1960‘s and 1970’s1960‘s and 1970’s

Civil Rights Civil Rights andand

War ProtestsWar Protests

Interest in Criminal Justice Interest in Criminal Justice

1.1. The Civil Rights MovementThe Civil Rights Movement2.2. The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War3.3. Rising crime rateRising crime rate4.4. The public’s awareness of crimeThe public’s awareness of crime

Civil Rights and War ProtestCivil Rights and War Protest Protest against Racism Protest against Racism Violence against protester’s of racial Violence against protester’s of racial

discriminationdiscrimination Martin Luther King’s – Civil DisobedienceMartin Luther King’s – Civil Disobedience Rosa ParksRosa Parks Protest against Vietnam WarProtest against Vietnam War Americans viewed fear of crime as the Americans viewed fear of crime as the

most serious problem in the countrymost serious problem in the country

Civil Liberties suspended safetyCivil Liberties suspended safety World War II 120,000 Americans of World War II 120,000 Americans of

Japanese decent were forced to Japanese decent were forced to detention centersdetention centers

Enemy Combatants from the Middle Enemy Combatants from the Middle East?East?

Civil Rights and War ProtestCivil Rights and War Protest

Abraham Lincoln choose to suspend Abraham Lincoln choose to suspend the right to trial during the civil warthe right to trial during the civil war

Civil Rights and War ProtestCivil Rights and War Protest

Political protests against U.S. Political protests against U.S. involvement in Vietnaminvolvement in Vietnam

Police defended the status quoPolice defended the status quo Police were Police were notnot the answer to the the answer to the

problem problem The police’s ability to maintain social The police’s ability to maintain social

order was questioned during this order was questioned during this timetime

Civil Rights and War ProtestCivil Rights and War Protest

President’s Commission on Law President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Enforcement and Administration of

JusticeJustice Most people had lost confidence in Most people had lost confidence in

the police to maintain law orderthe police to maintain law order People stayed in their homes at night People stayed in their homes at night

and kept dogs on premisesand kept dogs on premises Children took karate and people Children took karate and people

armed themselvesarmed themselves

War on CrimeWar on Crime Expanded criminal justice educationExpanded criminal justice education Restored public confidence in Restored public confidence in

criminal justice systemcriminal justice system Decreased crime rateDecreased crime rate

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Street Act 1968Street Act 1968

Created the Law Enforcement Created the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA)Assistance Administration (LEAA)

Attempted to counter restrictions Attempted to counter restrictions placed on law enforcement by the placed on law enforcement by the U.S. Supreme CourtU.S. Supreme Court

It was created to restore public It was created to restore public confidence in the criminal justice confidence in the criminal justice systemsystem

1.1. Confessions could be admitted Confessions could be admitted in federal trials even if the in federal trials even if the accused had not been advised accused had not been advised of their legal rightsof their legal rights

2.2. Local and state law Local and state law enforcement agencies could enforcement agencies could tap telephones for brief tap telephones for brief periods without a court orderperiods without a court order

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Street Act 1968Street Act 1968

Law Enforcement Educational Program Law Enforcement Educational Program (LEEP)(LEEP) Goal was to promote education in Goal was to promote education in

criminal justice personalcriminal justice personal

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Street Act 1968Street Act 1968

Death RowDeath Row

The US has the most The US has the most foreign nationals on foreign nationals on death row.death row.

Most issues with foreign Most issues with foreign nationals on death row nationals on death row centers around civil rightscenters around civil rights

AmendmentsAmendments The Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. The Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S.

Constitution is particularly important Constitution is particularly important because it protects civil rightsbecause it protects civil rights

The Fourth Amendment protects The Fourth Amendment protects against unreasonable searches and against unreasonable searches and seizures.seizures.

The Sixth Amendment guarantees the The Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to a speedy trial.right to a speedy trial.

First Federal law enforcement First Federal law enforcement agenciesagencies

The first two federal law The first two federal law enforcement agencies in enforcement agencies in the United States were the United States were the Office of Postal the Office of Postal Inspector and the U.S. Inspector and the U.S. Marshal's ServiceMarshal's Service

ConstitutionConstitution The constitution of the The constitution of the United States of American United States of American reflected a distrust of a reflected a distrust of a strong centralized strong centralized government because government because Americans were trying to Americans were trying to establish a balance establish a balance between civil rights and between civil rights and governmental power. governmental power.

Criminal Justice and CriminologyCriminal Justice and Criminology Early criminal justice programs were Early criminal justice programs were

said to focus primarily on practical said to focus primarily on practical application.application.

The relationship between social The relationship between social justice and criminal justice is not justice and criminal justice is not always clear cutalways clear cut

Social injustice is a powerful tool for Social injustice is a powerful tool for terrorists because they focus on the terrorists because they focus on the powerlessness of citizens of powerlessness of citizens of legitimate governments. legitimate governments.

TerrorismTerrorism

Crisis in the Criminal Justice Crisis in the Criminal Justice SystemSystem

1960’s and 1970’s – domestic strife1960’s and 1970’s – domestic strife Twenty first century – foreign attackTwenty first century – foreign attack 9/11 lead to:9/11 lead to:

• Greater police powersGreater police powers Expanded powers of search and seizuresExpanded powers of search and seizures

• Millions perhaps billions of dollars being Millions perhaps billions of dollars being added to Criminal Justice agenciesadded to Criminal Justice agencies

• People questioning the effectiveness of People questioning the effectiveness of the U.S criminal justice systemthe U.S criminal justice system

What is Terrorism?What is Terrorism? Defining terrorism has been difficult, Defining terrorism has been difficult,

because domestic and international because domestic and international terrorists use acts of violence to promote terrorists use acts of violence to promote political or social change, and political political or social change, and political ideology is judged relative to one’s ideology is judged relative to one’s political belief’s and desires. Different political belief’s and desires. Different countries and different government countries and different government agencies within the United States do not agencies within the United States do not define terrorism the same waydefine terrorism the same way

Domestic TerrorismDomestic Terrorism Acts of terrorism committed by the Acts of terrorism committed by the

citizens of the country being terrorizedcitizens of the country being terrorized• Acts of violence committed by militias Acts of violence committed by militias

and extremists groups or individualsand extremists groups or individuals• Violence against abortion clinics and Violence against abortion clinics and

personnel personnel • Ecoterrorism – violent destruction of the Ecoterrorism – violent destruction of the

environment or natural resources on environment or natural resources on which we dependwhich we depend

Domestic Terrorism groupsDomestic Terrorism groups ELF – Earth Liberation Front ELF – Earth Liberation Front

• FBI labeled one of the country’s greatest FBI labeled one of the country’s greatest domestic terrorist threatsdomestic terrorist threats

• They have cause millions of dollars in They have cause millions of dollars in damage to propertydamage to property

ALF - Animal Liberation FrontALF - Animal Liberation Front• Focus on “liberation of animals used in Focus on “liberation of animals used in

scientific experimentsscientific experiments

Ku Klux Klan –Ku Klux Klan –• rallies, cross-burnings, hate crimes and rallies, cross-burnings, hate crimes and

major criminal activitymajor criminal activity SkinheadsSkinheads

• anti-racist skins call themselves "sharps”anti-racist skins call themselves "sharps”• Racist skins are often called "bonehead”Racist skins are often called "bonehead”• Racist skinheads have been responsible Racist skinheads have been responsible

for an increasing number of hate crimes for an increasing number of hate crimes in this country, including vicious murdersin this country, including vicious murders

Domestic Terrorism groupsDomestic Terrorism groups

John Birch Society - Racial John Birch Society - Racial SegregationSegregation• Has a websiteHas a website

Order of Thule – Racial SegregationOrder of Thule – Racial Segregation Posse ComitatusPosse Comitatus The Constitutional PartyThe Constitutional Party FBI estimates about 184 FBI estimates about 184

milita/extremist groups in the USmilita/extremist groups in the US

Domestic Terrorism groupsDomestic Terrorism groups

The New Challenge: WTC 9/11The New Challenge: WTC 9/11 War on TerrorismWar on Terrorism

• New Cabinet position - Office of New Cabinet position - Office of Homeland DefenseHomeland Defense

Coordinate antiterrorism activities between Coordinate antiterrorism activities between federal law enforcement and intelligence federal law enforcement and intelligence agenciesagencies

Destroy legitimate governmentsDestroy legitimate governments Change a behaviorChange a behavior

• Example – blow up an abortion clinic to Example – blow up an abortion clinic to stop abortionsstop abortions

To challenge the criminal justice To challenge the criminal justice system in the ability to respond to system in the ability to respond to themthem• THEY HAVE NOT. The criminal justice THEY HAVE NOT. The criminal justice

system responses to them wellsystem responses to them well

Domestic Terrorism goalsDomestic Terrorism goals

Eric RudolphEric RudolphJanuary 29, 1998 - Bombing at New Woman All Women Clinic in Birmingham, Alabama. One killed, one injured.

• February 21, 1997 - Bombing at Otherside Lounge, a lesbian nightclub in Atlanta. Four injured. Second bomb found before it detonates.

• January 16, 1997 - Bombing of a women's clinic in Sandy Springs, an Atlanta suburb. A second bomb explodes. Seven injured.

• July 27, 1996 - Bomb explodes in Olympic Centennial Park, 1:20 a.m., One killed, 111 injured. A Turkish cameraman dies of a heart attack as he rushes to photograph the scene.

International TerrorismInternational Terrorism

Acts of terror committed by Acts of terror committed by citizens of another nationcitizens of another nation

Achieve goals through response Achieve goals through response of the government to their actsof the government to their acts

They count on overreaction of the They count on overreaction of the government and the mediagovernment and the media

It is difficult for the government to It is difficult for the government to target those responsible for terrorismtarget those responsible for terrorism

US has relied on the FBI to respond US has relied on the FBI to respond to terrorismto terrorism

How the US responds to Terrorism is How the US responds to Terrorism is important becauseimportant because• To restore public confidence in the To restore public confidence in the

criminal justice systemcriminal justice system• The role US might play in the The role US might play in the

globalization of law enforcementglobalization of law enforcement• The perception of US response to The perception of US response to

potential and terrorist attacks.potential and terrorist attacks.

International TerrorismInternational Terrorism

International Terrorist GroupsInternational Terrorist Groups

Al-QaidaAl-Qaida• Al-Qa’ida was established by Usama Bin Ladin in 1988 with Al-Qa’ida was established by Usama Bin Ladin in 1988 with

Arabs who fought in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union. Arabs who fought in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union. Helped finance, recruit, transport, and train Sunni Islamic Helped finance, recruit, transport, and train Sunni Islamic extremists for the Afghan resistance. Goal is to unite Muslims extremists for the Afghan resistance. Goal is to unite Muslims to fight the United States as a means of defeating Israel, to fight the United States as a means of defeating Israel, overthrowing regimes it deems "non-Is-lamic," and expelling overthrowing regimes it deems "non-Is-lamic," and expelling Westerners and non-Muslims from Muslim countries. Eventual Westerners and non-Muslims from Muslim countries. Eventual goal would be establishment of a pan-Islamic caliphate goal would be establishment of a pan-Islamic caliphate throughout the world. Issued statement in February 1998 throughout the world. Issued statement in February 1998 under the banner of "The World Islamic Front for Jihad Against under the banner of "The World Islamic Front for Jihad Against the Jews and Crusaders" saying it was the duty of all Muslims the Jews and Crusaders" saying it was the duty of all Muslims to kill US citizens, civilian and military, and their allies to kill US citizens, civilian and military, and their allies everywhere. Merged with al-Jihad (Egyptian Islamic Jihad) in everywhere. Merged with al-Jihad (Egyptian Islamic Jihad) in June 2001, renaming itself "Qa’idat al-Jihad." Merged with Abu June 2001, renaming itself "Qa’idat al-Jihad." Merged with Abu Mus’ab al-Zarqawi’s organization in Iraq in late 2004, with al-Mus’ab al-Zarqawi’s organization in Iraq in late 2004, with al-Zarqawi’s group changing its name to "Qa’idat al-Jihad fi Bilad Zarqawi’s group changing its name to "Qa’idat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn" (al-Qa’ida in the Land of the Two Rivers).al-Rafidayn" (al-Qa’ida in the Land of the Two Rivers).

International Terrorist GroupsInternational Terrorist Groups HizballahHizballah

• AKA - AKA - Party of God ,Islamic Jihad,Islamic Jihad for the Party of God ,Islamic Jihad,Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of PalestineLiberation of Palestine

• Formed in 1982 in response to the Israeli invasion of Formed in 1982 in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, this Lebanon-based radical Shia group takes its Lebanon, this Lebanon-based radical Shia group takes its ideological inspiration from the Iranian revolution and the ideological inspiration from the Iranian revolution and the teachings of the late Ayatollah Khomeini. The Majlis al-Shura, teachings of the late Ayatollah Khomeini. The Majlis al-Shura, or Consultative Council, is the group’s highest governing or Consultative Council, is the group’s highest governing body and is led by Secretary General Hasan Nasrallah. body and is led by Secretary General Hasan Nasrallah. Hizballah is dedicated to liberating Jerusalem and eliminating Hizballah is dedicated to liberating Jerusalem and eliminating Israel, and has formally advocated ultimate establishment of Israel, and has formally advocated ultimate establishment of Islamic rule in Lebanon. Nonetheless, Hizballah has actively Islamic rule in Lebanon. Nonetheless, Hizballah has actively participated in Lebanon’s political system since 1992. participated in Lebanon’s political system since 1992. Hizballah is closely allied with, and often directed by, Iran Hizballah is closely allied with, and often directed by, Iran but has the capability and willingness to act independently. but has the capability and willingness to act independently. Though Hizballah does not share the Syrian regime’s secular Though Hizballah does not share the Syrian regime’s secular orientation, the group has been a strong ally in helping Syria orientation, the group has been a strong ally in helping Syria advance its political objectives in the regionadvance its political objectives in the region

International Terrorist GroupsInternational Terrorist Groups Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA)Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA)

Euskal Herria (Basque Country) is divided politically between Euskal Herria (Basque Country) is divided politically between the French and Spanish states. It is composed of seven the French and Spanish states. It is composed of seven provinces: three under French administration, Iparraldea or provinces: three under French administration, Iparraldea or Northern Basque Country, and four under Spanish Northern Basque Country, and four under Spanish administration, Hegoaldea or Southern Basque Country. In administration, Hegoaldea or Southern Basque Country. In 1901 the founder of the Basque Nationalist Party, Sabino 1901 the founder of the Basque Nationalist Party, Sabino Arana, coined the term, Euzkadi(also spelled Euskadi) to Arana, coined the term, Euzkadi(also spelled Euskadi) to describe a hypothetical Basque confederated state describe a hypothetical Basque confederated state comprised of the seven Basque provinces. Basque comprised of the seven Basque provinces. Basque Fatherland and Liberty a.k.a Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) Fatherland and Liberty a.k.a Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) was founded in 1959 with the aim of creating an was founded in 1959 with the aim of creating an independent homeland in Spain's Basque region. It has a independent homeland in Spain's Basque region. It has a muted commitment to Marxismmuted commitment to Marxism..

War on terrorismWar on terrorism Includes both Domestic and Includes both Domestic and

International TerroristInternational Terrorist It does consider the civil rights / civil It does consider the civil rights / civil

liberties of American citizensliberties of American citizens

CounterterrorismCounterterrorism The Response to terrorism and the The Response to terrorism and the

efforts to stop it.efforts to stop it. Legislation during the 1970’s and Legislation during the 1970’s and

1980’s sharply restricted law 1980’s sharply restricted law enforcement’s authority to gather enforcement’s authority to gather and maintain intelligence filesand maintain intelligence files

Local Law Enforcement Local Law Enforcement Usually unequipped to respond Usually unequipped to respond

adequately to terrorist attacks or adequately to terrorist attacks or mount counter terrorism attacksmount counter terrorism attacks

Only a few have response units for Only a few have response units for after a terrorist attacksafter a terrorist attacks

Houston has gone through training Houston has gone through training

Bill of RightsBill of Rights

Supreme Court casesSupreme Court cases CRIMINAL PROCEDURE AND SEARCHESCRIMINAL PROCEDURE AND SEARCHES Powell v. Alabama (1932)Powell v. Alabama (1932)

The Court ruled that indigent members of society (in this The Court ruled that indigent members of society (in this case, the Scottsboro Boys), when charged with a capital case, the Scottsboro Boys), when charged with a capital crime, must be given competent counsel at the expense of crime, must be given competent counsel at the expense of the public.the public.

Betts v. Brady (1942)Betts v. Brady (1942)The Court refused to grant the right to an attorney to all The Court refused to grant the right to an attorney to all indicted or accused individuals; they believed the courts indicted or accused individuals; they believed the courts must hear each non-capital situation and decide on a case-must hear each non-capital situation and decide on a case-by-case basis.by-case basis.

Bartkus v. Illinois (1959)Bartkus v. Illinois (1959)The Court ruled that prosecutions in state and federal The Court ruled that prosecutions in state and federal courts for the same act are not violations of due process courts for the same act are not violations of due process and double jeopardy protections; persons may be tried and double jeopardy protections; persons may be tried twice for the same crimes, once in federal court and once in twice for the same crimes, once in federal court and once in state court.state court.

Supreme Court casesSupreme Court cases Mapp v. Ohio (1961)Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

All evidence obtained by searches and seizures in violation of the All evidence obtained by searches and seizures in violation of the Constitution is inadmissible in court; this is the “exclusionary rule.”Constitution is inadmissible in court; this is the “exclusionary rule.”

Robinson v. California (1962)Robinson v. California (1962)A California law imprisoning those with “illness” of drug addiction was a A California law imprisoning those with “illness” of drug addiction was a cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The law punished people because of their “status” of addiction and was The law punished people because of their “status” of addiction and was not aimed at the purchase, sale, or possession of illegal drugs.not aimed at the purchase, sale, or possession of illegal drugs.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)The Supreme Court overturned Betts v. Brady and required that any The Supreme Court overturned Betts v. Brady and required that any indigent person accused of a felony must be given an attorney at the indigent person accused of a felony must be given an attorney at the public’s expense.public’s expense.

Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)The Court extended the “exclusionary rule” to include any confessions The Court extended the “exclusionary rule” to include any confessions obtained by unconstitutional means. Once questioning reaches past a obtained by unconstitutional means. Once questioning reaches past a stage of “general inquiry,” the suspect has the right to have an attorney stage of “general inquiry,” the suspect has the right to have an attorney present.present.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)Miranda v. Arizona (1966)Since the police had not informed Mr. Miranda of his constitutional right Since the police had not informed Mr. Miranda of his constitutional right to keep silent, his rights were violated and conviction was set aside.to keep silent, his rights were violated and conviction was set aside.

Terry v. Ohio (1968)Terry v. Ohio (1968)The Court found that a “stop and frisk” is a “search and seizure” under the Fourth The Court found that a “stop and frisk” is a “search and seizure” under the Fourth Amendment and, under certain circumstances, is a reasonable crime prevention Amendment and, under certain circumstances, is a reasonable crime prevention practice. Seized evidence may be admissible.practice. Seized evidence may be admissible.

Furman v. Georgia (1972)Furman v. Georgia (1972)The imposition and carrying out of the death penalty was held to constitute cruel and The imposition and carrying out of the death penalty was held to constitute cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments because unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments because it was done in “an arbitrary, discriminatory, and capricious manner.”it was done in “an arbitrary, discriminatory, and capricious manner.”

Gregg v. Georgia (1976)Gregg v. Georgia (1976)Georgia’s law imposing the death penalty under very specific circumstances and Georgia’s law imposing the death penalty under very specific circumstances and guidelines is held constitutional. The death penalty “does not invariably violate the guidelines is held constitutional. The death penalty “does not invariably violate the Constitution.” The judicious and careful use of the penalty was justified in that it met Constitution.” The judicious and careful use of the penalty was justified in that it met contemporary standards of society, served a deterrent or retributive purpose, and contemporary standards of society, served a deterrent or retributive purpose, and was not arbitrarily applied.was not arbitrarily applied.

Ingraham v. Wright (1977)Ingraham v. Wright (1977)Corporal punishment in schools is not prohibited under the Eighth Amendment as Corporal punishment in schools is not prohibited under the Eighth Amendment as cruel and unusual.cruel and unusual.

Nix v. Williams (1984)Nix v. Williams (1984)The Court found that if police learn of evidence by unconstitutional means, they may The Court found that if police learn of evidence by unconstitutional means, they may still introduce it at trial if they can prove that they would have found the evidence still introduce it at trial if they can prove that they would have found the evidence anyway through constitutional means. There is an “inevitable discovery” exception to anyway through constitutional means. There is an “inevitable discovery” exception to the Exclusionary Rule.the Exclusionary Rule.

New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985)New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985)The Fourth Amendment ban on unreasonable searches applies to those conducted by The Fourth Amendment ban on unreasonable searches applies to those conducted by public school officials as well as by law enforcement personnel; however, the Court public school officials as well as by law enforcement personnel; however, the Court used a less strict standard of “reasonable suspicion” to conclude that the search of a used a less strict standard of “reasonable suspicion” to conclude that the search of a student’s purse by public school officials did not violate the Fourth and Fourteenth student’s purse by public school officials did not violate the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments.Amendments.

VernoniaVernonia v. Acton (1995) v. Acton (1995)Students must submit to random drug testing in order to participate in Students must submit to random drug testing in order to participate in interscholastic athletics; the policy is “reasonable and hence constitutional.” interscholastic athletics; the policy is “reasonable and hence constitutional.” Students in a school environment “have a lesser expectation of privacy than Students in a school environment “have a lesser expectation of privacy than members of the population generally.” The reasonableness was determined members of the population generally.” The reasonableness was determined by “balancing the intrusion” against the “promotion of legitimate by “balancing the intrusion” against the “promotion of legitimate government interests.”government interests.”

privacy for a symbol’s sake. The Fourth Amendment shields society against privacy for a symbol’s sake. The Fourth Amendment shields society against that state action.”that state action.”

Knowles v. Iowa (1998)Knowles v. Iowa (1998)Police searches of vehicles on routine traffic stops are an “unreasonable Police searches of vehicles on routine traffic stops are an “unreasonable search and seizure.”search and seizure.”

Wyoming v. Houghton (1999)Wyoming v. Houghton (1999)Police may search the belongings of all passengers in a car when lawfully Police may search the belongings of all passengers in a car when lawfully seeking evidence against the driver.seeking evidence against the driver.

Bond v. United States (2000)Bond v. United States (2000)The Fourth Amendment is violated when officials squeeze a carry-on bag in The Fourth Amendment is violated when officials squeeze a carry-on bag in a bus overhead compartment and discover illicit drugs.a bus overhead compartment and discover illicit drugs.

Dickerson v. United States (2000)Dickerson v. United States (2000)The Supreme Court ruled that Congress could not pass a law that would The Supreme Court ruled that Congress could not pass a law that would contradict a Supreme Court ruling. They cited Marbury v. Madison (1803) as contradict a Supreme Court ruling. They cited Marbury v. Madison (1803) as the source of their power. Judicial Review gave the Court the final say on an the source of their power. Judicial Review gave the Court the final say on an act’s constitutionality. Justices writing in dissent called the ruling the act’s constitutionality. Justices writing in dissent called the ruling the “Pyramid of judicial arrogance.”“Pyramid of judicial arrogance.”

Indianapolis v. James (2001)Indianapolis v. James (2001)The Court invalidated the city’s roadblock program because The Court invalidated the city’s roadblock program because it was “indistinguishable from the general interest of crime it was “indistinguishable from the general interest of crime control” and did not fit into the established exceptions to control” and did not fit into the established exceptions to individualized suspicion.individualized suspicion.

Kyllo v. United States (2001)Kyllo v. United States (2001)Warrantless use of thermal-imaging devices to monitor heat Warrantless use of thermal-imaging devices to monitor heat emissions from a private residence violates the Fourth emissions from a private residence violates the Fourth Amendment protection against unreasonable searches.Amendment protection against unreasonable searches.

Ferguson v. City of Charleston (200l)Ferguson v. City of Charleston (200l)Public hospital testing of pregnant women for cocaine use Public hospital testing of pregnant women for cocaine use and reporting the results to police officials is an and reporting the results to police officials is an unconstitutional search in violation of the Fourth unconstitutional search in violation of the Fourth Amendment.Amendment.

Board of Education of Pottawatomie County v. Earls Board of Education of Pottawatomie County v. Earls (2002)(2002)School district requirements of drug tests for all students School district requirements of drug tests for all students participating in any extra-curricular activities were upheld participating in any extra-curricular activities were upheld by the Court. The testing is a “reasonable means of by the Court. The testing is a “reasonable means of furthering the School District’s important interest in furthering the School District’s important interest in preventing and deterring drug use among its preventing and deterring drug use among its schoolchildren.” schoolchildren.”