Tourism’s interface with the environment and climate change in SADC

Presented at the

Trade Research Forum Theme:

“African Trade under Climate Change and the Green Economy”

7 – 8 August 2012

Arusha, Tanzania

Dr Albert Makochekanwaalmac772002@yahoo.co.uk

The views contained within do not necessarily represent those of trapca or its partners.

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Table of Contents1 Introduction........................................................................................................................32 Models of tourism as a system...........................................................................................53 Negative impacts of tourism on environment and climate change....................................7

3.1 Tourism’s pollution impacts........................................................................................83.2 Tourism’s physical damage impacts...........................................................................93.3 Other impacts.............................................................................................................10

4 Measures to mitigate negative impacts of tourism...........................................................114.1 Sectoral actions..........................................................................................................114.2 Contribution of tourism sector towards mitigation...................................................15

4.2.1 Financial contributions.......................................................................................154.2.2 Improved environmental management and planning.........................................154.2.3 Environmental sensitization...............................................................................154.2.4 Protection and preservation................................................................................164.2.5 Alternative employment.....................................................................................164.2.6 Regulatory measures..........................................................................................17

5 Conclusion and policy recommendations........................................................................17References................................................................................................................................18

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1 Introduction

Tourism is one of the world’s largest, fastest growing and most climate-dependent economic sectors. Organizations and scholars such as the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2002); the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP, 2003) and Hall (2007) among others argue that, tourism, if sustainably developed, that is with a responsible, pro-poor and equitable approach, can result in significant poverty reduction. This implies that tourism can yield high levels of employment and income for the poor, especially in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) where biodiversity and indigenous cultures are still intact. Additionally, the sector has the ability to bring relatively powerful consumers to southern African countries, an important market potential for local entrepreneurs and an engine for local sustainable economic development. Recent studies suggest that the tourism industry has a higher multiplier and positive spillover effect than other economic sectors, with one job directly created for every additional 3.5 tourist, and a further 0.8 indirectly created in support sectors (SASEC/ADB 2008).

Whilst tourism has often been seen narrowly as a profitable private sector undertaking for a long time, many governments the world over have started accepting it as a ‘serious’ contender for contributing to development. Its assemblage of backward and forward linkages into all other areas of economic activity, into society and culture, agriculture and manufacturing industry, and the environment and into government, are often ignored (Ashley, et al, 2001). Thus, once tourism is understood as a complex system, its capacity to work as a positive tool for development and poverty reduction is enhanced. In this context, when tourism is understood as a system, one can therefore challenge the widely held criticism of tourism as a service sector which ‘does not produce anything’. Box 1 provides a brief illustration, adapted from Sofield and Mactaggart (2005), of the multiplicity of forward and backward linkages on the Cambodian economy, demonstrates the fact that tourism ‘produces products’.

Box 1: Illustration of tourism derived production1.5 million tourists visiting Cambodia every year for an average of six days is the equivalent of Cambodia having to produce additional food for almost 25,000 more permanent residents for 365 days for each of those tourists – approximately 22,500,000 eggs (at 2.5 eggs each per day), 4,500,000 chickens (at half a chicken each per day), 9 million fish, 2,250,000 kgs of potatoes for French fries (at a quarter of a kilo each per person per day), 2.25 million kgs of rice (at 250gms each per day) and if they eat only five prawns per day somebody has to produce 45 million prawns! At one bottle of beer each and one coca cola each per day, 18 million beverages will be consumed. Add in electricity consumption and light bulbs; furniture to sit on and sleep on; soap for showers and laundry; bed linen, table linen, curtains, and lounge fabrics; pots and pans, cups and plates and knives and forks; flowers and pot plants; toilet paper and tissues; insect spray; etcetera and etcetera, and the myth of tourism being ‘just a service industry that doesn’t produce anything’ is completely exploded. Source: Sofield and Mactaggart (2005:8)

In SADC, tourism has been one of the sectors which have contributed immensely in terms of economic growth and employment in some countries. Global estimates show that tourism has the potential to contribute on average around 12% to a country’s GDP. Table 1 provides a snapshot of tourism’s contribution to SADC member states’ national economies as measured by contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) and the contribution in most countries is

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relatively low, though it has potential. Seychelles and Mauritius are the two countries where tourism is contributing well above the global average showing the sector’s importance to the economies of these countries. In the former country, tourism contributes as much as 24% towards GDP, while in the latter country it contributes 13%. With regards to employment contribution, 25% of all formally employed people in Seychelles work in the tourism sector, while 12.5% of formally employed Mauritians are in this sector. These same two countries receives sizeable amounts of foreign currency from tourism exports, accounting for 36% of total export earnings in Mauritius and 33% in Seychelles. Significant contributions are also observed in Madagascar, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Overall, Table 1 shows that tourism is an important sector to the SADC region as it has the potential to contribute to the economies of these countries in various ways.

Table 1: SADC tourism’s contribution 2012Country % of GDP % of whole

employmentReceipts as a %

of ExportsCapital investment as

% of GDPAngola 1.4 1.2 1.4 2.3Botswana 1.5 3.3 15.2 6.2DRC 2.1 1.7 0.2 3.3Lesotho 7 5.9 2.5 9.1Madagascar 6 4.7 25.2 16Malawi 2.9 2.4 2.6 1.3Mauritius 13 12.5 36 6.8Mozambique 2.9 2.5 8.3 5.9Namibia 4.5 7 10 11Seychelles 24 25 33 37South Africa 2.78 4.15 8.5 7.5Swaziland 1.8 1.55 1.6 5.2Tanzania 5 4.2 20 10.5Zambia 2.3 1.4 1.9 1.8Zimbabwe 5.8 4 9 6SADC 2.91 2.88 7.5 6.9

Source: Author compilation from www.wttc.org online database

Although tourism offers potential benefits especially to host countries and destinations as well as stakeholders who participate in this sector’s value chain, the sector is posing negative impacts on the environment and/or climate change, and itself is also affected by climate change. In fact available evidence suggests that the relationship between tourism and the environment and/or climate change is bi–directional, with tourism affecting the environment and/or climate change, and the environment and/or climate change affecting tourism. According to UNWTO (2007), the tourism sector accounts for an estimated 5% of anthropogenic carbon gases (CO2) emissions globally. However, scholars such as Scott et al (2010) argues that tourism’s overall contribution to climate change, if measured as radiative forcing of all greenhouse gases (GHG), is in the order of 5.2% to 12.5%2. Of the 5% (UNWTO 2007 estimates) aviation accounts for 40% of tourism’s CO2 emissions, car transport for 32% and accommodation for 21%. The remaining 7% arises from activities for tourists (4%) and other forms of transport (3%), including in particular cruise ships (Table 2).

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Table 2: Distribution of emissions from tourism by sub-sectorSub – sectors 2005

CO2 (Mt) PercentageAir transport 515 40%Car transport 420 32%Other transport 45 3%Accommodation 275 21%Activities 48 4%TOTAL 1,304 100%Total World (IPCC 2007b) 26,400Tourism contribution 5%Source: UNEP and UNWTO (2007).

The evidence presented in Table 2 suggests that the tourism sector has a key role to play in confronting the challenges of climate change. At the same time, there is now a clear understanding that the industry can be part of the solution to climate change, by reducing its GHG emissions as well as by helping the communities where tourism represents a major economic source to prepare for and adapt to the changing climate (Amelung et al, 2007).

The interactions between tourism and the environment and/or climate change are not only bi–directional, but also complex. As Simpson et al (2008) puts it, “…the interactions resemble those “complication watches” that are so cherished by fortunate aficionados; they constitute a complex web of relationships, consisting as they do, like climate change itself, of phenomena that are part natural, and also partly the result of human behaviours”. The present study is interested in the impact of tourism on climate change or environment and not the reverse. Thus, given the bi-directional negative effect between tourism and climate change, this study posits that, all countries, and especially those in the southern Africa region should eliminate the negative impacts of tourism on climate change before climate change negatively eliminate tourism in SADC countries.

Whilst there are scattered figures with little scholastic research which indicates the impacts of tourism on economic activities in the SADC, analysis of the impact of the activities from the tourism sector on both climate change and the environment at regional level is still scanty, if not non-existence. As such, this study intends to close this gap and provide more evidence of the impact of tourism activities on climate change and environment. This study investigates the extent to which tourism affect the environment and/or climate change and how best the sector can be developed to ensure that it will have minimum impact on the environment (or climate change). Specific aims of the study are to (i) investigate the extent to which tourism negatively affect climate change and/or environment, and (ii) analyses and suggest possible actions which the stakeholders in the tourism sector can implement so as to minimize the sector’s negative effects on climate change.

2 Models of tourism as a system

In an effort to demarcate the various possible roles for each of the stakeholders in the tourism sector when it comes to implementation of mitigation measures, it is important at this juncture to note that tourism should be considered as a system. This implies that tourism needs to be understood not in the narrow sense of an industry or even a conglomerate of different business sectors but as a system. This system is integrated not only into the private

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sector as businesses but as a service industry linked with most other sectors of the economy; including the community at both the broad and local levels; government through policy, planning, infrastructure (e.g. transport and communications) and regulatory requirements; with the biophysical environment which in many countries is a major resource for tourism; and the international arena. It is necessary to explore tourism’s multiplicity of backward and forward linkages that extend from the highly localized to the wider milieu embracing regional, national and international levels, in areas such as the economic, the social, the cultural, the political/ governmental, and the environmental. As Gunn and Var (2002, p.34) note: “Every part of tourism is related to every other part”, adding that often some of the parts are invisible to others within the system.

Sofield and Mactaggart (2005) argue that “Tourism is in effect thousands of individual components with a huge range of relationships that differ both quantitatively and qualitatively and each individual component affects others in direct and indirect ways”. Thus, defining a sustainable tourism development approach should be done taking into accounting at least the following seven structural components constituting the tourism system. Table 3 presents the various stakeholders involved in the tourism sector.

Table 3: A Synthesis of models of tourism as a systemComponent Main characteristics

1 Visitor generating region (Demand)

The population of a visitor generating region will possess two key characteristics: (i) income levels high enough to allow for discretionary expenditure on non-essential items such as travel; and (ii) a propensity for recreational travel as an acceptable, desired form of behaviour.

2 Transit (Supply)

The transit region supports these modes of travel by a host of transport-specific facilities such as airports, railway stations, road networks, ports, passenger terminals, fuel depots, engineering and repair facilities, and with a range of ancillary services and facilities such as restaurants, banks, accommodation, communications, retail shops, duty free outlets, bookshops, and bars. Johannesburg Airport exemplifies the transit region with its complex system of facilities and services that extend well beyond simply refuelling aircraft.

3 Destination (Supply)

The “Frontline Industries Sector” (Pearce, Morrison & Rutledge, 1998) consists of those businesses that operate directly with visitors. These are categorized into five ‘A’ as follows:

Accommodation - hotels, motels, resorts, backpacker hostels, B&B, caravan parks, etc.

Amenities - restaurants, sports facilities, theatres, casinos, etc. Attractions - natural and cultural, cities, landscapes, theme parks,

museums, events and festivals, etc. Access - travel agencies, tour operators, coaches, taxis, hire cars, cable

cars, etc. Activities - tour operators, ski fields business companies, yacht charters,

bicycle hire, kayaking adventure companies, abseiling, trekking companies, etc.

4 Support services sector

This sector brings into the system the thousands of ‘invisible’ operations that provide goods and services to those operations that interface directly with travellers, but do not deal directly with visitors themselves. The frontline operators depend on inputs from a very wide range of suppliers of goods and services. Examples of support services includes: banks, insurance, fuel depots, suitcases manufacturers, etc

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5 Government sector

Governments play a crucial part in the tourism system through a range of functions that include: regulatory controls; provision of national services for visitation; infrastructure; ownership of major resources; national issues and interests, etc

6 Environment (bio-geo-physical region)

The environment includes air, land and water. Landscape features constitute major tourist attractions in their own right, and also provide the habitats and ecosystems for the living marine and terrestrial organisms which underpin other attractions. Degradation of the natural environment constitutes one of the gravest risks to sustainability in tourism; a fact acknowledged by the tourism industry which has, in the last decade in particular, begun to take increasing responsibility for ensuring that its activities have minimal environmental impacts.

7 Community Communities are considered as the ‘hosts’ in tourism’s binary division of residents and visitors. In the context of tourism issues of concern will be social effects and impacts, cultural effects and impacts, community infrastructure, cultural landscapes, and identity of community place and space. Community-based culture is often a ‘product’ or ‘commodity’ for consumption by visitors, and socio-cultural impacts of tourism may create major problems for communities.

Source: Author compilation

3 Negative impacts of tourism on environment and climate change

Potential negative impacts from tourism on the environment and climate change occur when the level of visitor use is greater than the environment’s ability to cope with this use within the acceptable limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural areas around the world. It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion, increased pollution, discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss, increased pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on water resources, and it can force local populations to compete for the use of critical resources (Amelung et al, 2007 and UNWTO/UNEP, 2008).

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) defines climate change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods, (UNFCC, Article 1). On the other hand, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as referring to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. IPCC Working Group I, AR4, 2007). This study uses UNFCC definition in its analysis.

In short, tourism’s relationship with both the environment and climate is complex - many tourism activities can have adverse environmental and climatic conditions effects. Many of these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses and marinas; as well as the direct tourists’ activities such as hiking, golfing and garbage. Thus, the negative impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it depends.

The negative impacts of tourism in the SADC vary from country to country. For instance, in the case of Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar and Tanzania where tourism is heavily dependent on natural resources, that is to say, the physical environment, the traditional

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marketing approach of putting emphasis on the 3s, that is “sand, sea and sun" has created a mindset that led to the concentration of tourist facilities in coastal areas. This has resulted in some negative impacts on tourist areas, especially beaches in the region.

3.1 Tourism’s pollution impacts

Transport related to the tourism sector, as already presented in Table 2 is one of the most important aspects of this sector. The increasing number of tourists into the SADC region over the years has meant that transport by air, road and rail has been rising steadily. One consequence of this is that tourism is responsible for pollution. Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: air emissions, noise, solid waste and littering, releases of sewage, oil and chemicals, even architectural/visual pollution.

Air transport emissions, as well as those from the production of electricity, another important tourist need causes air pollution which is in turn linked to acid rain, chemical pollution and global warming. They contribute to severe air pollution, not only in cities but in natural environments as well. Some of these impacts are directly related to tourism. For example, in very hot or cold conditions, tour buses often leave their motors running while the tourists go out on excursions so that the bus is at a comfortable temperature when they return.

Noise pollution from airplanes, cars, and buses, as well as recreational vehicles such as jet skis, is an ever-growing problem of modern life. This is true for busy airports like South Africa’s O.R. Tambo (Formerly Johannesburg) International Airport. In addition to causing annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for humans, it causes distress to wildlife, especially in sensitive areas. This may not seem like a big deal, but loud noises can scare animals out of the area and possibly even disrupt the local ecosystem1. In game reserves such as Chobe (Botswana), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), Kruger National Park (Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe) balloon safaris have scared off wildebeest, antelope and topi and their migration and mating patterns have been negatively impacted as a result. Moreover, safari jeeps have crept closer and closer to wildlife, often going off designated roads.

In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions, waste disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the natural environment - rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. For instance, UNEP (1999) claims that on average, passengers on a cruise ship each account for 3.5 kilograms of garbage daily compared with the 0.8 kilograms each generated by the less well-endowed folk on shore2.

Tourist destinations in the mountains often end up with a great deal of unwanted waste. Tourists on expeditions leave behind garbage, oxygen cylinders and camping equipment. In the less developed or remote areas this is even worse as there are few disposal facilities. Generally, garbage is a serious problem in areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and natural attractions. It can have a major negative impact on all areas of the natural environment - rivers, mountains, beaches, and many more. Littering can degrade the physical appearance of the environment, making it no longer appealing to tourists, as well as causing the deaths of many native animals. People typically use disposable items when they pack for a trip, with the attitude that after all, it’s a holiday and who wants to be bothered with washing dishes or saving scraps for the compost? These two quotations from tourists on the

1 http://www.helium.com/items/1471116-the-effects-of-tourism-on-the-environment2 Our Planet, UNEP magazine for environmentally sustainable development, volume 10, no. 3, 1999

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evidence of garbage caused by tourists in Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) and Table Mountain (South Africa) provides a testimony to this negative impact:

Kilimanjaro experience

“I climbed Kilimanjaro… and was sad to see a lot of garbage at the summit…3”

Table Mountain experience

“Before that time we had a walk around …, but the garbage that we saw there. Unbelievable. I never saw that before in a public place. People seemed to go on picnics on the grounds and left everything behind. There was no cleaning crew or somebody who cared. This piece of property was for the waste. There was a nice collection of plants and trees and good for a relaxing walk, but what struck the eye, yes that garbage4”

Building of tourism facilities such as hotels, lodges and recreation facilities often leads to increased sewage pollution. Wastewater has polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to coral reefs because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering their ability to survive. Changes in salinity and siltation can have wide-ranging impacts on coastal environments. And sewage pollution is threating the health of humans and animals in most tourist towns in the SADC countries.

3.2 Tourism’s physical damage impacts

Activities from the tourism sector bring about a number of physical impacts. Damage on flora, for instance, tromping carelessly through the forest, smashing down delicate flowers and grasses or burning deadfall are some of the damages done to plant life by tourism activities. Tromping is common in most SADC tourist resort attraction areas. The impacts on the fauna have also been prevalent in the region. Tourism activities have impacted on animal life in most tourism areas in the region. Wildlife in tourism areas such as Kariba (Zimbabwe), Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), among others, are often seen scavenging through the garbage. In some instances, elephants have eaten batteries and have been killed as a result of the acid. Monkeys and smaller animals are particularly keen to eat the rubbish and often become ill and die. The animals become ruined and search through rubbish instead of hunting naturally for their prey.

Furthermore, large amounts of trampling on soil cause loss of organic matter, and also accelerate erosion in such areas. In fact, the fact that trampling involves tourists using the same trail over and over again trample the vegetation and soil, eventually causing damage that can lead to loss of biodiversity and other impacts. Such damage can be even more extensive when visitors frequently stray off established trails. In beaches resort areas in countries like Mozambique, Mauritius, Namibia, Seychelles and South Africa, etc, there is a possibility that erosion may grow so bad (in the next 20 years) that sand might be brought in to keep the beach attractive and viable.

3 http://traveler.nationalgeographic.com/2009/11/destinations-rated/africa-text/54 http://members.virtualtourist.com/m/tt/3803f/#ixzz1wznvWgqd

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The impacts of tourism activities in SADC on water have also been common and they can be sub-divided into three categories. The first relates to the effect on water quality. Bushwalkers can damage small streams by walking through them too many times; causing them to be muddy which in turn makes it difficult for small fish to feed. Also, less experienced bushwalkers sometimes like to pursue activities such as washing their hair in small creeks and streams, sending chemicals in shampoo and conditioner downstream and further damaging the environment (Glycerin High School, 2003)5. The second impact concerns overuse of water, especially fresh water. The tourism industry generally overuses water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. This can result in water shortages and degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a greater volume of waste water. In dryer countries like Botswana and some parts of Zimbabwe (Bulawayo), the issue of water scarcity is of particular concern. Because of the hot climate and the tendency of tourists to consume more water when on holiday than they do at home, the amount used can run up to 440 liters a day. The increasing water demand for golf course maintenance is the third concern. This activity can also deplete fresh water resources. In recent years golf tourism has increased in popularity and the number of golf courses has grown rapidly in the SADC region. Golf courses require an enormous amount of water every day and, as with other causes of excessive extraction of water, this can result in water scarcity. If the water comes from wells, overpumping can cause saline intrusion into groundwater. Golf resorts are more and more often situated in or near protected areas or areas where resources are limited, exacerbating their impacts.

The impacts of hotel buildings on the environment warrant mentioning. Tourism industry often involves construction of hotel and lodges. Generally, 5-Star hotels have a negative impact on the environment as many of them are built in the middle of the savannah which was never meant to house these buildings. There is insufficient sewage or garbage facilities and disposal. The same is true when these lodges are created near or on the banks of a lake or a river. The sewage water flows into lake water or sea, polluting its marine ecosystem.

3.3 Other impacts

Overcrowding by tourists on popular national parks and reserves such as Kruger National Park (Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe); and Mount Meru, and Kilimanjaro (both in Tanzania), among other SADC attractions, has damaged the savannah landscape and has disturbed the wildlife. This causes massive soil erosion and also scares wildlife. This has had a particularly detrimental impact on the lion population in countries such as Zimbabwe and South Africa.

Tourism can create great pressure on local resources like energy, food, and other raw materials that may already be in short supply. Greater extraction and transport of these resources exacerbates the physical impacts associated with their exploitation. Given that some tourists’ places in the SADC region are seasonal, some regional destinations may have as much as ten times more inhabitants in the high season when compared to the low season. A high demand is placed upon these resources to meet the high expectations tourists often have (proper heating, hot water, etc.).

Loss of biodiversity is an imminent threat given that SADC countries are heavily endowed with rich biodiversity and most countries want that diversity to remain intact. Activities from

5 Glycerin High School (2003). A short essay on the Impacts of Tourism on the Environment.

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this sector can also cause loss of biodiversity when land and resources are strained by excessive use, and when impacts on vegetation, wildlife, mountain, marine and coastal environments and water resources exceed the carrying capacity. This loss of biodiversity in fact means loss of tourism potential6.

4 Measures to mitigate negative impacts of tourism

The preceding section shows clearly that tourism activities in SADC countries contribute negatively to both the environment and climate change. As pointed in the introductory section all regional countries should eliminate the negative impacts of tourism on climate change before climate change negatively eliminate tourism in these countries. Thus, tourism should be developed to ensure minimum negative impacts on climate in SADC region. To this end, this section proposes some of the actions that can be taken by various stakeholders in the tourism sector in the region with the aim of ensuring that growth of tourism will be pro-environment.

4.1 Sectoral actions

The various actions that each stakeholder in the tourism system can consider implementing are presented in this sub-section. Whilst these actions may not be exhaustive and some of them may look far reaching, they are however important for policy making.

Transportation, as indicated in Table 2, is by far the most important sector contributing to emissions of greenhouse gases from tourism, and within the transport sector, aviation is most relevant. For the majority of trips involving air travel, it has been estimated that the journey to the destination will account for 60% to 90% of the trip’s overall contribution to climate change (Gössling et al. 2005). As such, any strategy aimed at reducing tourism’s contribution to climate change need to take into account transport, and in particular aviation. Figure 1 shows that average emissions per kilometre travelled by one person (passenger kilometre, pkm) vary considerably. The general rule is that train and coach are vastly more energy-efficient than transport by aircraft or car.

Figure 1: Carbon dioxide emissions for various transport modes

Air: <5

00km

500-1000km

1000-1500km

1500-2000km

>2000km Rail

Car (w

ith 3 occu

pants)

Coach0

0.040.080.120.16

Chart Title

GHG

emiss

ions

(Kg

CO2-

e/pk

m)

Source: UNWTO-UNEP-WMO (2008)

6 http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/one.html

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Recommended specific actions for various tourism stakeholders Ideally, airlines should consider a number of actions in their endeavour to improve environmental performance. First, there is need for airlines operating in SADC to ensure that the average fleet age of airlines is short as much as possible (e.g., 15 years instead of older than 25 years). Replacing old aircraft technology with new technology, as for instance used in the new A380 and B787, can reduce specific emissions per passenger kilometre by up to 20-30% (Simpson et al, 2008). Second, airlines should strive to have high load (passenger) factors (e.g., above 75%) as that will reduce the specific energy use per traveller. Airlines should thus seek to reduce the number of flights with low load factors, for example by cooperating with other airlines flying on the same routes at similar times. Third, given the fact that the less an aircraft weighs the less fuel it needs, airlines should thus also seek to limit non-passenger weight, such as the free weight each passenger can carry along, possibly to 20kg (or 30kg) including hand baggage and tax free purchases. Fourth, tour operators should seek to sell direct flights without stop-overs. Pricing systems that allow for cheaper flights with a detour and/or non-direct flight should be avoided. Lastly, airlines should extend their economic scope by become financially involved in surface-bound transport systems with lower environmental impacts like rail or coach systems to profit from and contribute to their development.

Tourist car owners have also a role to play in this mitigation process. First, they should promote use of low-emission cars (<120g CO2/km), and this can be done, for instance by charging comparably low prices or pointing out low additional costs for fuel. Businesses can replace their car fleet by low emission cars, also equipping their employees with ‘carbon smart’, rather than large cars. Second, the use of sports utility vehicles (SUV) should be avoided as much as possible. The third mitigation action is that of replacing old cars, whereby old cars should be regularly replaced by newer, more environmentally friendly car models to stimulate innovation.

Tour operators play an important role in ensuring development of sustainable tourism with minimum negative impacts on climate as they bundle packages including journey, accommodation and eventually activities that are purchased by tourists. Tour operators can therefore influence emissions to a considerable extent, for instance by offering energy-efficient transport or hotels that engage in pro-environmental action. Thus, tour operators can play an environmental friendly role by re-thinking the choice of destinations. This can be easily done by replacing more distant destinations with closer ones where this is feasible. Secondly, tour operators can as much as possible avoid promoting long-haul destinations given that long-haul destinations visited by tourists are a major contributor to emissions. Tour operators should thus seek to avoid promoting destinations that are particularly distant. Lastly, tour operators can extend their role by supporting low-carbon holiday options and carbon labelling. That is, if all packages and journeys are also carbon-labelled, i.e. indicating the emissions caused by the consumption of the respective package/journey; such action will support informed decision-making towards low-carbon tourism.

The tourists (customers) themselves have also import roles to play. First, they can contribute to the environment positively by travelling less often and staying longer, thus departing from the current trend whey they travel more frequently (with the aim of covering longer distances) and stay over shorter periods. Second, tourists can try as much as possible to minimise travel by air given that any air travel avoided will be a major factor in reducing individual emissions. Third, tourists should favour tour operators engaging in pro-

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environmental management (for instance providing carbon labelling or certified packages), and those that try to provide community benefits, particularly when operating in poorly developed destinations within the SADC region. Lastly, given that there are now many destinations that seek to be environmentally friendly or to become certified with a variety of labels, from slow food to slow tourism, tourists should as much as possible give preference to such destinations.

Governments play a crucial part in the tourism system through a range of functions that include: regulatory controls; provision of national services for visitors; infrastructure; ownership of major resources; national issues and interests. Thus, the SADC governments have to, as much as, possible come up with policies and regulations which limits the negative impacts of tourism activities in their respective countries. When it comes to regulations governments are better placed to do that role given their enforcement ability. It is important to note that some regulations will require minimum costs to all involved stakeholders. A good example of such regulations is one existing in Rwanda where it is an offense for any individual whether tourist or not to throw litter on any place except designated garbage bins or refuge places. In Rwanda, if a person is caught littering, he/she will pay a fine. Thus, in this simple, but very important regulation, Rwandan cities especially Kigali is one of the cleanest cities in Africa. In this Rwandese case, there are no extra costs incurred by most tourism stakeholders.

Table 5 summaries some of the actions that SADC tourism stakeholders should take so as to ensure that tourism activities are environmentally friendly.

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Table 5: Summary of potential mitigation actionsAction/Actor

Air transport Car Transport Train/coachtransport

Destination Accommodation Activities

Tourists Minimise air transport; Choosepro-environmentalairline; Offset emissions

Avoid car transport; Use energy efficientcars <120gCO2/km)

Use train & coach Stay longer; Favour closer destinations

Choose environmentallyCertified hotel

Avoid energy intense activity, for Instance such involving transport(helicopter flights, tc.)

Touroperators

Cooperate with pro-environmental airline;Offer carbon offsetting

Promote the use ofsmall, environmentallyfriendly cars

Develop packagesbased on train/coach transport and other carbon-smartproducts

Offer destinations close by; Provide carbon labelling

Cooperate withcertifiedhotels

Offer activities that donot involve transports,particularly flights

DestinationManagersandPlanners

Restructure marketing (eco-efficiency); consider domestic tourism; increase length of stay; focus on revenue, not growth.

Promote public transport systems;Eventually small cars

Cooperate with National railways Systems and coach Operators to offer Attractive transport solutions

Involve all actors to engage in action to become sustainable destination

Promote use of environmental management systems & eco-certifications.

Develop activitiesthat are low-carbon

Source: Simpson et al (2008, p 101)

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4.2 Contribution of tourism sector towards mitigation

Over and above the sectoral actions that can be taken by various tourism stakeholders towards mitigation of the negative impacts of tourism on the environment and climate change, another possible way through the sector can support measures aimed at conserving the environment and reducing its impacts on climate change is through measures indicated below. Thus, governments in the SADC region should, one way or the other encourages the tourism sector to consider doing some of these actions.

4.2.1 Financial contributions

Direct financial contributions: The tourism sector can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. Revenue from park-entrance fees and similar sources can be allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of environmentally sensitive areas. Special fees for park operations or conservation activities can be collected from tourists or tour operators.

Contributions to government revenues: Governments can also collect money in more far-reaching and indirect ways that are not linked to specific parks or conservation areas. Money collected in the form of user fees, income taxes, taxes on sales or rental of recreation equipment, and license fees for activities such as hunting and fishing can provide governments with the funds needed to manage natural resources. Such funds can be used for overall conservation programs and activities, such as park ranger salaries and park maintenance.

4.2.2 Improved environmental management and planning

Sound environmental management of tourism facilities and especially hotels can increase the benefits to natural areas. Nevertheless, this demand requires careful planning for controlled development, based on analysis of the environmental resources of the area. Thus SADC governments should encourage early planning in the tourism industry as that will minimize chances of damaging and expensive mistakes, thus avoiding the gradual deterioration of environmental assets significant to tourism.

Cleaner production techniques can be important tools for planning and operating tourism facilities in a way that minimizes their environmental impacts. For example, green building (using energy-efficient and non-polluting construction materials, sewage systems and energy sources) is an increasingly important way for the tourism industry to decrease its impact on the environment. And because waste treatment and disposal are often major, long-term environmental problems in the tourism industry, pollution prevention and waste minimization techniques are especially important for the tourism industry.

4.2.3 Environmental sensitization

Tourism sector has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people into closer contact with nature and the environment. Sensitization will improve awareness of the value of nature and

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lead to environmentally conscious behavior and activities from tourists, thus contribution towards the preservation of the environment and reduced impacts on climate change.

The long run sustainability of the tourism industry in SADC requires the sector to incorporate the principles and practices of sustainable consumption. In this instance, sustainable consumption will include such things as building consumer demand for products that have been made using cleaner production techniques, and for services - including tourism services - that are provided in a way that minimizes environmental impacts. The tourism industry can play a key role in providing environmental information and raising awareness among tourists of the environmental consequences of their actions. Tourists and tourism-related businesses consume an enormous quantity of goods and services; moving them toward using those that are produced and provided in an environmentally sustainable way, from cradle to grave, could have an enormous positive impact on the planet's environment.

4.2.4 Protection and preservation

Tourism can significantly contribute to environmental protection, conservation and restoration of biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. Given their appeal, pristine sites and natural areas are identified as valuable and the need to keep the attraction alive can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.

Box 2: Gorilla protection case study from East Africa’s Great Lakes region

In the Great Lakes region of Africa, mountain gorillas, one of the world's most endangered great apes, play a critical ecological, economic and political role. Their habitat lies on the borders of northwestern Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southwestern Uganda. Despite 10 years of political crisis and civil war in the region, the need for revenue from ape-related tourism has led all sides in the conflict to cooperate in protecting the apes and their habitat.

Establishment of a gorilla tracking permit, which costs US$ 250 plus park fees, means that just three habituated gorilla groups of about 38 individuals in total can generate over US$ 3 million in revenue per year, making each individual worth nearly US$90,000 a year to Uganda. Tourism funds have contributed to development at the local, national and regional level. The presence of such a valuable tourism revenue source in the fragile afromontane forests ensures that these critical habitats are protected, thus fulfilling their valuable ecological function including local climate regulation, water catchment and natural resources for local communities.

Source: UNEP Great Apes Survival Project and Discovery Initiatives

4.2.5 Alternative employment

Tourism can provide an alternative to development scenarios that may have greater environmental impacts. If this is carefully crafted and linked with other backward and forward linkages sectors, the alternative employment can offer an opportunity for some less privileged citizens of the SADC region a good employment opportunity. Box 2 provides a short case study of the potential employment opportunities from the tourism sector.

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Box 2: Case study of alternative employment rom tourism sectorThe Eco-escuela de Español, a Spanish language school created in 1996 as part of a Conservation International project in the Guatemalan village of San Andres, is an example. The community-owned school, located in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, combines individual language courses with home stay opportunities and community-led eco-tours. It receives around 1,800 tourists yearly, mostly from the US and Europe, and employs almost 100 residents, of whom around 60% were previously engaged in mostly illegal timber extraction, hunting and milpas, or slash-and-burn agriculture. Careful monitoring in 2000 has shown that, among the families benefiting from the business, the majority has significantly reduced hunting practices, and the number and extension of "slash-and-burn" agricultural plots. Furthermore, as most families in the village benefit directly or indirectly from the school, community-managed private reserves have been established, and social pressure against hunting has increased.

4.2.6 Regulatory measures

Regulatory measures help offset negative impacts; for instance, controls on the number of tourist activities and movement of visitors within protected areas can limit impacts on the ecosystem and help maintain the integrity and vitality of the site. Such limits can also reduce the negative impacts on resources.

Limits should be established after an in-depth analysis of the maximum sustainable visitor capacity. This strategy is being used in the Galapagos Islands, where the number of ships allowed to cruise this remote archipelago is limited, and only designated islands can be visited, ensuring visitors have little impact on the sensitive environment and animal habitats.

5 Conclusion and policy recommendations

The study investigated the extent to which tourism negatively affect the environment and/or climate change in the SADC region and also provided possible actions which the stakeholders in the tourism sector can implement so as to minimize the sector’s negative effects on climate change. The study found that activities of the tourism sector have (and continue to) negatively impact on the region’s environment. The negative impacts includes pollution related, physical damage and land/water degradation. The study recommends that all stakeholders in the tourism sector including tourists, tour operators, hotels, airlines, governments, among others, should work together in their respective areas so that the region can be able to mitigate or eliminate the potential negative effects of tourism activities on the environment and/or climate change.

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Websites

http://www.ipcc.ch/

http://www.retosa.co.za/

www.wttc.org

http://unwto.org/en

http://unfccc.int/2860.php

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