focus on meaning

In the late 1960s, there was a shift from a focus on form(grammar) to a focus on meaning, because of:

Grammar-Translation and the Audiolingual Method didnot seem to work

acceptance of ChomskysLanguage Acquisition Device

awareness of communicative competence(Hymes, 1967)

new understanding of discourse analysis- language

patterns above the sentence level awareness of adult learners (communicative) needs

irrelevance of the CAH to multilingual classes


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Krashens 5 hypothesesKrashen, S.D. (1985) The input hypothesis

Natural Order Hypothesis

The rules of language are acquired in a predictable order

Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis

adults have two distinct ways of developing competence insecond languages

Acquisition: by using language for real communication;acquisition is unconscious

learning .. knowing about language: learning isconscious


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Krashens 5 hypothesesKrashen, S.D. (1985) The input hypothesis

Monitor Hypothesis conscious learning can only be used as a Monitor or an

editor

Input Hypothesis humans acquire language in only one way - by

understanding messages or by receiving "comprehensibleinput"

(i+ 1)

Affective Filter Hypothesis a mental block, caused by affective factors that prevents

input from reaching the language acquisition device


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The Natural Approach

Krashen, S.D.& Terrell, T.D. (1983) The Natural Approach

Aim: A first or second language is naturally acquiredbyunderstanding the content of meaningful messages; consciousattention to grammar prevents acquisition

Procedure: Teacher provides comprehensible input (i+1) anda stress-free learning environment; learners process the input,acquire the ability to understand meaningful messages, andspeak when they are ready

If input is comprehensible, and the learners are free fromanxiety, language acquisition is inevitable (Krashen, 1985)

Interaction? - In theory, there is no need for languagelearners to actually speak (Krashen & Terrell, 1983).


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Information Processing Model

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

retrieve

(activate memory)

learn

(save)

Perception

Executive Control Processes

Permanent

Storage

Work Space-

Temporary Storage


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A communicative view of language

(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 161)

1. Language is a system for the expression ofmeaning

2. The primary function of language is to allowinteraction and communication

3.The structure of language reflects its functionaland communicative uses

4. The primary units of language are not merely itsgrammatical and structural features, but categoriesof functional and communicative meaning asexemplified in discourse


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Johnson & Johnson (1998)Encyclopedia of language teaching

Aim: The acquisition of communicative competence viathe understanding and meaningful useof notions andfunctions: notionthe topic of interaction (eg people, objects, places, time)

functionwhat is done with the language (eg, inform, ask, invite)

Procedure: Teacher facilitates communication activitiesamong the learners by managing the environment,

providing input and resources, and acting as a co-communicator

Interaction: Students learn to communicate by negotiatingmeaning and conveying authentic messages to eachother.


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Communicative competence

What is it?


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Approaches and methods

Any questions?

Any comments?


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Competence and performance

Linguistic competence

Communicative competence

A communicative view of language

Discourse competence

Pragmatic competence

Strategic competence

Intercultural competence


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Competence and performance

Competence is what you know

Performance is what you do with that

knowledge


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The Iceberg Theory

performance

Compet-

ence


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Linguistic competence(Chomsky, 1965, p.4)

The speaker-hearers knowledge of hislanguage.

For Chomsky, competence is an idealisationthe

ideal speaker-listener operating within acompletely homogenous speech community.

A record of natural speech will show numerousfalse starts, deviations from rules. Changes of plan

in mid-course, and so on Performance represents an incomplete anddegenerate reflection of competenceof littlerelevance to the theoretical and descriptivelinguist.


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Linguists Theoretical

formulate theories to explain language

Descriptive

describe a language

Psycholinguists explain how an individual uses language

Sociolinguists

describe how language is used in society

Applied linguists

use insights from linguistics to solve practical problems


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Communicative competence(Hymes, 1970)

1. Whether (and to what degree) something is formallypossible.

Does the grammar of the language allow it?

2. Whether (and to what degree) something isfeasibleinvirtue of the means of implementation available.

Can the individual do it?

3.Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriatein relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated.

Is it socially acceptable? 4. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done.

Is the thing actuallyperformed?


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Communicative competence(Canale & Swain, 1980; Bachman, 1991)

Grammatical competence

knowledge of the grammar/ rules of the language

Sociolinguistic competence

knowing how to use and respond appropriately


knowing how to begin, continue and endcommunication


knowledge and use of communicative strategies thatcan compensate for weakness in other areas


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Features of a communicative event

Notion

the topic of the interaction

Function what the language user wants the language do to

Setting

Where and when the event takes place

Roles Who are the interlocutors (and others)

Medium and register

Speech or writingdegree of formality


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Pragmatic competence

The use of language in communication

which topics can be communicated?

to whom?

starting, sustaining and terminating topics

turn taking / Interrupting

Politeness, hesitaton, deference

etc


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The effective language user employsstrategies

Cognitiveto process input

Affective

to regulate emotions, raise motivation, etc Communicative

to use the language


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Intercultural Competence (IC)Byram (1997)

IC comprises a set of attributes necessary tounderstand another language and culture:

Knowledge of otherness

Attitudes of curiositySkills of interpreting

Skill of discovery/interaction

Critical cultural awareness / critical activity

Learners need to construct and see the worldthrough culturally different eyes (Lantolf, 1999,

p.29).


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Competences

Any questions?

Any comments?


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What is it?


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CLT principles

The role of the communicative teacher

The role of the communicative learner

Communicative activities

Communicative channels

Second language learning

Varieties of CLT


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(Richards & Schmidt, 2001, p. 90)

An approach to foreign or second language

teaching which emphasises that the goal oflanguage learning is communicativecompetence and which seeks to makemeaningful communication and language

use a focus of all classroom activities Developed in the 1970s and 80s as a

reaction to grammar-based approaches


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CLT: principles

1. Learners learn a language through using it tocommunicate

Authentic and meaningful communication shouldbe the goal of classroom activities

3. Fluency and accuracy are both important inlanguage learning

4. Communication involves the integration ofdifferent language skills

5. Learning is a process of creative constructionand involves trial and error


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The role of the CL teacherBreen & Candlin, 1980, p.99)

Two main roles

a) to facilitate the communication process between allclassroom participants

b) to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group Secondary roles: organiser of resources, as a resource, a guide

within the classroom procedures and activities

A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner,with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge

and abilities and organisational capacities. Other roles (suggested by Richards & Rodgers, 2001, pp

167-1687) are needs analyst, counsellor and group processmanager.


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The role of the communicative learner

The role of the learner as negotiator between the self,the learning process, and the object of learningemergesfrom and interacts with the role of joint negotiator withinthe group and within the classroom procedures and

activities which the group undertakes. The implication forthe learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains,and thereby learn in an independent way (Breen &Candlin, 1980, p. 110)

Students are expected to interact primarily with each

other, rather than with the teacher, and correction of errorsmay be absent or infrequent. The cooperative (rather thanindividualistic) approach to learning stressed in CLT maylikewise be unfamiliar to learners( Richards & Rodgers,2001, p. 166).


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Communicative activities(Littlewood,1981)

functional communication activities Same/different picture sets

Sequence of events in a picture set

Describe and draw Problem solving from shared clues

social interaction activities

Conversation and discussion sessions Role play and simulations

Improvisations

Debates


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Communicative channels

SpokenTransactions

Interactions

Face to faceface to zeroface to cameraTo one interlocutoror a few, or many?

Written

HandwrittenWord-processed

Online

Texted


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Any questions?

Any comments?


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What about teaching grammar?


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CLTstrong and weak

Strong

Content Based Language Teaching (CBLT)

Task Based Learning and Teaching (TBLT) Weak

Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP)

Consciousness-Raising (C-R)

Focus on Form (FonF)

Getting the balance right


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Task-Based Learning and TeachingBygate, Skehan & Swain (2000) Task-based learning

Language is best learnt by meaningful and communicativeinteraction between learners engaged in purposeful tasks.

Tasks provide both the input and output processingand themotivation - needed for language acquisition

Tasks are the central unit in programme planning; they maybe real world or pedagogical

Tasks are sequenced according to difficulty Task difficulty depends on: the learners previous experience,

the complexity of the task, the language required to do thetask, the degree of support available.


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CLT: strong and weakHowatt, A. (1984)A history of English language teaching

A strong form of CLT argues that attention to forms(grammar) is unnecessary.

Learners acquire an implicit understanding of grammar byusingthe language

Thus language learning methods and authenticmaterials focus entirely on meaning

Content-based Instruction

and Task Based Learning and Teaching

Are both strong forms of CLT


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Content-Based InstructionBrinton & Master (1997)New ways in CBI

Second language learning is successful when language is usedas a means to acquire relevant information rather than asan end in itself.

CBI reflects learners SLL needs, and builds upon theirprevious experience

Authentic language is text- and discourse- based

Thematic content (eg curriculum, occupational) is theorganising principle of CBI

CBI draws on integrated language skills and(collaborative) learning strategies.


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Content-Based Instruction

Task Based Language Teaching

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Task Based

Language Teaching (TBLT) are both strong forms

of CLTbecause there is no explicit focus on

grammar.

CBI uses the language to teach content.

TBLT uses content to teach the language.


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Explicit grammar back in focus

There is general agreement that language learning shouldhave a primary focus on meaning within an overallcommunicative framework

Most teachers appreciate the need for attention to grammaras well as fluency in their language classrooms.

This is backed up by some research - for example:

Learners can apply their knowledge of L1 rules forcognitive processing of L2 (McLaughlin 1987)

Grammar is teachable when the learner is ready(Pienemann 1985)

Error correction can be beneficial (Lyster & Ranta 1997)


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CLT: strong and weakHowatt, A. (1984)A history of English language teaching

A weak form of CLT argues that an explicit

focus on form has an importantbut not primary

role to play on second language learning

Thus learning materials incorporate grammatical

syllabuses along with notional-functional syllabuses,

and methods pay some attention to explicit instruction

PPP, Consciousness-Raising, and FonF are all possible

ways of teaching grammar in weak forms of CLT.


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Explicit grammar instruction - PPP(Gower et al, 1995, Teaching practice handbook, 126-162)

The structure of the day approach (Krashen, 1982), mostobviously exemplified by the PPP modelPresentation,Practice, Production

The teacher plans a series of lessons around specificgrammar points in order to a) promote an explicit understanding of grammar by a

variety of meanseg demonstration, examples,explanation, L1/L2 contrast

b) provide written & oral exercises to practise the targetform

c) allow frequent opportunities for the (communicative)use of the target form to promote automatic andaccurate use.


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Consciousness-raising(Rutherford 1987; Ellis 1992)

C-R is intended to arouse the learners explicit

consciousness of form, and how it is related to meaning

Learners

listen to or read input textbasic comprehension

notice the formeg by underlining examples in the text

match form to functionwhat does the item mean?

generate hypotheses or formulate rules test hypotheses by reference to other examples

compare the form in other contexts (and L2 with L1)


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Focus on form (FonF)Doughty & Williams (1998)

FonF assumes an indirect, context-based focus on

grammar, rather than overt, teacher-led instruction (Fotos,

1998:302)

a) classroom activity is based on communicative tasks b) grammatical issues should arise from difficulties in

communication identified by learners and/or teacher

c) remedial treatment is done by transitory corrective feedback

d) when more extended grammar treatment is needed, this should

be based on grammar problem-solving tasks

FonF appears to be consistent with current SLA theories;

however, it has not been applied in many contexts


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Focus on form - implications

The teacher is able to identify formal errors by learners (insmall classrooms)

The teacher is able to provide spontaneous (and accurate)treatment of deviant target forms

Learners are able to take up this transitory treatment andnotice the target structure in subsequent communicativeinput

Learners can reinforce uptake of target formsusing them

frequently in the classroom, and also in everyday life The assumption that learners can access real life

communication is reasonable for ESL contexts, but invalidfor most EFL classrooms (Fotos, 1998: 303)


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Issues in grammar teaching(Ellis, 2006 in TESOL Quarterly, 40,1, 83-108)

1. Should we teach grammar?

2. What grammar should we teach?

3. When should we teach grammar?

4. Should grammar instruction be intensive or extensive?5. Is there any value in teaching explicit grammatical

knowledge?

6. Is there a best way to teach implicit grammatical

knowledge?7. Should grammar be taught in separate lessons or

integrated into communicative activities?


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Getting the balance right

Language teachers need to decide an appropriate balance

between focus on form and focus on meaning

The focus depends almost entirely on the teaching context

Where? EFL or ESL; private or public sector

What? The purpose and aims of the language programme

Why? The needs and resources of the learners

Who? Children or adults; homogenous or heterogenous

When? Beginner, elementary, intermediate, advanced How? Internal and external opportunities for, and constraints

to, effective teaching


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References

Anthony, E. M. (1963). Approach, method, and technique.English LanguageTeaching, 17(2), 63-67

Bachman, L. (1991).Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford:Oxford University Press.

Breen, M & Candlin, C.N. (1980) The essentials of a communicative curriculum

in language teaching.Applied Linguistics, 1,2, 89-112.Canale M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches

to second language teaching and testing.Applied Linguistics, 1,1, 1-47.

Chomsky. N. (1965)Aspects of the theory of syntax. Harvard, MIT Press.

Howatt, A. (1984).A history of English language teaching.Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Hymes, D. (1970). On communicative competence. In Gumperz & Hymes, (Eds).Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative language teaching.Cambridge UK:

Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T. (2001).Approaches and methods in languageteaching.Cambridge, England. Cambridge University Press


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Discussion points

Whose model of communicative competence?

What variety of CLT to adopt?

Which aspects of communication to teach?

How communicatively competent is the teacher? How pedagogically competent is the teacher?

How can students use their communicative competence?

What is the target degree of the learners communicative

competence? How to assess? What systemic constraints exist for effective CLT? - eg

refer to Tudor (1996) or Richards (1998)

i i f


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Varieties of CLTRichards & Rodgers (2001)

Content-Based Instruction:using the target language as a means to understand the contentof curriculum subjects, such as Science or Social Studies

Task-Based Learning:

the learners (jointly) undertake non-linguistic problem-solvingtasks using the target language

The Lexical Approach:

the syllabus is based on the learning and analysis ofvocabulary, especially collocations.

Competency-Based Language Teaching:the achievement of criteria-referenced behavioural (usually

job-related) objectives

Cooperative language learning:

focuses on the interactive process of negotiating meaning,

rather than on the linguistic product.


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FonFa myth in the making?Sheen,R. (2003)ELT Journal 57(3)

The FonfS/FonF dichotomy proposed by Long is not based

on rigorous and reliable long-term empirical evidence

Such evidence is necessary because our knowledge of

classroom SLL is still very limited Unless the evidence is forthcoming, the pedagogical

effectiveness of FonF will remain hypothetical (mythical)

Sheen criticizes reports of FonF research (eg by

Lightbown, 2000; Long, 2000; Ellis et al.,2001) as less-than-complete and sometimes misleading

He adds that there is a tendency on the part of FonF

advocates to ignore the claims of FonfSdespite the

widespread classroom practice.


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Competency-Based TeachingAuerbach, E.R. (1986) Competency based ESL

SL learners need to function successfully in society

CBLT focuses on the mastery of concrete life and workskills needed by the learners

The emphasis is on task performance, not knowledge

Pre-specified outcomes are agreed by learners and teacher

Instruction is modularised : objectives and subobjectivesprovide a clear sense of progress

Assessment of explicit behaviours is continuous and

ongoing: pre-test, treatment, post-test retest Competencies can be mastered one at a time, according to

students needs and resources

Programmes are evaluated by (quantifiable) test results


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Cooperative language learningMcGroarty, M. (1989)NABE Journal 13 (2)

CLL is designed to foster cooperation, develop critical

thinking skills, and develop communicative competence

through socially structured interaction activities

Frequent SL practice through different types of interaction

Integrate language with content-based instruction

Curricular materials used to stimulate conceptual as well as

language learning

Students act as resources for each other, thus taking a more

responsible role in their own and each others learning


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The Lexical ApproachLewis, M. (1997)Implementing the lexical approach

Prefabricated lexical chunks form a high proportion ofeveryday language. Thus meaningful SLL should be basedon lexical rather than syntactical principles

Language input is via texts and/or concordance databases Learners analyse how vocabulary interacts and collocates

Noticing lexical similarities, differences, restrictions andexamples helps turn input into intake

Encounteringand using - new learning items on repeatedoccasions is necessary to convert intake into output

Acquisition is based on learners generalisations from theaccumulation of examples rather than explication of rules


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Learning to teach

No matter how sound the research on

which new ideas, materials and

techniques are based, pedagogicalinnovations must be implemented and

adapted according to local conditions, the

strengths of individual teachers and

students, the available resources, the age

of the learner, and the time available for

teaching (Lightbown 2000 p 454)

2. approaches and methods in foreign language teaching_updated

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