ORCHESTRATION BASICS

NORMAN LUDWIN 1a

The instrumental makeup of an orchestra has varied a great deal over time and can even vary significantly from piece to piece. Below is a list for four approximate orchestra sizes—small, medium, large, and very large. The goal of these numbers is to create a balanced ensemble for a live performance. As one section grows larger, the others must grow simultaneously to maintain a balanced ensemble.

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¨  Several observations should be made here. First, the woodwind section most commonly consists of single, double, or triple woodwinds. The "small" instrumentation above—one flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon—is a single woodwind instrumentation. The "medium" instrumentation is two of each instrument, and so on.

¨  In larger woodwind sections, the last player in a group typically doubles on a related auxiliary instrument. For instance, with triple woodwinds you may have three flute players with the last player doubling on piccolo as necessary.

¨  In the percussion section, a single player will play multiple instruments. For instance, a score may call for three percussionists, who play a total of nine instruments. The exception is timpani. The timpanist is trained specifically in that instrument and should not be called upon to play parts on other percussion instruments.

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¨  The string section is always made up of five sections—Violin I, Violin II, Viola, Cello and Double Bass. The smaller instruments generate less sound per instrument, so they require increased numbers to achieve a balanced sound. As a result, each violin section will outnumber the viola section, which will outnumber the cello section, which will outnumber the bass section.

¨  Notably, the string numbers are already reflected in most samples. For instance, Vienna Symphonic Library has released string samples in three sizes—chamber, standard and appassionato strings. The numbers during each recording sessions were: chamber (6 violins, 4 violas, 3 cellos and 2 basses; standard (14 violins, 10 violas, 8 cellos, and 6 basses); appassionato (20 violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, and 10 basses).  

¨  As an example, I played on the Oscar winner motion picture UP, that had 15 Violin I, 12 Violin II, 12 Viola, 10 Cello and 7 Double Bass players.

¨  When notating an orchestral score, you do not need to specify string numbers. Simply indicating Violin I, Violin II, Viola, Cello and Double Bass is sufficient. On the other hand, specific numbers for woodwind, brass and percussion are required.

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¨  Not all orchestral instruments are created equal. Some are used quite sparingly, while others play nearly continuously. Of course, composers preferences have not been uniform throughout time, with some composers heavily using instruments other composers essentially ignored. The variation can be accounted for partly by taste, both personal and those of an era, as well as the gradual technical perfection of various instruments.

¨  In general terms, the string family has always been the center point of the orchestra. Over time, the orchestra has gotten larger and composers have called up brass and percussion more frequently.

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¨  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completed his 40th Symphony in 1788. The symphony calls for: 

¨  1 Flute

¨  2 Oboes

¨  2 Clarinets

¨  2 Bassoons

¨  2 Horns in C

¨  Violin I

¨  Violin II

¨  Viola

¨  Cello

¨  Double Bass

The graph shows the instrumental usage as a percentage of total measures. For instance, the movement consists of 294 measures, and the Violin I section played in 98% of them. Several observations should be made immediately. First, the strings perform nearly continuously throughout the work. Second, the woodwinds are used extensively but less frequently than the strings. Third, the brass section is very small and used comparatively infrequently. Fourth, Mozart chose to bypass percussion entirely.  Even if Mozart had chosen to include timpani (or trumpets), it would have been used sparingly. All of the above trends are characteristic of Mozart's time period.

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Peter Tchaikovsky completed his Fifth Symphony in 1888. The symphony calls for:

¨  3 Flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo)

¨  2 Oboes

¨  2 Clarinets in A

¨  2 Bassoons

¨  4 Horns

¨  2 Trumpets

¨  3 Trombones

¨  1Tuba

¨  Timpani

¨  Violin I

¨  Violin II

¨  Viola

¨  Cello

¨  Double Bass

Here, we can immediately see that the orchestra has expanded, primarily with additions to the brass and percussion section. Below is a graph showing how frequently Tchaikovsky used the instruments in his first movement.

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¨  Next, let's fast forward to Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 6. Mahler completed his sixth symphony in 1904. The symphony calls for:

¨  4 Flutes (3rd and 4th doubling on Piccolo)

¨  4 Oboes (3rd and 4th doubling on English Horn)

¨  3 Clarinets (3rd doubling on Eb and D

¨  Bass Clarinet

¨  4 Bassoons (3rd doubling on Contrabassoon)

¨  8 Horns

¨  6 Trumpets

¨  4 Trombones

¨  1 Tuba

¨  2 Timpani

¨  Bass Drum

¨  Snare Drum

¨  Cymbals

¨  Tam-Tam

¨  Xylophone

¨  Triangle

¨  Hammer

¨  Cowbells (off stage)

¨  Glockenspiel

¨  2 Harps

¨  Violin I

¨  Violin II

¨  Viola

¨  Cello

¨  Double Bass

Obviously, the orchestra for which Mahler writes is quite large. The woodwind, brass and percussion sections have all expanded, and the numbers in the string section would have to expand to balance the full ensemble. Below is a graph showing how frequently Mahler used the instruments in his first movement.

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¨  Here, some significant changes have occurred. The strings remain the most frequently called upon instruments, but they are not used as continuously as the previous works.

¨  In addition, the brass (particularly the trumpets, trombones, and tuba) are now essentially equal to the woodwinds and strings. The percussion, though expanded, continues to be used sparingly.

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¨  Last, we will look at an example from a contemporary film score, the ”Factory Rescue" cue by Michael Giacchino from Mission Impossible 3 (2010). The instrumentation calls for:

¨  3 Flutes (3rd doubling on Piccolo)

¨  2 Oboes

¨  3 Clarinets (3rd doubling on Bass Clarinet)

¨  3 Bassoons (3rd doubling on Contrabassoon)

¨  4 Horns

¨  3 Trumpets

¨  3 Trombones (2 Tenor and 1 Bass Trombone)

¨  1 Cimbasso

¨  Timpani

¨  Bass Drum

¨  Snare Drum

¨  Taiko Drums

¨  Cymbals

¨  Xylophone

¨  Harp

¨  Piano

¨  Violin I

¨  Violin II

¨  Viola

¨  Cello

¨  Double Bass

Here, the instrumentation most resembles that of the Mahler Symphony, with several significant changes. Notably, a cimbasso is used in lieu of a tuba. The cimbasso is a valved brass instrument with a range similar to that of the tuba but with a bore more like a trombone. In addition, the percussion section has been expanded and includes several ethnic drums. The taiko and shime daiko drums are both Japanese in origin, with the taiko drum being the larger of the two. Notably, the score specifies 26 Violins (presumably 14 Violin I and 12 Violin II), 10 Viola, 8 Cello and 6 Double Bass. Below is a graph showing how frequently each instrument was used in the cue.

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As with the classical works, the strings are the instruments most frequently called upon. Similar to Mahler, the woodwind and brass instruments are used extensively, but slightly less frequently than the strings. The chief difference between this piece and the Mahler Symphony is the extensive and nearly continuous use of percussion. The percussion is now on par with the remainder of the orchestra. The primary takeaway here is that the string section has always been the heart of the orchestra. In the case of contemporary film and concert music, the string section remains the primary focus of orchestral writing, though all instruments are used extensively with the brass and percussion family being much more significant than in the past.

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¨  Most orchestral instruments use either the treble or the bass clef, the clefs that also appear in piano music. The treble clef places middle-C on the first ledger line below the staff. 

¨  The bass clef places middle-C on the first ledge line above the staff.

¨  Alto clef is the primary clef for Viola. It places middle-C on the middle line of the staff. Tenor clef commonly appears in bassoon and cello parts when those instruments enter their upper range. Tenor clef places middle-C on the second line from the top of the staff.

¨  The graphic at left shows the placement of middle-C in treble, bass, alto and tenor clef.

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The flats and sharps in the key signature for each clef are placed as seen on the right:

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¨  One additional clef appears commonly in orchestral music, the percussion clef.

¨  It is used for non-pitched percussion instruments and is also known as the neutral clef or indefinite pitch clef.

¨  The percussion clef can be used on either a 5-line or single-line staff. Generally, if the percussion part calls for more than one non-pitched instrument, a five-line staff is preferred with each instrument on its own line or space. If the part is only one non-pitched instrument, such as a snare drum, a single-line staff is sufficient.

¨  Pitched percussion instruments (such as Timpani and Xylophone) use either treble or bass clef, depending on the instrument's range.

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¨  A significant number of orchestral instruments are transposing instruments. A transposing instrument sounds at a different pitch than the notation is written. For instance, a B-flat trumpet will sound a major 2nd below the written pitch. When you write middle C and hand the part to a B-flat trumpet player, you will hear the B-flat beneath middle C when that written note is played.

¨  Note: The written pitch (middle C in the case above) can be referred to as the written or transposed pitch. The sounding pitch (B-flat in the case above) can be referred to as the sounding or concert pitch.

¨  Though the history and motivation for transposition varies, transposed notation is used primarily to place the majority of an instrument's range in the middle of the staff. This minimizes ledger lines and increases legibility.

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¨  In some cases, transposition also allows performers to more easily switch between various instruments in a family. For instance, all saxophones have similar written ranges and fingering, allowing an alto sax player to switch to tenor sax with relative ease.

¨  When referring to a transposing instrument the interval of transposition is said before or after the instrument name, such as "B-flat Trumpet" or "Horn in F." The stated letter answers the question, "What note will you hear when the written pitch is a C?" Instruments that do not transpose are referred to as concert pitch instruments.

¨  Some instruments (such as trumpets) come in both transposing and concert form. It is always best to clarify when using a concert version of the trumpet, such as "C Trumpet" or "Trumpet in C."

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In the woodwind family, the piccolo, alto flute, English horn, contrabassoon and the most common clarinets are all transposing instruments.

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In the brass section, the horn and the Bb trumpet are transposing instruments.  

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In the percussion family, the crotales, glockenspiel, xylophone and celesta are transposing instruments.

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In the string family, the double bass is a transposing instrument.  

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¨  The score shows the notated parts for all instruments in the orchestra. During a rehearsal or live performance, the conductor will follow the score (or memorize it).

¨  Score Layout

¨  The orchestral instruments are arranged on the score in the following order, from top to bottom.

¨  Piccolo

¨  Flutes ¨  Oboes ¨  English Horn

¨  Clarinets ¨  Bass Clarinet

¨  Bassoons ¨  Contrabassoons ¨  Horns I and II

¨  Horns III and IV ¨  Trumpets

¨  Trombones ¨  Tuba

¨  Timpani ¨  Percussion ¨  Harp

¨  Piano/Celesta ¨  Violin I

¨  Violin II ¨  Viola

¨  Cello ¨  Double Bass

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¨  You will encounter minor variations of this alignment. When the 3rd flute doubles on piccolo, the piccolo is often placed below Flute 1 and 2. I have also seen scores placing the Piano above the Harp. Despite such variations, the lineup above should be followed strictly.

¨  Notably, each percussion staff accounts for a single percussionist rather than a single instrument, as percussionists can switch instruments throughout a piece. Instrumental changes for percussionists should be marked diligently throughout the score.

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¨  Let's take a look at a blank page of orchestral score. ¨  The left edge of the score is connected by a continuous

barline, with each orchestral family connected by a bracket. When a single instrument requires two staves, such as piano and harp, a brace is employed to connect the staves. When a section requires two staves, such as Horn 1-4, a sub-bracket is employed to connect the staves.

¨  With the exception of the leftmost edge, the barline is not continuous from top to bottom, breaking between orchestral families. This is an important cue to the conductor, helping him locate instruments on the page quickly.

¨  It is most customary to place a tempo marking above both the woodwind and string family.

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¨  As long as it remains legible, multiple woodwind or brass parts of like instruments (such as two oboes) can be placed on a single staff. Below, two oboe parts are indicated on one staff.

Notably, if two parts are on a single staff and there is only one written note, some confusion can occur. If you wish both players to play the part, mark the passage with the term "a2". To indicate only player one should be playing, mark the part either "1." or "1°". Likewise, "2." or "2°" indicates only the second player should play. If legibility becomes a concern, it is best to place the parts on two staves connected by a sub-bracket.  As yet another alternative, you can place both parts on a single staff and break them into separate voices. Voice 1 is placed at the top of the staff with stems upward and will be played by player 1. Voice 2 is placed at the bottom of the staff with stems downward and will be played by player 2. As a result, the two notations below would be equivalent.

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Preceding the score must be a cover page that details vital information.

This includes:

Instrumentation.

The instrumentation should include both the number of percussionists required and the instruments they will be required to play.

Indication whether the score is a transposed or C score.

Key to any special symbols used in the score, such as percussion mallets.

Approximate duration.

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¨  In the score, instruments that are not "C instruments" can be notated at either the sounding or written pitch, with the former called a "C Score" (sometimes called a Concert Score, though this term is erroneous as not all parts are written at their concert pitch) and the latter a "Transposed Score".

¨  Notably, not all instruments are written at their sounding pitch in a C score. More specifically, instruments that are in C but transpose by the octave (such as Piccolo, Double Bass, and Glockenspiel) are written at their transposed pitch. This creates a score in C rather than a concert pitch score.

¨  In the case of a transposed score, it is customary to give transposing instruments different key signatures to minimize accidentals. For instance, if the piece is in C major, then the F Horn will be given a G-major key signature in a transposed score.

¨  Given these considerations, the two scores below are equivalent.

In the case of a transposed score, it is customary to give transposing instruments different key signatures to minimize accidentals. For instance, if the piece is in G major, then the F Horn will be given a D major key signature in a transposed score.

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Notably, not all instruments are written at their sounding pitch in a C score. More specifically, instruments that are in C but transpose by the octave (such as Piccolo, Double Bass, and Glockenspiel) are written at their transposed pitch. This creates a score in C rather than a concert pitch score.

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¨  Certainly, there are pros and cons to both methods. In the case of a transposed score, the conductor and players are looking at the same pitches during a rehearsal, performance or recording session. Note: Parts for the players are always written at the transposed pitch and not the sounding pitch.

¨  From the perspective of the orchestrator or composer, C scores are easier to analyze harmonically, since no transposition is required when deciphering chords.

¨  Pros and cons aside, the vast majority of classical scores are transposed scores, while C scores are generally favored by today's film score industry.

¨  Notably, the use of a C score does not relieve the orchestrator or composer of a thorough knowledge of transposition. Individual parts are always written at the transposed pitch and the orchestrator must be able to quickly transpose parts when conversing with players.

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Le Tombeau de Ravel

Norman Ludwin

© Ludwin Music 2011 ASCAP

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A part is given to each player in the orchestra containing the music that individual is designated to play. At the top, the title, instrument, and composer should be indicated. Here is the 1st flute part for my ”Le Tombeau de Ravel".

As previously noted, all parts are written at their transposed pitch. If you are using a C score, this means the parts will differ from the score. In cases where two parts are included on one staff (such as the case of two oboes in the previous topic) in the score, two separate parts should be written for each player.

37 The overtone series is an acoustic phenomenon that will be relevant at several points in your study of orchestration. The overtone series consists of a fundamental pitch and a series of overtones above the fundamental. The overtones come from an exact mathematical relationship with the fundamental. For instance, the wavelength that produces the 2nd overtone is ½ as long as the wavelength that produces the fundamental. The wavelength that produces the 3rd overtone is 1/3 as long as the wavelength that produces the fundamental. And so on...The overtone series is a recurring theme in orchestration and instrumentation. For instance, a trumpet player can produce multiple pitches in the overtone series without changing fingering. This is true of all woodwinds and brass.

At this point, you need only know that the overtone series exists and what the pitches are relative to the fundamental. The first 8 overtones are the most important. Note: 

Not all the overtones are perfectly in tune with the well-tempered scale. Overtones 7, 11 and 14 are noticeably flat, and overtone 13 is noticeably sharp. For the most part, this variance won't have major implications in orchestration.