1996 collectors world archaeology

7/24/2019 1996 Collectors World Archaeology

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Journal o f W orld Prehistoty VoL 10 No: 1 1996

T h e S t udy o f o l lec t o r V a r i a b il it y i n t he

T r a n s i t i o n t o S e d e n t a r y F o o d P r o d u c e r s i n

N o r t h e r n o l o m b i a

Augusto

O y u e l a C a y c e d o 1

H u m a n adap ta t ion to the t ropics by popu la t ions o f co llec tors has been a

long -stan ding issue of debate especially with regard to the role tha t collectors

ma y have p layed i n pa thways t oward seden ti sm a nd f ood p roduc t ion . I n t h is

essay I ex am ine significant differences in strategies dev elop ed fo r estuarine

env ironments versus the in land env ironments o f the t rans i t ional savannas o f

northern Colombia to analyze how these two adaptat ions art iculate with the

proces se s w h ich l ed t oward seden ti sm a nd f ood p rodu c t ion i n neo t rop i ca l

nor th e rn Co lom b ia . Con t rary t o t he r ece i ved w i sd om I a rgue t ha t t he

exploi tat ion o f rich estuarine environm ents is not necessarily a prelud e to fo o d

pro duc tion; seed exploi tat ion early in the sixth mil le nniu m B.P. in the northern

Colombian t rans i t ional savanna zone prov ides a second and arguably more

probable model .

KEY WORDS: Colombia; shell middens; early pottery; estuary; savanna.

INTRODUCTION

The study of shell midden collectors in Colombia began with the re-

search of Gerardo Reichel Dolmatoff and Alicia Dussan de Reichel in the

1950s. Since then, the accumulation of archaeological data and environ-

mental studies have made it possible to advance the understanding of col-

lectors patterns of adaptation in northwestern South America. This essay

concentrates on, and compares, the adaptive systems of coastal and inland

collectors. Following a description of shell middens produced by collectors

lDepartment of Archaeology, 2500 University Drive NW, University of Calgary, Calgary,

Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4. e-mail: [email protected].

49

0802-7537/~6/0300-0049509~5W0 0 1t)96 Plenum Pu bl|ghinl~ Cor pora tion


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5 Oyuela Caycedo

i n e s t ua r i an env i ronmen t s , t he i r d i s t r i bu t i on i n t ime and space i s r ev i ewed

in o rde r t o de f i ne midden fo rma t ion p roces se s . I a rgue t ha t t he r e l a t i onsh ip

be tw een she ll fi sh co l l ec t ing ac t i v it i e s i n r i ch env i ronm en t s such a s e s tua r i e s

a n d t h e ir d y n a m i c p u l s a r b e h a v i o r u n d e r m i n e s t h e v ie w o f t h e c o n c e p t t h a t

ad ap ta t io n to she l lf i sh co l lec ting or f i sh ing ac t iv it i es in very rich env i ron -

m e n t s w a s a n e c es s a ry st a g e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f o o d p r o d u c t i o n o r

even s eden t i sm. The a rgumen t s a r e suppor t ed t h rough an ana ly s i s o f she l l

m idden s i te s i n no r the rn Co lom bia , wh ich , in my v i ew , i nd i ca te t ha t e s t ua ry

exp lo i t a t i on i s an i ndependen t adap t i ve pa t t e rn un l i ke ly t o have gene ra t ed

food p roduc t i on t r a j ec to r i e s .

T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h is e s s a y p r e s e n t s a s u m m a r y o f t h e r e c e n t i n l a n d

re sea r ch conduc t ed a t San J ac in to 1 , wh ich ha s p roduced , f o r t he f i r s t t ime ,

ha rd ev idence o f e a r ly co l l e c to r adap t a t i ons t o a tr ans i ti ona l s ava nna en -

v i ronm en t i n no r the rn Co lom bia . Th i s ev idence ind i ca t e s com plex s t r a t eg i e s

o f mob i l i t y and subs i s t ence wh ich , i n t u rn , i t c an be a rgued , s e rve a s a

good l i nk t o l a t e r changes t oward food p roduc t i on , s eden t i sm, and t e r r i t o -

r ia l i ty . San Jac in to 1 i s bes t known as a s i te wi th one of the ear l ies t f iber -

t em pe red po t t e ry t r ad i ti ons i n t he Ame r i ca s ( s ee O yue l a , 1987a, 1993, 1995 ;

R a y m o n d e t a l . 1994; Hoopes , 1994) .

Binford (1978, 1980) d i f fe ren t ia tes foraging f rom col lec t ing subs is tence

s t r a t eg i e s ; t he se co r r e l a t e w i th t he two s t r a t eg i e s o f r e s iden t i a l mob i l i t y , a s

opposed t o l og i s t i c mob i l i t y . Fo rage r s u se s t r a t eg i e s app rop r i a t e t o imme-

d i a t e - r e tu rn sy s tems , wh i l e co l l e c to r s a r e a s soc i a t ed w i th imm ed ia t e - an d /o r

de l ay ed - r e tu rn sy s t ems (Tes ta r t, 1982 ). Th e h igh mob i l i ty o f f o r age r s and

a m o r e r e g u l a r d ai ly fo o d p r o c u r e m e n t a r e e x p e c t e d t o a t tr a c t l o w - b u l k

inpu t s . Va r i ab i l i t y be tween camps i s l i ke ly t o be r e l a t ed w i th t he s ea sona l

sche dul ing of ac tivi ti es . Co l lec tors ac t iv i t ies shou ld be mo re v i s ib le a rc hae -

o logica l ly ; a l so , in t ras ite var iab i l i ty wo uld b e grea te r than i s fou nd in fora-

ge r s s i t es ( s ee e thnog raph i c ca se s t udy by M eehan , 1982 ).

I n cons ide r i ng why som e popu l a t i ons ch oose r e s iden t i a l mob i l it y wh i l e

o the r s p r e f e r l og i s t i c mob i l i t y , B in fo rd no t ed t ha t such va r i a t i on i s r e l a t ed

to env i ronm en ta l va r i ab l e s . M ob i l i t y s t r a teg i e s ( o r com bina t i on o f s t r a t e -

g i e s ) exh ib it ed by hun t e r -ga the r e r s a r e s e l ec t ed t o cope w i th t he s t r uc tu r e

o f f oo d r e sou rce s i n a de f i ned e nv i ron me n t ( a l so s ee Ke l l y, 1983 , pp . 277 ,

1992) . Th i s a rgumen t ho ld s t ha t , s i nce humans a r e ene rgy -cap tu r i ng sys -

t ems , t he o rgan i za t ion o f t e chno log y is app l i ed t o solv ing p rob l ems o f cop -

ing w i th t he ene rgy -en t ropy s t r uc tu r e . I t i s i n t h i s con t ex t t ha t t he p roces s

o f f ood p roduc t i on and /o r t he a s soc i a t ed t e chno logy i s p l aced . S ign i f i c an t

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f c o l l e c t o r s e m e r g e i n a c o m p a r i s o n

o f adap t a t i on s t o coas t a l e s t ua r i ne env i ron men t s and i n l and t r ans i t iona l s a -

vannas .


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o l l e c t o r V a r i a b i l i t y i n o l o m b i a

5

T H E N O R T H W E S T O F S O U T H A M E R IC A : L A C O S T A

C O L O M B I A N A

T h e C a r i b b e a n r e g io n o f w h a t i s t o d a y th e R e p u b l i c o f C o l o m b i a is

cha rac t e r i z ed by s t r ong var iab i li ty in am oun t o f p r ec ip i t a t ion a s we l l a s i n

topog raph i c and phys iog raph i c s t r uc tu r e . Cons ide r ed t o be t he no r the rn

lowlands o f t he And ean fo ldbe l t (F ig . 1 ), t he a r ea ha s a h igh de g ree o f

env i ronmen ta l d ive r s i t y t ha t r anges f rom ve ry d ry de se r t w i th dunes (A l t a

Gu a j i r a ) , we t l ands (Mo m pox Depre s s ion ) , and s avannas (Bo l iva r) to c l oud

fo re s t and pe rmanen t g l ac i e r s (S i e r r a Nevada de San t a Mar t a ) . P r ev ious

r e sea r ch on fo r age r s and co l l e c to r s ha s been concen t r a t ed a lmos t exc lu -

s ive ly on t he C a r ibbean l it to r a l. The r ecen t l y com ple t ed i n l and San J ac in to

p ro j ec t i n t e r j e c t s a new adap t i ve s t r a t egy and a new eco log i ca l zone i n to

the deba t e s abou t pa th s t o f ood p roduc t i on i n t h i s a r ea .

In a pp roac h ing t he de l i nea t i on o f pa s t adap t ive s t r a t eg i e s , t he f i rs t

ques t i on t o a r i se conce rns t he r e l a t ionsh ip o f the p r e sen t env i ronm en t t o

pas t condi t ions and char t ing the s igni f icant changes . I t i s c lear tha t the

lowlands o f no r the rn Co lombia have i n f ac t been a f f ec t ed by s i gn i f i c an t

env i ronmen ta l changes . I t i s t hough t t ha t human ac t i v i t i e s may have p l ayed

a ro l e i n t he t r ans fo rma t ion o f t he f auna l and f l o ra l d i st r i bu t ions ( s ee Pa r -

sons and Bow en , 1966; Gordon , 1957 ; Pa r sons, 1980 ; Oy ue l a , 1987b , P l aza s

e t a l . 1993; Bray , 1995) . I t i s genera l ly accepted tha t pas t g lac ia l ac t iv i t i es

had l it tl e e f f ec t on t em pe ra tu r e be low an a l t i tude o f 2000 m. Pas t f l uc tua -

t i ons in t emp e ra tu r e a r e though t t o be on ly 1 o r 2~ above o r be low the

p r e s e n t - d a y n o r m a l ( V a n d e r H a m m e n , 1 9 8 6 , p . 5 7 i ) . W h i l e t e m p e r a t u r e

was n o t s e r i ous ly a f f ec t ed by a rea l o r g loba l cl ima t ic changes , o the r im-

p o r t a n t e c o l o g i c a l v a r i a b le s r e s p o n d e d t o u p l a n d c l im a t i c s h if ts w i th

change s i n p r ec ip i t a ti on pa t t e rn s , t he vo lum e o f r ive r s, amo un t o f s ed imen -

t a t i on , and s ea l eve l s ( s ee Thompson

e t a l .

1985 ; Sh imada

e t a l .

1990).

Van de r Hammen (1982 , p . 62 ) p roposes a c l o se r e l a t i onsh ip be tween

low sea - l eve l pe r i ods and s avannas i n the Q ua t e rn a ry ( s ee a l so W i jms t r a

a n d V a n d e r H a m m e n , 1 9 6 6 ) . B a s e d o n r e s e a r c h i n G u y a n a a n d S u r i n a m ,

he con c lude s I t s eem s t ha t l ow sea leve l and s avannahs a lways go t o -

ge th e r (Van de r Ham m en , 1983 , p . 25 ) . Th i s s eem s t o co r r e l a t e w i th po l l en

d i a g r a m s o f L a k e V a le n ci a (V e n e z u e la ) a n d t h e P e t e n ( G u a t e m a l a ) ( M a r k -

graf , 1989, pp . 3-9) . Lo w sea leve ls a f fec t in land w ate r t ab le leve ls and the

d ra inage cha rac t e ri s t ic s o f so i ls (Back and Han shaw , 1987 ). E v idenc e o f a

co r r e l a t i on be tw een d r a inage g r ad i en t s o f ri ve rs and ch anges i n s ea l eve l

ha s b ee n o b t a ined by s tudy ing va r i a ti on i n r ive r l eve ls o f t he B a jo M ag-

da l ena and Cauca -San J6 rge r i ve r s (Van de r Hammen , 1983 ; P l aza s e t a l .

1993; Bray , 1995; c f . Wi jmst ra , 1967) . Corre la t ions be tween r iver and sea-

l eve l changes have even been made a s f a r i n l and a s t he uppe r d r a inage


4/45

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Collector Variability in Colombia

Table I. Approximate Climatic Dry and Wet

Periods Based on Low River Levels in the

M agdalena Valley, San J6rge-Cauca, Colom bia

Dry periods Wet periods

a . e . ) B . P . )

6900?

5560 to 5400

5400 to 4800

4800 to 4600

4100 to 4600

4100 to 3850

3850 to 2700

2700 to 2000

2000 to 1500

1500 to 1350

1350 to 750

750 to 650

650 to 450

450

Data from Van der H amm en (1983, p.25); Van

der Ham me n and Noldus (1986); Plazas

e t a l .

(1993); W ijmstra (1967).

53

s y s t e m o f th e C a q u e t a R i v e r, a t r ib u t a r y o f t h e A m a z o n R i v e r ( V a n d e r

H a m m e n

e t a l .

1 9 91 ). I n t h e M a g d a l e n a v a l le y a n d t h e s a v a n n a l o w l a n d s

o f n o r t h e r n C o l o m b i a , d r y i n te r v al s h a v e b e e n i d e n ti f ie d i n w h i c h t h e a r e a

a p p a r e n t l y a s s u m e d a m o r e s a v a n n a - l i k e c h a r a c t e r ( T a b l e I ) . R e c e n t l y , t h e

v a l i d it y o f m o s t o f V an d e r H a m m e n ' s c l im a t ic s e q u e n c e f o r t h e H o l o c e n e

h a s b e e n c o n f i r m e d b y th e i c e - co r e r e c o r d s f r o m H u a s c a r f in , i n n o r t h e r n

P e r u . T h e r e c o r d , e s p e c i a ll y f r o m t h e d u s t i n t h e i c e c o r e , h a s p e a k s r e -

m a r k a b l y s i m il a r t o t h o se o f t h e d r y p e r i o d s o f V an d e r H a m m e n ' s s e q u e n c e

( T h o m p s o n

e t a l .

1995) .

C o l l e c t o r s o f E s t u a r y E n v i r o n m e n t s

S h e l l f i s h G a t h e r e r s a n d F i s h e r m e n

C h a n g e s i n d r a in a g e s y s t e m s a n d s e a l e v e l a f f e c t p o p u l a t i o n d i s tr i b u -

t i o n a n d d e n s i t y a l o n g t h e c o a s t a s w e l l a s a lo n g t h e r i v e r a n d s t r e a m s y s -

t e m s . T o e v a l u a t e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e c h a n g e s , i t is n e c e s s a r y to r e v i e w t h e

f a c t o r s a f f e c t in g th e f o r m a t i o n a n d e v o l u t i o n o f e s t u a r y e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e

d i s c e r n e d p a t t e r n is t h e n i n t e r p r e t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t e m p o r a l a n d s p a t i a l

d i s t r ib u t i o n s o f th e e x c a v a t e d s h el l m i d d e n s o f th e C a r i b b e a n l i tt o r a l o f

n o r t h w e s t e r n S o u t h A m e r i c a .


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5 Oyuela Caycedo

She l l m iddens a r e one o f t he m os t v i si b le k inds o f s i te s p rodu ced by

co l l ec to r s ( she ll m iddens p rod uce d by na tu r a l p roc es se s a lso ex i st ). We

nee d t o un de r s t and how she ll m idd ens fo r m ed and t he s i gn i fi c ance o f the

spa t ia l an d tem pora l d i scont inui t ies o f she l l m idden s as ecofac ts . A s igni f i-

c a n t a d v a n c e m e n t i n a d d r e s si n g s u c h q u e s t io n s w a s m a d e w h e n B a i l e y

(1983) sugges t ed t he pos s ib il it y t ha t coas t a l m idd ens shou ld be exam ined

th roug h the s t udy o f t he spa t i a l d i s con t inu i t ie s . H e i den ti f ie s two key f ac -

to r s t ha t have shap ed t he c l as s ica l pos tdep os i t i ona l exp l ana t i on o f t he ge n -

e r a t i on o f d i scon t inu i ti e s : va r i a t ion i n t he l oca l avai lab i li ty and abu nda nce

o f t he m ar ine mo l lu sks and d i s ca rd ing behav io r . O the r f ac to r s r e l a t ed t o

bo th m idden fo rma t ion and d i s con t inu it i e s i nc lude o sc il l at ion o f s ea l evel ,

s i lt ing i n a r ea s o f ma r ine vege t a t i on , f o rm a t ion o f bay mou th ba r s , and

t ec ton i c movemen t s , a s we l l a s exhaus t i on o f a p r e f e r r ed food supp ly (Hur t ,

1974; MeUars , 1987; Sha ckle ton and Van Andel , 1986; Co oke , 1987; Su guio

e t a l . 1992).

Sea - l eve l t r ansg re s s ions have an eno rmous impac t on t he d i s t r i bu t i on

o f f auna and f l o r a , e spec i a l l y i n r i ve r va l l ey d r a inages , whe re t he g r ad i en t

and se d im en ta t i on p roces se s change ( Inman , 1983 ). Sea -l eve l t r ansg re s s ion

lower s t he g r ad i en t and u sua l l y r e su l ts i n inc r ea sed s ed im en ta t i on and t he

expans ion o f fl oodp lain s . I n t u rn , t h is l e ads t o t he fo rma t ion o f r i ve rine

t e r r ace s , wh ich de t e rmine t he l oca t i on and po t en t i a l s t ra t i fi c a ti on o f a r -

chaeo log i ca l s i t e s (Ga rdne r and Donahue , 1985 ) .

Th e d i sp l acem en t o f t he sho re l i ne ha s an impac t on t he fo rma t ion o f

es tuar ies s ince the i r or ig ins a re l inked wi th sea- leve l t ransgress ions (Meis le r

e t a l . 1984 ; Kra f t, 1985 ; W ood ro f f e e t a l . 1988) . The no r thwes t e rn Sou th

A m e r i c a s h e l l m i d d e n s w e r e l o c a t e d i n e s t u a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . U n d e r -

s t and ing t he o r ig in and vu lne rab il i ty o f t he e s tua r i e s i n no r thw es t e rn Sou th

Am er i ca can l e ad t o a pa r t ia l unde r s t and ing o f t he fo rma t ion and deve l -

opmen t o f she l l m iddens i n t he se h igh -b iomass ecosys t ems (Knox , 1986 ) .

Al l ev idence indica tes tha t es tuar ies fo rm dur ing pe r iods of sea- leve l

t ransgress ion (K ennish , 19 86, p . 41) . I t can be a rgued tha t the longevi ty of

es tuar ies i s cont ro l led pr imar i ly by sea- leve l changes , t ec tonic m ove m ents ,

and prec ip i ta t ion ra tes . Wet c l imates and h igh sea levels increase the se d im ent

f lux in coas ta l systems, prom ot ing w idesp read de pos i t ion of mar ine sedim ents ,

fo rma t ion o f s andba r s , and o the r phys iog raph i c cond i t i ons t ha t a r e r equ i r ed

for the form at ion o f shel l beds . Low sea leve ls resu l t in e ros ion and no nd e-

pos i t ion . Thus , a eus ta t ic r i se of sea leve l tends to pro long the l i fe span of

an es tuary and a drop tends to sho r ten i t (Kennish , 1986, p . 48) .

In l i gh t o f t he r e l a t ion o f s ea -l eve l changes t o e s tua r ine fo rma t ion ,

O y u e l a a n d R o d r l g u e z ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a v e p r o p o s e d a m o d e l f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e

spa t i a l and t em pora l d i s con tinu i ti e s o f she l l m idd ens i n no r thw es t e rn Co -

lombia . Th e mod e l , d i s cus sed below , de sc r ibe s t he dynam ic r e l a t i onsh ip


7/45


Table IL Periods of Shell Midd en Formation and Sea-Level Transgressions

Evidence of

We t pe ri ods B .P . ) Se a - l e ve lransgression Shell midden formation

5 5

5400 to 48 00 M arin e e rrace Puerto Hormiga

Pue r t o C ha c ho

4100 to 4600 ? Unidentified

3850 to 27 00 M ar in e erraces; coral formation Canapote

Bar6) 1 to 3 m above present Barlovento

dated by C-14 to 2800 B.P. ~ 150

years an d 2 700 B.P. -+ 90 yea rs

Location; shell midden dates

000 to 1500

1350 to 750

Shell midden dates; palynology

Marta

Mina de Oro

Tasajeras

Loma de Lopez

Ceeilio

Cangarti

Palmira

Estorbo 1

650 to 450 Palynology ;marine terrace; shell

dates Unidentified

a m o n g h u m a n c o l le c to r s , e s t u a r in e e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f sh e ll

m i d d e n s ; i t is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e s p a ti a l a n d t e m p o r a l d i s t r ib u t i o n s a n d e n -

v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t e x t s o f s h el l m i d d e n s f r o m a ll o f t h e s i te s in n o r t h w e s t e r n

S o u t h A m e r i c a t h a t h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d o r w h e r e e n o u g h d a t a a r e a v a i l-

a b l e f o r u s e i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

E s t u a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s p r e s e n t a p a t c h y s p a t ia l d is t r ib u t i o n . F u r t h e r -

m o r e , e s t u a r i n e f a u n a m a i n l y o r i g in a t e i n t h e s e a . M o s t o f t h e s p e c i e s f o u n d

o n t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f h a v e m i g r a t o r y cy c le s in v o l v in g t h e u s e o f e s t u a r i e s

a s n u r s e r y g r o u n d s b e f o r e t h e c r e a t u r e s m i g r a t e t o t h e o p e n s e a . I n g e n e r a l

e s t u a r i n e s p e c i e s d i v e r s it y is l o w , b u t t h o s e a d a p t e d t o t h is s e a s o n a l e n v i -

r o n m e n t a r e e x t r e m e l y a b u n d a n t V e r n b e r g , 19 8 3, p . 4 3 ). T h e m o d e l a r g u e s

t h a t s h e l l m i d d e n s f o r m i n n o r t h e r n C o l o m b i a d u r i n g s e a - le v e l t r a n s g r e s -

s io n s w h e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s f a v o r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f e s t u a ri n e r e -

s o u r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y s h e l lf i sh p o p u l a t i o n s r - s e l e c t e d s p e c i e s ) . S h e l l f is h c a n

t h e n b e c o m e a n a b u n d a n t a n d p r e d ic t a b le r e s o u r c e f o r h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n

u s e . C o n v e r s e l y , d u r i n g s e a - l e v e l r e g r e s s io n s s h e l lf is h p o p u l a t i o n s d e c r e a s e

p r i m a r i ly a s a c o n se q u e n c e o f t h e r ed u c t i o n a n d d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f m o s t

e s t u a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e s e c h a n g e s i n s e a l ev e l a r e c l o s e ly r e l a t e d t o

w e t a n d d r y p e r i o d s s e e T a b le I ) . T h e s e f a c t o r s h a v e a p r i m a r y e f f e c t o n

t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d v i si bi li ty o f s h e ll m i d d e n s o n t h e l a n d s c a p e T a b l e I I ) .

T h e g r a d u a l d e c l i n e in e st u a r in e r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e i r e x p l o i t a t io n c a n p u s h


8/45

56 Oyuela Caycedo

human populations to change their subsistence strategies for alternative

food sources such as open sea or river fishing. In this dynamic set of re-

lationships, the discerned pattern is as follows.

1. A high temporal correlation exists among the beginning of shell

midden formation, the slow rising of sea level, and wetter climatic

periods.

2. Low frequencies of shell midden deposits are found during low

sea levels and during dry periods. In the archaeological record,

this correlates with temporal gaps or a low frequency of shell

middens.

3. The spatial distribution of shell middens is concentrated around

active or extinct estuarine environments, resulting in a patchy

distribution that may or may not accord with current environmental

conditions but reflects conditions in the past.

4. Between estuarine zones, the human population placed an

emphasis on other subsistence resources that do not produce shell

middens.

The diversity of factors governing shellfish population growth rates

precipitation, temperature, sediment deposition, and spread of currents)

complicates the determination of the seasonality of shellfish exploitation.

In the case of Colombia, we have very little information about seasonal

availability of shellfish for places such as the Cienaga Grande de Santa

Marta. However, such data as exist indicate that shellfish are relatively

available all year-round. In contrast, fish availability in the estuaries is

highly seasonal Hernandez, 1986; Rivera

e t aL

1980).

Direct evidence of seasonality is not presently available in the archae-

ological reports describing excavated shell middens. Hence, the role of

shellfish collection in a seasonal calendar of resource procurement is un-

known; this makes it difficult to understand the seasonal variability of

coastal collectors for comparison with inland collectors.

Four zones of major shell midden concentration are recognized in north-

ern Colombia Fig. 1). Each of these zones reflects a particular discrete history

of exploitation; that is, the shell midden zones do not have long life spans.

Zone I : C ana l de l D i que and C art agena

This zone can be subdivided into lacustrine subzones of the Canal del

Dique and the Bay of Cartagena. The best-studied shell middens in the

first subzone are Puerto Chacho and Puerto Hormiga. Representative of


9/45

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10/45

8

Oyuela-Caycedo

Table IIL C-14 Dates of Northern Colombian Shell Middens

Zone I: Cartagena-Canal del Dique (Uncalibrated Dates)

Sample No. Material Date B.P.

Barlovento

Canapote

Puerto Hormiga

W-741 Shell 2980 __. 120

W-743 Shell 3140 120

W-739 Shell 3470 120

Y-1318 Char coal 3510 100

Y-1760 Ch ar co al 3730 - 120

Y-1317 Ch ar co al 3890 100

1-1123 Charcoal 4502 250

SI-15t Charcoal 4820__. 100

1-445 Shell 4875 170

SI-152 Shell 4970 70

SI-153 Shell 5040 70

Puerto Chacho Beta-26200 Cha rc oal 5220 90

~Sources: Rubin and Alexander (1960, p. 180); Reichel (1986, p.

81, 1965a, p. 53, 1985, pp. 175-176); Stuiver (1969, pp. 631-633);

Legros (1990).

the second subzone are the shell middens of Canapote and Bariovento (Fig.

2, Table III).

Puerto Chacho.

Puerto Chacho is located on the right margin of the

Canal del Dique (Department of Bolivar), approximately 2.5 km from the

shell midden of Puerto Hormiga and 13.5 km from the coastline. The site

has the form of a long S with a west-east orientation, a length of 84 m,

and a width that fluctuates between 14 and 29 m. The most abundant mol-

lusks are members of the genera Pitar and are found throughout the whole

se que n c e . Le s se r qua n t i t i e s o f

Crassostrea rhizophorae Melongena

melongena

and some other small mollusks indicate the closeness of the

site to the beach. Only the middle occupation of the site has been dated

by C-14; this date is 5220 B.P. + 90 years (Legros, 1990; Ro drfguez, 1995).

Puerto Hormiga and Mons~.

Puerto Hormiga and Puerto Chacho are

located on the same alluvial terrace, but Puerto Chacho is on its border.

Puerto Hormiga is located 300 m from the natural channel of the Canal

del Dique in the high part of an alluvial terrace. The shell midden had a

ring shape, with a diameter of 77 m from north to south, 85 m from east

to west, and a height of 1.2 m. The midden is composed of 75% shells of

Pitar sp., which lives in shallow water environments, and 25% shells of Os-

trea sp., which require marshy environments (Reichel, 1965a). This shell

midden suggests that the channel was directly influenced by the sea and

that the site was beside a bay or big lagoon formed after a sea-level trans-

gression. The site was occupied during a wet period (Table I and Fig. 4).


11/45

o l l e c t o r V a r i a b i l i ty i n

Colombia

9

Monsfi, which is close to Puerto Hormiga and to the sea (3 km today),

is not a shell midden. Like Puerto Hormiga, Monsfi is a mound with a ring

form. The C-14 dates and the diverse cultural material indicate that it is

younger than Puerto Hormiga, with occupations between 4270 B.P. +-- 80

years and 3230 B.P. ___90 years. In 1976 Reichel placed the age of the site

between Canapote and Puerto Hormiga. Later, in 1985, as a result of two

dates obtained from shell samples, he proposed an earlier occupation (the

Turbana Phase, Monstl) than that of Puerto Hormiga. There are a number

of problems with shell dates, as Reichel fully recognized (personal com-

munication, 1992; see also Rodriguez, 1995; Wippern, 1987). Here, we ac-

cept his first estimate since it makes more sense in relation to the cultural

assemblage recovered.

The question arises as to why this site which is relatively close to the

channel and the sea is not a shell midden. One answer is that no estuary

or shellfish beds were available for exploitation. Monsfi s formation probably

occurred during a period of falling sea level and dry climate, when the es-

tuarine environment was retreating or changing to a more riverine form.

The faunal remains at Monsfi suggest a riverine environment, similar

to present lowland and savanna areas, where deer, armadillos, jaguar, and

monkeys were hunted during occupations of the site defined by different

ceramic phases (Turbana, Monsfi, Pangola, and Barlovento phases).

Through time there was an increase in the exploitation of sea and estuarine

resources (see Reichel, 1985, Tables XLIII and XLIV), most notably during

the cultural period called Barlovento (so called due to the similarity with

material from the shell midden of Barlovento located close to Cartagena).

This shift is possibly the result of the next sea-level transgression and grad-

ual return to the wetter conditions dated between 3500 and 2700 B.P. (Ta-

bles I and II). The species exploited during this phase include turtles and

fish of various species, but frequency information is limited. In order of

abundance, the mollusks are Strombus gigas Am pullarius sp., and

Melongena melongena. The main purpose for collecting Strombus gigas can

be interpreted as acquiring the raw materials for agricultural hoes in the

Barlovento Phase (as favored by the excavator) or as axes for canoe manu-

facturing (Rodrlguez, personal communication, I990).

To summarize the evidence from these several sites, it is likely that

the Puerto Chacho site was occupied during a period that saw the inten-

sification of shellfish exploitation. The Puerto Hormiga midden is a result

of intensive exploitation of these resources during a period of transgression

and formation of estuarine environments in a wet climate. Later, the drop

in sea level limited the resources and moved the coastline farther away.

The people remained in the area but with different subsistence strategies

emphasizing inland gathering and sea and river fishing. Monsfi shows this


12/45

60 Oyuela Caycedo

k i n d o f a d a p t a t i o n , a n d a s e x p e c t e d , t h e c l i m a t e w as d r y d u r i n g t h e s i te s

i n it ia l f o r m a t i o n . A t t h e e n d o f t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e B a r -

l o v e n t o P h a s e , t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t p e o p l e a g a i n b e g a n t o e x p l o i t a n

e n v i r o n m e n t m o r e a f f e c t e d b y th e s e a . T h i s s u g ge s ts a n o t h e r t r a n s g r e s s i o n

t h a t f a v o r e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s h e ll m i d d e n s o f C a r t a g e n a . I t s h o u l d b e

n o t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e r i v e ri n e a n d s w a m p a d a p t a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e s a m e

p e r i o d a s P u e r t o H o r m i g a b u t t h e se a r e v e ry p o o r ly u n d e r s t o o d ( s ee A n -

g u l o , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 8 b ) .

Canapote.

T h e s it e li es 30 0 m f r o m t h e e s t u a r i n e l a g o o n o f T e s c a a n d

1 6 0 0 m f r o m t h e c o a s t i n a m a r i n e f o r m a t i o n . B i s c h o f ( 1 9 6 6 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t

t h e a r e a o f t h e s it e w a s a n i s l a n d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e e a r l y o c c u p a t i o n s i n c e

t h e m o l l u s k r e s o u r c e s o f - t h e sh e l l m i d d e n d o n o t i n d ic a t e d e p e n d e n c y o n

t h e l a g o o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o m o l l u s k o r f i s h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s a r e g i v e n a n d

o n l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c e r a m i c s is a v ai la b l e ( G e b h a r d

et al.,

1 9 8 8 ) .

Barlovento.

T h e s i t e i s l o c a t e d o n a s a n d b a r t h a t f o r m s t h e s a l t m a r s h

l a g o o n o f T e s c a a n d is 3 0 0 m f r o m t h e s e a s h o r e ( R e i c h e l , 1 9 5 5 ). T h e s i t e

is 2 - 3 m a b o v e m o d e r n s e a l e ve l. S ix s h e ll m o u n d s i n t e r c o n n e c t e d a t t h e

b a s e d e f i n e a c ir c le . T h e m e a n h e i g h t o f th e m o u n d s w a s 3 m , w i th s o m e

r i si n g t o 6 m . T h e a r e a o f t h e s h e l l m i d d e n s w a s c l o s e t o 1 0 ,0 0 0 m 2 . T w o

c u t s m a d e i n s e p a r a t e s h el l m i d d e n s i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r c o m p o -

s i ti o n . I n C u t I t h e r e w a s a h i g h d e n s i t y o f

Galeodes patula

( a l s o i d e n t i f i e d

a s

Melongena melongena ;

t h i s s n a i l is ty p i c a l o f s h a l lo w w a t e r s w i t h m u d

s o il s. T h e s e c o n d s h e ll i d e n t i f i e d i n q u a n t i t y w a s

Chione histrionica

( a l s o

i d e n t i f i e d a s

Venus

s p . ), w h i ch i s a l s o f o u n d i n s h a l l o w w a t e r s . C u t I I r e -

v e a l e d m o l l u s k s s im i l a r to t h o s e i n C u t I b u t a l so c o n t a i n e d a l a y e r o f

Cryptolgramma braziliana.

F i s h , r e l a t iv e l y a b u n d a n t i n t h e o l d e s t l a y e r s ,

h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s

Chaetodipterus

s p . a n d

Cardisoma

sp.

B o t h s h e l l m i d d e n s a r e r e l a t e d w i t h a w e t c l i m a t i c p e r i o d a n d a g r a d -

u a l r i s in g o f s e a l e v e l f r o m a n i n i t ia l l e v e l b e l o w t h a t o f th e p r e s e n t . A p -

p a r e n t l y , a g r a d u a l p r o c e s s o f s e a - l e v e l ri s e w a s i n i t ia t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f th e C a n a p o t e p h a s e . B i s c h o f ( 1 9 6 6) h y p o t h e s i z e d th a t t h e l a g o o n o f

T e s c a w a s f o r m e d a f t e r t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f C a n a p o t e , t h is f it s w e l l w i t h t h e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s e a - l e v e l t r a n s g r e s s i o n p r e s e n t e d h e r e . P o s s i b ly , t h e e s t u -

a r y r e a c h e d i ts m a t u r i t y d u r in g t h e B a f l o v e n t o p h a s e w h e n s e a l e v e l w a s

a t i t s h i g h e s t , p r o b a b l y c l o s e t o o r s l i g h t l y a b o v e t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l . T h i s

c o r r e l a t e s w e ll w i t h t h e m a r i n e i n f lu e n c e s o b s e r v e d a t M o n s f i d u r i n g t h e

B a r l o v e n t o p h a s e.

A n o t h e r l in e o f e v i d e n c e f a v o r i n g t hi s se a - le v e l o sc i ll a ti o n b e t w e e n 1

a n d 3 m a b o v e t h e p r e s e n t f o r th i s r e g i o n o f C a r t a g e n a w a s p r e s e n t e d b y

B u r e l a n d V e r n e t t e ( 19 8 1 ). T h e i r s t u d y es t ab l is h e s t h a t s o m e c o r a l f o r m a -

t i o n s a r e 3 m a b o v e t h e p r e s e n t - d a y s e a l e v el , a s a re s o m e s h e l l m i d d e n

b e d s . S a m p l e s f r o m t h e s h e l l m i d d e n d e p o s i t s g iv e d a t e s o f 2 8 5 0 B . E ---


13/45

Co llector Variabi l ity in C olombia

6

1 5 0 y ea r s , a n d t h o s e f o r t h e co r a l f o r m a t i o n s o f 2 7 0 0 B .P . ___ 9 0 y ea r s . T h i s

i n f o r m a t i o n a c c o r d s w i t h t h e p r o p o s e d m o d e l o f s e a -l e v e l t r a n s g re s s i o n ,

w h i c h p e r m i t t e d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e B a r l o v e n t o a n d C a n a p o t e s h e l l m i d -

d e n s a n d i s s e e n i n th e l a t e r le v e l s a t M o n s ~ T a b l e I I ).

Z o n e I I: G u l f o f M o r r o s q u i i l o

T h i s z o n e i s n o t w e l l - k n o w n . F e w e x c a v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d

a n d t h e r e s u l ts a r e s ti ll v e r y p r e l i m i n a r y S a n t o s a n d O r t iz - T r o n c o s o , 1 9 8 6 ;

V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d O r t iz - T ro n c o s o , 1 9 92 , p p . 1 8 - 1 9 ). T o d a y , t h is z o n e

h a s d e v e l o p e d a l i ne o f s m a ll l a g o o n s a n d p a t c h e s o f m a n g r o v e , t h a n k s t o

t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n e w s a n d b a r i n f r o n t o f a n o l d s e r ie s o f b e a c h r i d g es

t h a t r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e c o a s t. T h i s s m a l l sy s t e m o f l o n g i t u d i n a l l a g o o n s a r e

i n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e d e l t a o f th e S i n f i R i v e r F i g . 1 ). S e v e r a l s h e l l

m i d d e n s a n d a s t r a t i f i e d s i t e h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s z o n e . A v a i l a b l e

i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h r e e m i d d e n s i n d i c a t e s tw o p e r i o d s o f s he l l m i d d e n f o r -

m a t i o n f o r t h e a r e a . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s t r a ti f ie d s i te c o n f i r m s a l o w e r s e a

l e ve l b e f o r e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s h e l l m i d d e n s o f t h e l as t p e r io d .

T h e f i rs t w e t p e r i o d o c c u r s b e t w e e n 3 8 5 0 a n d 2 7 0 0 B .P . I t is c h a r a c -

t e r i z e d b y t h e s i t e o f

Las Caracuchas.

T h i s s i t e i s a l a r g e s h e l l m i d d e n o f

1 0 , 0 0 0 m z t h a t i n s o m e p a r t s r i s e s a s h i g h a s 6 m . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e s h e l l

m i d d e n is l o c a t e d 7 k m f r o m t h e p r e s e n t s h o r e l i n e a n d 1 4 k m t o t h e w e s t

o f t h e S i n t ~ R i v e r . T h e s h e l l s f o u n d a t t h i s s i t e a r e f r o m a n e s t u a r y , w h e r e

a n e x c h a n g e o f se a a n d r iv e r w a t e r o n c e o c c u r r e d , a c o n c l u s io n s u p p o r t e d

b y r e c e n t g e o m o r p h o l o g i c al s tu d ie s in th e a r e a V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d O r -

t i z -Troncoso , 1992 , p . 19) .

T h e s e c o n d w e t p e r i o d a ss o c i a te d w i t h m i d d e n f o r m a t i o n i s b e t w e e n

2 0 0 0 a n d 1 5 0 0 B . P . O n l y t w o s h e l l m i d d e n s a r e k n o w n . T h e f i r s t o n e i s L a

Aguada.

T h i s s i t e i s a s p a r s e s h e l l m i d d e n l o c a t e d b e s i d e t h e s e a . I t m e a s -

u r e s 1 0 0 m i n l e n g t h a n d 2 0 - 6 0 c m i n d e p t h . T h e s e c o n d s i t e i s

La Isla,

w h i c h i s d e f i n e d b y t w o sh e l l m i d d e n s . O n e i s 1 5 m i n d i a m e t e r ; t h e o t h e r

is f o r m e d b y t w o m o u n d s o f 5 0 0 0 m z t o ta l .

Marta is

n o t a s h e l l m i d d en b u t ap p ea r s t o b e a s t ra t i fi ed s it e o f 3 5 , 00 0 m 2

a n d 1 to 3 m i n h e i g h t ; it i s c l o s e t o l a g o o n s , s w a m p s , a n d t h e s e a . T h e

s i t e a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s a b u r i a l p l a c e . S h e l l h o o k s a s w e l l a s h o e s m a d e o f

s h e l l

Strombus

s p .) a n d l it h ic s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . Its, i n i t ia l o c c u p a t i o n

s t a r t s a t 2 1 3 0 B . P . _.+ 9 0 y ea r s . T h e i m p o r t an ce o f t h i s s i t e i s t h a t i t w as

f o r m e d i n a d r y p e r i o d T a b le s I a n d IV , F ig . 4 ) a n d a g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l

s t u d y o f t h e s it e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i n it ia l o c c u p a t i o n o c c u r r e d w h e n t h e

s e a l e v e l w a s 1 m b e l o w t h e p r e s e n t . L e n s e s o f s he l ls w e r e f o u n d d e p o s i t e d

i n t h e l o w e r s t r a t a . T h i s o c c u r r e n c e m a y r e f l e c t t h e r i s e i n s e a l e v e l a n d


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62

Table IV.. C-14 Dates of Northern Colom bian Zone II: G ulf

of

Mo rrosquillo Uncalibrated Dates)

Sample No. M at er ia l Date B.P.

M a r t a G r N - 1 1 2 2 4 C h a r c o a l 2 01 0 --- 45

Gr N- 11 30 2 C ha rc oa l 2080 +_- 140

GrN -123 45 C ha rc oa l 2130 __- 90

GrN-11303 Shell 1740 50

aSource: Van Zweden 1994, p. 37)~

Oyuela Caycedo

t e m p o r a r y s h o r t - li v e d f o r m a t i o n s o f e s t u a ri e s . A d a t e f r o m s h e ll f o u n d i n

t h e s e l en s e s f a l l s , a s p r ed i c t ed , i n t o a w e t p e r i o d [ 1 7 4 0 B .P . _+_ 5 0 y ea r s

G r N - 1 1 3 0 3 ) ] . G e o m o r p h o l o g y s t u d ie s s h ow t h a t th e h a b i t a t i o n a r e a o f th e

s i te i n c r e a s e d i n s iz e o v e r ti m e a s t h e s e a l e v el ro s e . T h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e

o f sh e ll s f r o m t h e u p p e r s t r a ta o f t h e m i d d e n h a s b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e -

f l e c ti n g a l e ss e n in g o f m o l l u s k i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e d i e t V a n Z w e d e n , 1 9 9 4 ,

p . 3 7 ), b u t I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s i te w a s m a i n l y a fi s hi n g s t a t io n o n a n

o p e n b e a c h w h i c h o c c a si o n a ll y h a d a c c e ss t o e s tu a r i n e r e s o u r c e s w h e n t h e

s e a l e v e l w a s r is in g . T h e h o e s m a d e o f sh e l l m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s h a v i n g

a u s e i n c a n o e m a n u f a c t u r e .

T h e s ti ll i n c o m p l e t e s t u d y o f th i s a r e a s u g g e st s t h a t s h e ll m i d d e n s w e r e

d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e w e t p e r i o d o f 2 0 0 0 to 1 5 00 B .P . a s t h e M a r t a s i te

s e e m s t o c o n f ir m . T h e o n l y s it e th a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o r m e d b e f o r e t h i s

is L a s C a r a c u c h a s a n d it is m o s t p r o b a b l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i th B a r -

l o v e n t o , f o r m e d b e t w e e n 3 5 0 0 a n d 2 7 0 0 B . P . U n p u b l i s h e d r a d i o c a r b o n

d a t e s s u p p o r t t h i s c h r o n o l o g y S a n t o s , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 1 9 9 2 ) .

Z o n e I I I : C i e n a g a G r a n d e d e S a n t a M a l t a

T h i s z o n e c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b z o n e s . T h e f i r s t , t h e I s l a d e

S a l a m a n c a , is t h e s a n d b a r t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e 5 7 , 70 0 h a o f s a li n e w a t e r o f

t h e C i e n a g a G r a n d e l a g o o n f r o m t h e s ea ; th e s e c o n d is t h e C i e n a g a G r a n d e

l a g o o n i t se l f; a n d t h e l a s t i s t h e s e r i e s o f s m a l l la c u s t r i n e l a g o o n s b e t w e e n

t h e g r e a t l a g o o n a n d t h e d e l ta o f t h e M a g d a l e n a R i v e r. I n th i s l a t t e r

s u b z o n e , o n l y C i e n a g a d e P a j a ra l h a s b e e n s t u d i e d F i g . 3 ) .

I n t h e p a s t , t h e a r e a t h a t b e c a m e t h e C i e n a g a G r a n d e w a s a c t u a l l y

t h e d e l t a o f t h e M a g d a l e n a R i v e r , b u t a s a r e s u l t o f t h e r i s e o f s e a l e v e l ,

t h e s a n d b a r o f t h e I sl a d e S a l a m a n c a c o n v e r t e d t h e f o r m e r d e l t a i n t o a

l a rg e s a l t w a t e r la g o o n w h i c h b e c a m e o n e o f th e m o s t p r o d u c t i v e e s t u a r i e s

o f C o l o m b i a . I t s s h a ll o w w a t e r s s u p p o r t a n a b u n d a n c e o f Ostrea plumosa


15/45

C o l l e c t o r V a r i a b i l i t y i n C o l o m b i a

6 3

C R I B B E N S E

L E N R I V E R

C a n g a r t l

T a t l a j e r a , P a l m i r a , L o s J a g u a y e s

I s l a d e S a l a m i l n e a

Cienaga

Pa j a ra l

C i e n a g a G r a n d e

de

Sanl a Marta

o

a m a d e l . o p e i

M i n a d e O r o

0 5

10

Kms

i i i

F i g . 3 . G e n e r a l m a p o f s i te s l o c a te d i n Z o n e I I h I s la d e S a l a m a n c a C i e n a g a

G r a n d e a n d C i e n a g a d e P aj a ra l .

Protothaca gram a n d o t h e r m o l l u s k s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s a h i g h f is h p o p u l a t i o n ,

e s p e c i a l l y o f s e a s o n a l m i g r a n t s p e c i e s s u c h a s Musel p .

H o l o c e n e e r a p a l e o e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e C i e n a g a h a v e b e e n d o n e

b y W i e d e m a n n ( 1 9 7 3 ) , C o h e n a n d W i e d e m a n n ( 1 9 7 3 ) , a n d V a n d e r H a m -

m e n a n d N o l d u s ( 1 9 8 6 ) . B e f o r e 7 0 0 0 B . P . t h e M a g d a l e n a R i v e r p a s s e d

t h r o u g h t h i s a r e a , a n d t h e s h o r e l i n e w a s p r o b a b l y a t l e a s t 1 0 m b e l o w i t s

p r e s e n t l e v e l, B e t w e e n 6 6 0 0 a n d 5 4 0 0 B . P . m a r i n e i n f l u e n c e s a r e p r e s e n t

a n d a r e a s o f m a n g r o v e b e g a n t o d e v e l o p . A p e r i o d o f s t a b i l i t y i n t h e m a n -

g r o v e f o r e s t w a s f o l l o w e d b y i t s g r a d u a l d e s t r u c t i o n b e t w e e n 3 4 0 0 a n d 1 9 0 0

B . P . V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d N o l d u s ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 5 8 7 ) i n t e r p r e t t h e s e c h a n g e s

a s r e s u l t in g fr o m a s e a - l e v e l t r a n s g r e s s io n o f 2 m . s u s p e c t o t h e r f o r c e s


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64

Oyuela Caycedo

Table V. C-14 Dates o f N orthern C olomb ian Shell Middens Zon e

III: Isla de Salaman ca, Cienaga Grande, and Cienaga de P ajaral

(Uncalibrated Dates)a

Sample No. M ate r ia l Date B.P.

Isla de Salamanca

Tasajeras

Palmira

Los Jagfieyes

Cangaru

Cienaga Grande

Loma de Lopez

Mina de Oro

Cienaga de Pajaral

Cecitio

M-1308-1 C h ar co al 1000 _+ 105

M -130 2 C ha rc oa l 1450 _+ 110

IA N -9 0 C h ar co a l 1615 ___ 100

U G a-8 19 Ch arco al 985 _+ 120

M-1310 She ll 825 _+ 100

M-1311 She ll 905 _+ 100

M-1312 She ll 945 _+ 100

M -1475 C ha rc oa l 1490 _+ 100

IA N -8 9 C ha rc oa l 960 _+ 375

Sources: Crane and Griffin (1965a, b, pp. 1 6-1 7, 144-145);

Mu rdy (1986); Bischof (1969).

m a y h a v e b e e n a t w o r k , s u c h a s a d r y c l im a t i c p e r i o d o r , m o r e p r o b a b l y ,

a t e c to n i c m o v e m e n t o f t h e l an d m a s s , s i nc e t h e C i e n a g a is 7 - 3 0 k m e a s t

o f t h e S a n t a M a r t a f a u l t ( W i e d e m a n n , 1 9 73 , p . 8 9 ). A f t e r 1 9 0 0 B .P . a g r a d -

u a l s e a - le v e l a d v a n c e l e d t o th e f o r m a t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t l a g o o n a n d t h e

s a n d b a r o f t h e I s la d e S a l a m a n c a ( V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d N o l d u s , 1 98 6, p .

5 8 7 ; C o h e n a n d W i e d e m a n n , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 4 0 ) .

I t is c le a r t h a t th e m o d e m C i e n e g a G r a n d a o r G r e a t L a g o o n f o r m e d

a s a r e s u l t o f s e a - l e v e l r i s e o r t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( T a b l e I I ) . T h i s p r o c e s s l e d t o

t h e r e l a t i v e s t ab i l iz a t io n o f a n e s t u a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t a f t e r 1 9 0 0 B .P . T h e d r y

p e r i o d t h a t h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d i n o t h e r a r e a s o f n o r t h e r n C o l o m b i a ,

1 5 0 0 - 1 3 5 0 B . P. , m a y i n d i c a t e s m a l l r e g r e s s io n s i n t h e s e a l e v e l, w i t h m a r k e d

c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r th e e s t u ar i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h i s w o u l d s l o w th e p o p u l a t i o n

g r o w t h o f sh e l lf is h to a p o i n t w h e r e t h e i r e x p l o i ta t i o n b y h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s

r e a c h e d a l o w l e v e l o f p r o d u c ti v it y . T h i s o r t e c t o n i c u p l i f t w o u l d e x p l a i n t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f n a t u r a l s h e l l m i d d e n s a n d m a r i n e t e r r a c e s i n t h e a r e a o f

R o d a d e r o , d a t e d t o 1 4 3 0 B .P . - 4 0 y e a r s , w it h o y s t er b e d s 1.2 5 m a b o v e

t h e p r e s e n t s e a l e v e l ( V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d N o l d u s , 1 9 8 6 , p . 5 8 7 ) . A s e x -

p e c t e d , a l l o f t h e s h e ll m i d d e n s o f th is z o n e w e r e f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e w e t p e r i o d

a f t e r t h e p h e n o m e n a b r i e f ly d e s c r i b e d a b o v e ( F ig . 4 a n d lh b le s I a n d I I ) .

Subzone s la de Sa lam anca

T h e s e s h el l m i d d e n s w e r e d e s c r ib e d f i r st b y G e r a r d o R e i c h e l D o l m a -

t o f f ( 1 9 5 4 ). H e g a v e t h e m a l a te d a t e b a s e d o n c e r a m i c s f o u n d a t th e b o t -


17/45

C

e

G

a

U

a

M

o

o

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o

C

a

C d D

q

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W

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, i

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-

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4

4

3

2

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g

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a

o

h

p

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w

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e

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6

4


18/45

66 Oyuela Caycedo

t o m o f t h e s h e l l m i d d e n s p e r t a i n i n g to t h e T a i r o n a c h i e f d o m s . H e a s s u m e d

t h e m i d d e n s r e p r e s e n t e d t e m p o r a r y c a m p s ( Ta ble V ) . T h e w h o l e I s la d e

S a l a m a n c a s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e o f s h e ll m i d -

d e n s . T h e c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e s h e ll m i d d e n s s u p p o r t s t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f s h e ll

m i d d e n f o r m a t i o n o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g w e t t e r p e r io d s : i n th i s c a s e , d u r i n g t h e

w e t p e r i o d fo l l o w i n g 1 3 5 0 B . P .

Los Jagueyes .

L o s J ag u ey es l o s t i t s u p p e r l ay e r s d u r i n g t h e co n s t ru c t i o n

o f t h e ro ad t h a t c ro s se s t h e S a l am an ca s an d b a r (A n g u l o , 1 9 7 8 ) ; 3 0 m f ro m

t h e m i d d en , a p r eh i s to r i c c em e t e ry h a s a l so b een co m p l e t e l y l o o t ed . T h e r e -

main ing midden , 50--60 cm th i ck , was excava ted in a rb i t ra ry l eve l s o f 20 cm.

T h e T a i ro n a ce ram i c s fo u n d i n a l l l ay er s in d i ca t e a r e l a t i o n sh i p w i th t h e n e i g h -

b o r i n g co m p l ex ch ie fd o m s . T h e o n l y d a t e fo r th e s i t e [1 6 1 5 B . E _ 1 0 0 y ea r s

( I A N - 9 0 ) ] i s c o n s i d e r e d a c h r o n o l o g i c a l o u t l i e r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t y p e o f

c e r a m i c s f o u n d a n d o t h e r C - 1 4 d a t e s f o r t h e r e g i o n . T h e s h e l l m i d d e n i s

c l o s e r t o t h e l a g o o n t h a n t o t h e s e a , a n d t h e s h e l l s t h a t c o m p o s e t h e s i t e

a r e

Plo to thaca gra ta

a n d

O s tr ea p lu m o s a

b o t h f r o m s h a l l o w - w a t e r e n v i r o n -

m e n t s . R e m a i n s o f b ir d s a n d f i s h w e r e a l s o f o u n d , b u t n o s p e c i e s i d e n ti f i-

c a t i o n s h a v e b e e n g i v e n .

Tasajeras.

I n t h i s a r e a , t h e s a n d b a r i s 2 0 0 m w i d e . T h i s m i d d e n h a s a

d i a m e t e r o f c lo s e t o 8 0 m a n d t h e d e p o s i t is 1 .8 m t h i c k . T h e s h e l l c o m -

p o s i t i o n a n d t h e c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f L o s J a g u e y e s .

Palmira .

C l o s e t o T a s a j e r a s a n d t o t h e l a g o o n , P a l m i r a h a s a n o v o i d

f o r m 6 0 m i n le n g t h b y 3 0 m i n w i d t h a n d 0 . 8 0 m h i g h . T h e s h e ll m i d d e n

c o m p o s i t i o n is si m i la r to t h a t o f T a s aj e ra s a n d L o s J a g u e y e s .

T h e c e r a m i c s f o u n d i n L o s J a g u e y e s , T a s a je r a , a n d P a l m i r a a r e n o t

v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e u t i li t a ri a n c e ra m i c s f o u n d i n th e n o r t h e r n l o w l a n d s

o f t h e S i e rr a N e v a d a d e S a n t a M a r t a . A c o m p a r i s o n o f th e c e r a m i c s f o u n d

i n th e s e t h r e e s i te s w i t h th o s e o f t h e T a i r o n a a r e a p l a c e t h e m b e t w e e n 1 3 50

a n d 7 5 0 B . P . T h e s it e s l a c k t h e b i c h r o m e c e r a m i c s w h i c h a r e v e r y c o m m o n

i n th e a s s e m b l a g e s o f t h e n o r t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n l o w l a n d s o f th e S i e r r a N e -

v a d a d e S a n t a M a r t a b e f o r e 1 35 0 B .P . , t h u s s u p p o r t i n g t h i s d a t e a s t h e

b e g i n n i n g f o r t h e w e t e p i s o d e .

C a n g a r u .

C a n g a r u i s c l o s e t o t h e s e a a n d , l i k e t h e o t h e r s h e l l m i d d e n s

o f t h e I s la , is p a r t o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u o u s li n e o f s h e ll m i d d e n s f o u n d i n a n

a r e a a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 k m l o n g , m o s t r e a c h i n g 1 .1 m i n t h ic k n e s s . C a n g a r u

w a s u s e d a s a b u r i a l p l a c e a s w e l l a s a n e n c a m p m e n t f o r f i s h i n g a n d s h e l l

g a t h e r i n g . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s h e l l s w e r e

D o n a x s tr ia ti cu s D o n a x d e n t i c u -

la tus

a n d

D o n a x c a r in a tu s

( 9 4 ) . T h e s e s h e ll s p r o d u c e s m a l l q u a n t i t ie s o f

m e a t , a r e v e r y c o m m o n i n s h a ll o w w a t e r s a n d s a n d , a n d a r e e a s i ly s e e n

b e t w e e n t id e s . T h e n e x t m o s t c o m m o n s p e c ie s r e c o v e r e d w a s

Pitar c irc ina ta

w h i c h is g a t h e r e d i n t h e s a m e k i n d o f e n v i r o n m e n t , f o ll o w e d b y

O s t r e a p lu -

m o s a

w h i c h i s t y p ic a l o f t h e l a g o o n . T h e m o s t c o m m o n f i s h w e r e A r / u s


19/45

C o l l e c t o r V a r i a b i l i t y i n C o l o m b i a

7

sp . and

Centropomus

sp . , bo th found in t he l agoon . Bones f rom the s ea sona l

mig ran t f ami ly

Mugilidae

were r ecove red . Tu r t l e s we re a l so exp lo i t ed . Cu l -

t u r a l ma te r i a l i nc luded beads , one hook , and g round s tone a r t i f a c t s .

The ch rono logy o f Canga ru p l ace s it w i th in t he p e r iod e s t ima ted fo r t he

oth er she ll midden s of th i s subzo ne Table V) . Th e mater ia l remains rev ea l

c lose ties to s i tes previous ly descr ibe d as par t o f the Tairona cu l ture 100 0-450

B.P. ) . One of the in te res t ing aspec ts of th i s s i te i s the presence of ceramics

tha t a r e m ore com monly r ecove red f rom the ea s t ma rg in o f t he C ienaga

Grand e , specif ic al ly f rom the she ll m iddens o f Lom a de L opez and M ina de

Oro . T he p r e sence o f c e ramics li ke those f rom l aye r C a t Mina de Oro , wh ich

a re ve ry spa r se i n t he wes t e rn l owlands and pa r t s o f t he no r the rn S i e r r a N e -

vada de Santa Mar ta , a l so a rgue for a da te a f te r 1350 B.P . Bischof , 1969) .

Subzone Cienaga Grande

In t h i s subzone on ly two she l l m iddens have been s tud i ed . Based on

the pa l eoeco log i ca l r e cons t ruc t i on o f Van de r Ha m m en and NOldus 1986) ,

o lde r shel l m idden s p robab ly occu r i n the i n t e r i o r o f t he C ienag a G rand e .

She l l m iddens can a l so be expec t ed t o have fo rmed in l and t o t he sou th o f

the C ienaga du r ing the t r ansg re s siona l o r we t pe r iods Tabl e V) . Th e s i t e s

w e r e m o s t l i k e l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h t h e w e t p e r i o d s w h e n t h e P u e r t o

H o r m i g a a n d C a n a p o t e m i d d e n s w e r e f o r m e d . T h e o n l y t w o s h el l m i d d e n s

s tud i ed i n t h i s a r ea a r e nea r ly con t emporaneous w i th t hose de sc r ibed fo r

the I s l a de Sa l amanca subzone .

Mina de Oro

Excava t ed by He nn ing B i scho f i n 1961 and s ti ll un pub -

l i shed i n f i na l f o rm, t he s i t e o f Mina de Oro i s composed o f f ou r l aye r s ,

e ach s epa ra t ed by cu l tu r a l ly s te r i le l aye rs . The two o lde s t l aye r s A and

B) we re fo rm ed b e fo re 1490 B .P . _- 100 yea r s a cco rd ing t o one C-14 d a t e

f rom the su r f ace o f l aye r B ,

B i scho f 1969) p rop oses t ha t t he ce r amics f rom l aye r C a t the M ina

de O ro s i t e and t he ea r ly phase o f t he Ta i rona ce r amics found a t Nah uan ,

a r e r e l a t ed . He sugges t s l aye r C da t e s be tween 1450 and 1200 B .E La

C c e r a m i c s w e r e e x a m i n e d b y t h e a u t h o r a t t h e A n t h r o p o lo g i c a l M u s e

o f Ba r r anqu i ll a ; t hey a r e s imi l a r to on e o f t he ce r am ic t ypes excava t ed

t h e s i te o f M a m o r o n i n G a ir a , w h e r e t w o c h a r c o a l sa m p l e s g a v e d a t e s o t

1400 B.E __. 70 ye ars an d 1170 B.P. --- 55 yea rs O yue la, 1987b). T his ref in es

t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l p l a c e m e n t o f l a y e r C a t M i n a d e O r o a n d a g r e e s w i t h

t h e e x p e c t e d f o r m a t i o n o f sh e ll m i d d e n s d u r i n g t h e w e t p e r i o d a s d e s c r i b e d

b y V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d N o l d u s 1 9 8 6) . T h e s h e ll m i d d e n w a s o c c u p i e d

unt i l approxim ate ly 1050 B.E Bischof , 1969).


20/45

8 Oyuela Caycedo

Loma de Lopez

Lo m a de L ope z is a she ll m idden wi th an a rea of 2 ha

and a maxim um thickness of 3 m (Angulo , 1978). I t is loca ted 3 km f ro m the

sho re l i ne o f t he C ienaga G rande , i n a f l oodp la in o f h igh s ed im en ta t i on .

Th e s i te i s com po sed m a in ly o f she ll s o f Protothaca grata

T h e c u l tu r a l m a t e r ia l o f L o m a d e L o p e z is s im i l ar t o C a n g a r u ( g r o u n d

s tone , sp indle whor ls ) . The pot te ry of th i s s i te i s s imi la r to tha t of the I s la

de Sa l am anca and t o t he Ta irona ce ramics p rod uce d a f t e r 1000 B .P . Th e

s i te w as ab an do ne d a t appro xim ate ly 800 B.P . ___ 100 years .

Angulo (1978) proposed tha t the s i te was in i t ia l ly occupied by agr i -

c u l tu r a l p e o p l e s w h o l a te r a b a n d o n e d it, b e in g s u b s e q u e n t l y r e o c c u p i e d b y

f i sh ing and ga the r ing peop le s . P r e sen t l y , no ev idence ex i s t s t o suppor t t h i s

hypo thes i s . Angu lo a l so cons ide r s t ha t t he se f i sh ing peop le s mig ra t ed t o

th is subzo ne f rom e l s ewhe re . I f t he subs i s t ence change t ha t he p os tu l a t e s

i s co r r ec t , a d i f f e r en t i n t e rp re t a t i on wou ld cons ide r t he change f rom ag r i -

cu l t u r e t o f ish ing a s the r e su l t o f a r e tu rn t o mo re op t ima l cond i t i ons fo r

she l l f i sh ga ther ing and f i sh ing than for agr icu l ture . These changing condi -

t i ons wo u ld occu r a s a conseque nce o f i nc r ea se s i n e s tua r ine p roduc t iv i t y

in a we t pe r iod .

Subzone of Pajaral Lagoon

Thi s l agoon has sha ll ow wa te r s , l ike the C ienaga Gran de , su r ro und ed

by mangrove fo r e s t . The on ly da t a fo r t h i s subzone come f rom two she l l

m idden s excava t ed by Angu to (1978) (Tab l e V) .

Cecilio:

Cec i l i o ha s an a r ea

o f 1 ha and is a r e l a ti ve ly sha ll ow midden 60 cm d eep . T he up pe r l eve ls

o f t he s i t e a r e cha rac t e r i z ed by

Protothaca grata

she l l s and the lower leve ls

b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f Ostrea plumosa The ma te r i a l cu l t u r e cons i s t s ma in ly o f

g round s tone and po t t e ry , showing a r e l a t i onsh ip t o t he ce r amic complexes

o f the M agd a l ena R ive r reg ion ( s ee Re i che l and Du ssan , 1991) . The f auna l

rem ains cons is t o f f ish , a ll iga tor , and tur t le o f unid ent i f ied spec ies . Close

to t he s i t e i s a c eme te ry i n a she l l m idden 3 m deep ca l l ed T i a Mar i a .

Bu r ia l s wi th of fe r ings of ceramics , f ish , she l ls , and b i rd bon es were unco v-

e r e d . A n g u l o ( 1 9 7 8 ) a s s u m e s t h a t t h e s i t e w a s c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h

Cec i l i o and was u sed a s a bu r ia l p l ace by t he i nhab i t an t s o f t ha t s i t e .

An gu lo (1978) and M urdy (1986) a rgue t ha t b ecau se o f t he s imi l ar i ti e s

o f t he Cec i l i o po t t e ry t o t ha t f r om the Magda t ena R ive r , t he she l l m iddens

o f t he C ien aga in it ia ll y w e re t he r e su l t o f some k ind o f mig ra t ion t o t h i s

zon e f rom the l a t t e r reg ion . Fu r the rm ore , t hey p ropo se t ha t l a t e r, a rou nd

1000 B.E, ev id enc e of the inf luenc e of the Tai rona cu l ture ex is ts . I d i s -

ag ree w i th t h i s v i ew in l i gh t o f t he r e su l t s f rom the r eg iona l s t udy o f Ga i r a

(Oy ue l a , 1987b). F i r st , the ce r amics o f t he M agd a l ena R iv e r r eg ion have


21/45

C ol lec to r Va r i ab i l i t y in

o l omb i a

9

a broad distribution in all of the western areas of the Sierra Nevada de

Santa Marta and can even be found in low percentages in the north. Sec-

ond, this broad distribution has not been studied in regard to ceramic ex-

change networks or even to determine how the ceramics were produced

and at what level this occurred (household, town, or specialized produc-

tion). As a consequence, we are still far from understanding the regional

variation that seems to exist between river drainages, and even within val-

leys and sea bays (Oyuela, 1985). The traditional perspective on the cul-

tures defined by ceramics (Malambo, Nahuange, Tairona) ignores the

regional variation that exists (see Bray, 1995) and does not encourage the

study of pottery production as a process or the effects of differential access

to pottery production. In any case, it is premature to talk of influences

or to make generalizations about particular pottery types as originating in

particular regions. Third, considering the advances that have been made

on the research of the chiefdoms of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

(Groot, 1985; Herrera, 1985; Oyuela, 1985, 1986a-1987b, 1990), it is more

likely that the sites represent politically and ethnically independent groups

economically tied to the highlands as suppliers of fish, calcium carbonate

from shells (used as a catalyst in the consumption of coca), and salt (Car-

denas, 1988).

In summary, the shell middens excavated in the zone of the Isla de

Salamanca, Cienaga Grande, and Pajaral chronologically corroborate the in-

dications for shell midden development during the last two wet climatic pe-

riods (1350 to 750 B.R and 650 to 450 B.P.). Indications also exist of earlier

shell midden developments during other wet periods, but many of these sites

may now be underwater or buried by sediments on the southern side of the

Great Lagoon. It is important to note that today the inhabitants still exploit

shellfish although this activity is now completely secondary to fishing, which

yields the staple food in the Isla de Salamanca (Krogzemis, 1968).

Z o n e I V G u l f o f U r a b a

Since 1976, a group of shell middens in an alluvial zone located pri-

marily on the right margin of the Gulf of Uraba has been studied. They

are relatively far from the coastline. Different forms have been identified,

such as linear ones more than 250 m in length. Other circular mounds are

30 m in diameter and 3 m high. In general, these sites are beside rivers and

small streams and probably began to form approximately 1300 years ago. All

of the investigated middens share a similar cultural inventory (ceramics, lithics,

and remains of exploited resources) and are part of what Santos (1989)


22/45

70 Oyuela Caycedo

Table

VI. C-14 Dates of Northern C olombian Shell Middens Zone

IV: Gulf of Urab~ (Uncalibrated Dates)

Sample No. M at er ia l Date B.P.

Estorbo 1 GrN-11304 C ha rc oa l 1055 _ 40

GrN -123 44 C h a rc o a l 925 __+ 45

Source: S anto s (1989).

d e f i n e d a s t h e c o m p l e j o U ra b~ i. T h e b e s t d o c u m e n t e d o f t h e s e s it e s i s

E l E s t o rb o (S an t o s , 1 9 8 9 ) .

S a n t o s i n i ti a ll y p u b l i s h e d a n u m b e r o f i n c o r r e c t C -1 4 d a t e s f r o m t h e

I A N r a d i o c a r b o n l a b o r a t o r y ( s e e B r a y , 1 9 8 3 ) . U s i n g n e w d a t e s a n d t h e

c o r r e l a t i o n o f c e r a m i c s w i t h o t h e r d a t e d s it es , h e h a s c o r r e c t e d t h e p r e v i o u s

t e m p o r a l p l a c e m e n t o f E l E s t o r b o i n a n e w s y n t h e s is o f t h e s it e , a n d i t i s

t h i s r ev i s i o n t h a t i s u t i l i z ed h e re (T ab l e V I an d F i g . 4 ) (S an t o s , 1 9 8 9 ) .

El Estorbo

E l E s t o r b o i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s u b s i t e s . A t E s t o r b o I t h e

o l d e s t l a y e r is a s h e l l m i d d e n c a p p e d b y a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 - m s te r il e y e l l o w

c l a y l a y e r , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d o f a l l u v i a l s e d i m e n t a t i o n . T h e s h e l l

l ay e r h a s b e en d a t e d w i t h tw o ch a rco a l s am p l e s b e t w een 9 2 5 B . P __. 4 5

y ea r s (G rN -1 2 3 4 4 ) an d 1 0 55 B . E _-+ 4 0 y ea r s (G rN -1 1 3 0 4 ) , co r r e l a t i n g w i t h

t h e w e t p e r i o d d e f i n e d b e t w e e n 1 35 0 a n d 7 5 0 B . P . T h e o l d e s t c o m p o n e n t

is t h e r e f o r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h th e o l d e s t s it es i n th e C i e n a g a G r a n d e .

T h e s e c o n d s h e l l m i d d e n i s a b o v e t h e s t e ri le c l a y l a y e r a n d i ts a c c u m u l a t i o n

s t o p p e d b e f o r e t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t . E v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f

t h e s i t e w e r e f i s h e r m e n a n d h u n t e r s w i t h m a n i o c a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d t h e c o l -

l e c t i n g o f s h e l l w a s p o s s i b l y a s e c o n d a r y a c t i v i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s v e r y

p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e e n d o f t h is s h e ll m i d d e n o c c u p a t i o n is r e l a t e d t o t h e d r y

p e r i o d t h a t h a s b e e n i d e n ti f ie d a r o u n d 7 5 0 B .P . T h e l as t o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e

s i te i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a d e p e n d e n c y o n m a i z e a g r i c u l tu r e r a t h e r t h a n o n

sh e l l g a t h e r i n g (B ray , 1 9 8 4 , p p . 3 2 8 -3 2 9 ; S an t o s , 1 9 8 9 ) .

D I S C U S S I O N

T h e p i c tu r e t h a t w e h a v e t o d a y o f t h e h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n t h a t c r e a t e d

t h e s h e l l m i d d e n s i n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t o f S o u t h A m e r i c a is s ti ll v e r y

i n c o m p l e t e . T h i s l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s e s p e c i a ll y a p p a r e n t f o r t h e p e r i o d s

o f m i n o r s e a - l e v e l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o c c u r r i n g a f t e r t h e r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i z a t i o n

o f s e a l e v el a r o u n d 5 0 0 0 B .P . H o w e v e r , e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e t o

a l l o w u s t o e s t a b l i s h a g e n e r a l o u t l i n e o f e v e n t s .

E a c h z o n e m u s t b e e v a l u a te d f o r i ts o w n i n t e r n a l c h r o n o l o g i c a l p l a c e -

m e n t . T h e s e l oc a l s e q u e n c e s c a n t h e n b e l i n k e d to t h e o r i g in o r f o r m a t i o n

o f e s t u a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e e x i s t i n g s e q u e n c e s a g r e e w i t h t h e m o d e l


23/45


7

presented here of the genesis and longevity of these environments (Table

II and Fig. 4).

The development of estuarine environments is related to the rise in

sea level, and their reduction or death is a consequence of lowering sea

levels or tectonic uplift. In this way a shell midden's history is seen to be

closely related to environmental changes that can be reconstructed (see

Kennish, 1986). Finally, distinct temporal clusters of shell middens are

formed during periods of relatively slow eustatic sea-level rise, specifically

after 6000 B.P., when the sea level experienced minor fluctuations above

and below the present level. The ages of the shell midden sites correlate

with rise of sea level and with wet periods.

The shell midden way of life is a result of optimal environmental

possibilities brought about by the beneficial effects of sea-level rise and cli-

mate on estuarine environments. While shell middens are logically expected

during such times, they are but one of many different maritime adaptations

that humans have developed. Alternative forms of adaptation and mobility

that are not related to prolific mollusk gathering are expected to be more

common during descendent sea-level periods or in spaces between estuaries.

An enormous concentration of research on shell midden sites since the end

of the last century makes us forget that there are other kinds of coastal

environments, where shell deposits are not abundant and where humans

have lived successfully. The problem appears tobe that we are looking for

only one kind of easily detectable type of site or, in the tropical area, for

one kind of adaptation linked with estuarine environments. We tend to ig-

nore other forms of maritime adaptations such as coral environments, deep

bays without mangrove formations, open-sea coastal areas, and others re-

quiring different and less visible strategies of adaptation with more emphasis

on fishing, collecting crabs, and bird hunting supplemented with plant gath-

ering, i.e., on resources that do not l~ave big accumulations of middens

but that could maintain small, mobile populations (see McNiven, 1992).

Another set of arguments holds that there was an explosion of mari-

time adaptations or a broad-spectrum revolution that contributed to

sedentism in northwestern South America. This type of resource use is sup-

posed to be the result of warm temperatures and an abundance of resources

which favored coastal subsistence economies identified as the precursors

to agriculture and sedentism (Binford, 1972, 1983, pp. 208-213; Yesner,

1980; el. Hayden, 1990; Sanoja, 1989). I would argue, however, that the

abundance of archaeological sites related to maritime resources after 5000

B.P. is better interpreted as being related to the ecological evolution of

coastal environments and geomorphological processes. The format ion of

estuarine environments after 6000 B.P. does not indicate conditions favor-

able to sedentism, due to the fact that such environments were very dy-


24/45

72 Oyuela Caycedo

namic wi th g r ea t po t en t i a l f o r change i n bo th sho r t and l ong t e rms . These

cond i t i ons w ou ld con t inue t o f avo r a deg ree o f mob i l it y ve ry mu ch t i ed t o

the s ea son a l f l uc tua t ion o f r e sou rce s and t he dynamic behav io r o f t he e s -

tuary (c f . Meehan, 1982) .

Th e r e su l ts p r e sen t ed he re show tha t she ll m idden r e sea rch i s ve ry

complex . The cond i t i ons t ha t p roduce t he she l l f i sh r e sou rce s a r e b rough t

abo u t b y l a rge - sca l e env i ronm en ta l changes ; t he r e fo re o ne can s ay t ha t

som e t im es t he env i ronm en t p l ays a de t e rmin i s t i c r o l e in huma n dec i s ions .

Ov e r t ime , the dynam ics o f t he env i ronmen t dem and new adap t ive a l t e r-

na t i ve s o r a r e tu rn t o o ld ones . We see t h i s i n t he ch rono logy o f t he she l l

m i d d e n s o f n o r t h e r n S o u t h A m e r i c a.

I n l a n d C o l l e c t o r s S t r a te g i e s: F r o m C o l l e ct o r s t o F o o d P r o d u c e r s

a n d S e d e n t i s m

O ne o f t he r e sea rch p rob l em s mos t em phas i zed i n she ll m idden s tud i e s

has b een t he cu l t u r a l h i s t o ry o f t he changes f rom co l l e c to r s t o ag r i cu lt u -

r al is ts . M os t au tho r s have l i nked t he deve lopm en t o f f ood p roduc t ion t o

the e a r l i e r exp lo i t a t i on o f e s tua ry r e sou rce s , I n t h i s s chem e , t he f avo rab l e

r i chnes s o f t he se r e sou rce s was s een a s con t r i bu t i ng t o s eden t i sm wh ich

was t he p r ecu r so r o f ag r icu l tu r e . The emp i r i c a l suppor t f o r such a v i ew

der ives main ly f rom the s i tes descr ibed above (Angulo , 1978, 1981, 1988a ,

b; Bisch of, 1966; Bray, 198 4; Leg ros, 19 90; Re iche l , 1954, 1961, 1965a, 1982,

1985). T he on ly mode l p ro pose d t ha t exp lo re s such changes i n de t a i l f o r

t h is a r e a w a s d e v e l o p e d b y G e r a r d o R e i c h e l D o l m a t o f f an d A l ic ia D u s s a n

de Re i che l f o r the chang es f rom hun te r -ga the re r s t o ag r i cu l tu r a li s ts i n l ow-

land Colombia (Reiche l , 1961, 1965b, 1982, 1986; Reiche l and Dussan ,

1956). T he excava t i on o f Pue r to Ho rmiga , p lu s t he pub l i ca t i on o f r e sea r ch

repo r t s on C anap o te , Ba r loven to , Momi l , and m os t r e cen t ly on M ons t l, a s

we l l a s t he ev idence f rom su r f ace co l l e c t i ons o f p r ece ramic s i t e s on t he

n o r t h e r n c o a s t l e d t o R e i c h e l s p r o p o s a l o f th e f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e o f

even t s .

1.

The o r ig in o f ho r ti cu l tu r e w as a g r adua l p roces s t ha t s t a r t ed i n

the A rcha i c w i th popu la t i ons o f s ea sona l ga the re r s .

2 . Th e p roces s va r i ed w i th concen t r a t i on o f r e sou rce s and adap t ive

s t r a te g i e s o f t h e p o p u l a ti o n s . T h e c o o c c u r r e n c e o f s e d e n t a r y

v i ll ages a s we l l a s mob i l e popu la t i ons o f co l l e c to r s a ro und 4000

B.P. is likely.

3 . Th e o r ig in o f s eden t a ry and ho r t i cu l tu r a l l i f e was t he r e su l t o f t he

exp lo i t a t i on o f abund an t r e sou rce s in ri ch env i ronm en t s an d o f


25/45

ol l e c tor

VaM abi l i ty in

o l omb i a

7

acces s t o d ive r se mic roenv i ronmen t s . Th i s i s exempl i f i ed by t he

e x c a v a te d s it es o f P u e r t o H o r m i g a , C a n a p o t e , a n d B a r l o v e n t o .

4 . Th e o r i g in o f po t t e ry he r e is i ndep end en t o f i ts o r ig in s e l s ewhe re .

E a r l y p o t t e r y p r o d u c t i o n i n d i c a t e s i n c r e a s e s i n s e d e n t i s m a n d

d e v e l o p s in h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r p o p u l a t i o n s o f s h e ll m i d d e n

co l l ec to r s , such a s a t Pue r to Hormiga .

5 . C l ima t i c changes we t t oward d ry pe r i ods ) f avo red t he i nc r ea sed

exp lo i t a ti on o f more d ive r se env i ronmen t s a s we l l a s t he ne ed fo r

d e p e n d e n c y o n d o m e s t i c a t e d p l a n ts . [ T h i s is c l e a r i n t h e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t R e i c h e l 1 9 8 5 , p . 4 5 - 4 7 ) m a d e a b o u t a

fo rma t ion o f a c a l c ium ca rbona t e l aye r a t t he Monsd s i t e . ]

6 . Ho r t i cu l t u r e s t a r ted a s a g r adua l p roces s wh e re t he fi r s t p l an t s

u t i l i zed in tens ive ly were roots such as manioc

M aniho t esculenta)

of pos s ib l e l oca l domes t i c a t i on i n t he l owlands o f Co lom bia . I n

t h e e a r l y p h a s e s d ie t s b a s e d o n r o o t s w e r e c o m p l e m e n t e d b y th e

c o l l e c ti o n o f p l a n t s f r o m d i v e r s e e n v i r o n m e n t s e x p l o i t e d b y

sea sona l ga the r e r s pa lm seeds fo r examp le ) .

7 . F u l l s e d e n t i s m a n d a g r i c u l t u r e o c c u r r e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e

Form at ive per io d 3000 B.P .) .

8. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e f r o m M e s o a m e r i c a t o t h e a r e a

occu r r ed a t the end o f the F o rma t ive pe r i od 3000 B .P .) . A sh i f t

i n t h e d i e t f r o m m a n i o c t o s e e d c u l t u r e a s t h e m a j o r s t a p l e

occu r r ed . The cause o f t h i s sh i f t may be r e l a t ed t o a c l ima t i c

change we t pe r i od ) . Th e s it e o f M omi l 2000 -1800 B .P .) show s

such a chan ge Reich e l and Dussa n , 1956) .

9 . The advan t age o f ma i ze fo r l ong - t e rm s to r age f avo red pop u l a t i on

g rowth and soc ia l complex i t y , wh ich i n t u rn l ed t o t he fo rm a t ion

o f ch ie fdom s in the An des Re i che l , 1961 ). Th e p ro ces s o f soc i a l

complex i t y , and ag r i cu l t u r e expanded f rom the l owlands t o t he

highlands:

1 0. T h e c o l o n i z at i o n o f n e w e n v i r o n m e n t s f a v o r e d t h e p r o c e s s o f

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f u s e o f n e w p l a n t s , a s w e l l a s c u l t u r a l

diversif icat ion.

Th i s mode l i nd i ca t e s a change f rom ga the r e r s w i th s ea sona l f i sh ing

s t a t i ons o r c amps i t e s t o g roups w i th a dependency on roo t c rops such a s

ma n ioc Re i che l , 1965b) . The se changes a r e r ep r e sen t ed a t s it e s c l o se t o

the s ea such a s M onsd ; a t t he shel l m idden s i t e s o f Pue r to Ho rm iga 5000

B.P .) , Ba r lov en to and Ca nap o t e 2000 -1000 B .P . ); and a t r i ve r ine s i t e s such

a s M a l a m b o 3 0 0 0 B . R ). T h e p o p u l a t io n s u s e d a b r o a d s p e c t r u m o f r e -

sou rce s f r om d ive r se mic roenv i ronmen t s cha r ac t e r i z ed by l agoon-e s tua ry ,

s avanna , an d d ry fo r e s t sy s t ems Re i che l , 1985 ), I n a ll o f t he se a dap t a t i ons


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1996 collectors world archaeology

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