Fight-or-flight response (in humans)

For fight-or-flight response in animals see fight-or-flight response (in animals)

For other uses, see Fight or Flight.

The fight-or-flight response (also called the fight, flight,freeze, or fawn response [in PTSD], hyperarousal, orthe acute stress response) is a physiological reactionthat occurs in response to a perceived harmful event,attack, or threat to survival.[1] It was first described byWalter Bradford Cannon.[lower-alpha 1][2] His theory statesthat animals react to threats with a general dischargeof the sympathetic nervous system, priming the animalfor fighting or fleeing.[3] More specifically, the adrenalmedulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in thesecretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrineand epinephrine.[4] Amit Sood, Professor of Medicineat Mayo Clinic College of Medicine discusses the clas-sic fight or flight response and states that estrogen andtestosterone are also hormones that affect how we re-act to stress, as are the neurotransmitters dopamine andserotonin.[5]

This response is recognized as the first stage of ageneral adaptation syndrome that regulates stress re-sponses among vertebrates and other organisms.[6]

1 Physiology

1.1 Autonomic nervous system

See also: Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is a control systemthat acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate,digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination,and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mecha-nism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its roleis mediated by two different components.[7]

Sympathetic nervous systemSee also: Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinalcord and its main function is to activate the physiologicalchanges that occur during the fight or flight response. Thiscomponent of the autonomic nervous system utilizes andactivates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.[8]

Parasympathetic nervous systemSee also: Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system originates in thespinal cord and medulla and works in concert with thesympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to acti-vate the “rest and digest” response and return the body tohomeostasis after the fight or flight response. This systemutilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitteracetylcholine.[8]

1.2 Reaction

The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neu-ral response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction isfollowed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretionof the hormone ACTH.[9] The adrenal gland is activatedalmost simultaneously and releases the neurotransmitterepinephrine. The release of chemical messengers re-sults in the production of the hormone cortisol, which in-creases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses theimmune system.[10] The initial response and subsequentreactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost ofenergy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrinebinding to liver cells and the subsequent production ofglucose.[11] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol func-tions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which pre-pares muscles throughout the body for response.[12] Cat-echolamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine)or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediatephysical reactions associated with a preparation for vio-lent muscular action. These include the following:[13]

• Acceleration of heart and lung action

• Paling or flushing, or alternating between both

• Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action tothe point where digestion slows down or stops

• General effect on the sphincters of the body

• Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of thebody

• Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularlyfat and glycogen) for muscular action

• Dilation of blood vessels for muscles

• Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tearproduction) and salivation

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2 3 COGNITIVE COMPONENTS

The Fight or Flight Response

• Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)

• Relaxation of bladder

• Inhibition of erection

• Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)

• Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)

• Disinhibition of spinal reflexes

• Shaking

1.3 Function of physiological changes

The physiological changes that occur during the fight orflight response are activated in order to give the body in-

creased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting orrunning. Some of the specific physiological changes andtheir functions include:[14][15]

• Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by di-verting blood flow from other parts of the body.

• Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars,and fats in order to supply the body with extra en-ergy.

• The blood clotting function of the body speeds up inorder to prevent excessive blood loss in the event ofan injury sustained during the response.

• Increased muscle tension in order to provide thebody with extra speed and strength.

2 Emotional components

2.1 Emotion regulation

See also: Emotional self-regulation

In the context of the fight or flight response, emotionalregulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress orto control the level of emotional arousal.[16][17]

2.2 Emotional reactivity

During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that isbrought on by the stimulus will also determine the natureand intensity of the behavioral response.[18] Individualswith higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone toanxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implicationsof appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flightresponse.[19][20]

3 Cognitive components

3.1 Content specificity

The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flightresponse seem to be largely negative. These negative cog-nitions may be characterized by: attention to negativestimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as neg-ative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words.[21]There also may be specific negative thoughts associatedwith emotions commonly seen in the reaction.[22]

3.2 Perception of control

Perceived control relates to an individual’s thoughts aboutcontrol over situations and events.[23] Perceived control

3

should be differentiated from actual control because anindividual’s beliefs about their abilities may not reflecttheir actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or under-estimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety andaggression.[24]

3.3 Social information processing

See also: Social information processing (cognition)

The social information processing model proposes a va-riety of factors that determine behavior in the context ofsocial situations and preexisting thoughts.[25] The attribu-tion of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seemsto be one of the most important cognitive factors associ-ated with the fight or flight response because of its impli-cations towards aggression.[26]

4 Workplace bullying

Main article: Workplace bullying

The most typical reactions to workplace bullying are todo with the survival instinct - “fight or flight” - and theseare probably a victim’s healthier responses to bullying.Flight is a legitimate and valid response to bullying. It isvery common, especially in organizations in which uppermanagement cannot or will not deal with the bullying. Inhard economic times, however, flight may not be an op-tion, and fighting may be the only choice.[27]

Fighting the bullying can require near heroic action, es-pecially if the bullying targets just one or two individuals.It can also be a difficult challenge. There are some timeswhen confrontation is called for. First, there is always achance that the bully boss is laboring under the impres-sion that this is the way to get things done and does notrecognize the havoc being wreaked on subordinates.[27]

5 See also

• Coping (psychology)

• Defense physiology

• Emotional dysregulation

• Escape distance

• The Relaxation Response

• Rest and digest

• Vasoconstriction

• Yerkes–Dodson law

Conditions

• Acute stress reaction

• Anxiety

• Anxiety disorder

• Panic attack

• Phobia

• Social anxiety

• Social anxiety disorder

6 Notes[1] Some references say he first described the response in

1914 in The American Journal of Physiology. Others inthe 1915 edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fearand Rage. Other sources say that he first used the termin 1929 or in 1932 edition of the same book. The issueneeds further research.

7 References[1] Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United

States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393002055.

[2] Walter Bradford Cannon (1929). Bodily changes in pain,hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

[3] Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27October 1995). “Central Command Neurons of the Sym-pathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Re-sponse”. Science Magazine 5236 (270).

[4] Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain,Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researchesinto the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

[5] “Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three MajorStress Hormones, Explained”. Hufflington Post. April 19,2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.

[6] Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z(2009). PATHOLOGY - Theory. Medical Student’s Li-brary. Radom. pp. 270–275.

[7] Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). “Autonomic Nervous Sys-tem”. In Janig, W. Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York,NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370.

[8] Chudler, Eric. “Neuroscience For Kids”. University ofWashington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.

[9] Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011).“ACTH Action on the Adrenal”. Endotext.org. Retrieved18 April 2013.

4 8 FURTHER READING

[10] Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). “How stressinfluences the immune response”. Trends in Immunology24 (8): 444–448. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X.PMID 12909458.

[11] King, Michael. “PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLU-COSE”. Washington University, St. Louis.

[12] “HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THEFIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE”. University of Utah.Retrieved 18 April 2013.

[13] Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg(2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN 0-393-97767-6.

[14] Stress Management for Health Course. “The Fight FlightResponse”. Retrieved 19 April 2013.

[15] Olpin, Michael. “The Science of Stress”. Weber StateUniversity.

[16] Cistler, Josh; Bunmi O. Olatunji; Matthew T. Feldner;John P. Forsyth (2010). “Emotion Regulation and theAnxiety Disorders: An Integrative Review”. Journal ofPsychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 32 (1): 68–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1. PMC 2901125.PMID 20622981.

[17] Gross, James (1998). “Sharpening the Focus:Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Com-petence”. Psychological Inquiry 9 (4): 287–290.doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8.

[18] Avero, Pedro; Calvo, M (1 July 1999). “Emotional re-activity to social-evaluative stress: genderdifferences inresponse systems concordance”. Personality and Individ-ual Differences 27 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00229-3.

[19] Carthy, T; Horesh N; Apter A; Edge MD; Gross JJ (May2010). “Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation inanxious children”. Behavior Research and Therapy 48 (5):384–393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013.

[20] Valiente, C; Eisenberg N; Smith CL; Reiser M; FabesRA; Losoya S; Guthrie IK; Murphy BC (December2003). “The relations of effortful control and reactivecontrol to children’s externalizing problems: A longi-tudinal assessment”. Personality 71 (6): 1171–1196.doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106011. PMID 14633062.

[21] Reid, Sophie C.; Sophie C. Reid, Karen Salmon, Peter F.Lovibond (October 2006). “Cognitive Biases in Child-hood Anxiety, Depression, and Aggression: Are TheyPervasive or Specific?". Cognitive Therapy and Research30 (5): 531–549. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9077-y.

[22] Beck, Aaron (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the EmotionalDisorders. United States: Penguin Books.

[23] Weems, CF; Silverman, WK (April 2006). “An inte-grative model of control: implications for understandingemotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anx-iety”. Journal of Affective disorders 91 (2): 113–124.doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009.

[24] Brendgen, M; Vitaro F; Turgeon L; Poulin F; WannerB (June 2004). “Is there a dark side of positive illu-sions? Overestimation of social competence and subse-quent adjustment in aggressive and nonaggressive chil-dren”. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 32 (3):305–320. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.08470.cd.PMID 15228179.

[25] Crick, Nicki; Dodge, Kenneth (January 1994). “A re-view and reformulation of social information-processingmechanisms in children’s social adjustment”. Psycho-logical Bulletin 115 (1): 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.

[26] Dodge, Kenneth (March 1980). “Social cognition andchildren’s aggressive behavior”. Journal of Child Devel-opment 51 (1): 162–170. doi:10.2307/1129603.

[27] Robert Killoren (2014) The Toll of Workplace Bullying -Research Management Review, Volume 20, Number 1

8 Further reading• Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994. Why Zebras Don't GetUlcers. W.H. Freeman and Company.

• This article incorporates public domain mate-rial from the United States Government docu-ment "http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html".

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