1945-2000-ish

Cities leveled

Millions killed: ca. 72 million total (military and civilian)

New fear of atomic war

Antagonism between West and USSR= Cold War

Decolonization

Effects of WW II

DecolonizationDecline of Imperialism due to:Nationalism and self-determinationanger against oppressionmilitary withdrawal during the war. (Vietnam and

France, e.g.)weakness of European nations after WWII

began Aug. 15, 1947, India declared indepen-dence from British empire.This created a domino effect throughout the empire.

Decolonization

Vietnam from France (Ho Chi Minh and Viet Minh. US foots most of the bill for that war. Lasts from 1947-1954

1949: Dutch out of Indonesia. Fought a costly and futile war.

Palestine1947: Britain announced withdrawal from Palestine, leaving its future in the hands of the UN.

In response, the UN partitioned Palestine into Arab and Jewish homelands.

May 14, 1948: Israel declared independence --immediately attacked by the Arab nations. Israel won the war with American aid. (1st Arab-

Israeli war)

EgyptAlthough Egypt independent since 1922, Britain economically maintained a degree of influence.

Abdul Nasser (E. Pres)believed Britain’s significant influence detrimental to future of Egypt.

1956: Egypt announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal.

In response, Britain, France, and Israel planned asurprise attack on Egypt. The USSR announced backing Egypt, and the US ordered

Western powers to withdraw.

***event illustrated that the western European powers had little ability to act w/o American approval.

Sub-Saharan Africa

1957: Ghana (British) declared independence, and was set free.

Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Kenya also declared independence and were freed from British empire.The British let go without much of a fight,

because few British settlers in any of the nations.

Rhodesia

Rhodesia had many British settlers.

1965: White British settlers formed their own white-supremacist government and declared independence from Britain.

1980: After much warfare, the Africans finally won control of their nation. It was renamed Zimbabwe.

Cold War RootsTeheran Conference 1943Soviets liberate E. Europe

Yalta Conference 1945EE democratic electionsGermany divided into 4 zones

Potsdam Conference 1945Promises made and promises brokenBuffer zone

US POV

Stalin intent on creating “spheres of influence”

Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” speech Calls USA out to future conflict

US wants democracy spread (certainly anti-communism) w/strong international org to maintain global peace

Soviet POV

Democracies hostile toward communism and USSR: Archangel expedition in WWI and non-recognition of USSR by US until 1933

US and Britain dragged feet opening second front during war. Millions of Soviet soldiers died fighting Nazis alone until mid-‘44

US and Britain excluded USSR from A-bomb project

US terminated lend-lease to USSR in ‘45 , but continued to GB until ’46

Buffer zone for western borders, especially in Poland

The Cold War

1945-1990

The Cold War

The Truman Doctrine (1947)Greece and Turkey (individually) fight guerrilla war

against indigenous communistsBritain no longer able to protect Greek and Turkish

governmentsAsks United States for assistance

President Harry Truman declares that the US will “help any country fight against outside aggression”

$ 400 million to Greece and Turkey appropriated

The Cold War

United States becomes involved in international affairsTo prevent mistakes after World War IUS joins United Nations formed in 1946US forms North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949)

First permanent alliance for the United StatesDefense alliance between US and Western EuropeTo prevent Soviet Union from spreading influence

westwardSoviet Union forms Warsaw Pact in response

The Cold WarThe Marshall Plan Western Europe destroyed by war

Industries, infrastructure, economy Western European nations could not recover alone

Need US economic assistance Secretary of State George C. Marshall proposes

European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan) Massive US economic assistance toward European

recovery Eastern Europe invited to take part but USSR stops them

Marshall Plan helps Western Europe recover Also helps US economy by providing markets for US goods

The Cold WarDisagreement over Germany Germany divided and occupied by the Allies after World

War II Future government to be decided by Allies

Soviets want Germany permanently weakened US and Britain wanted Germany to recover and to rearm

against future Soviet aggression Germany emerged as two countries in 1949

Federal Republic of Germany (West) German Democratic Republic (East)

Berlin Airlift (1949) Soviets unsuccessfully try to drive US, British, and French out of

West Berlin

The Cold War

Confrontations in BerlinDivided among the Allies in 1945Berlin Airlift showed Soviet Union could not

force Allies out

East Germans leave East Berlin for West BerlinEast German government builds Berlin

Wall in 1961

The Cold War

Soviet domination of Eastern Europe Soviet troops refuse to leave Eastern Europe Only Yugoslavia under Josef Tito stands up to

Stalin because it was not occupied by Soviet troops

Communists come to power with Soviet help Manipulation of elections Elimination of opponents

Communists confiscate private property and impose censorship

Do everything Soviets tell them

The Cold WarChanges in Soviet leadership Stalin dies in 1953

Had reinstituted oppressive rule after War (justified by Cold War w/ US)

Nikita Khrushchev becomes premier in 1956 Tries to introduce reforms but unsuccessful De-Stalinization Removed in 1964

Leonid Brezhnev becomes premier in 1964 Communist hard-liner. Sort of a “Re-Stalinization” Did not allow any reforms for Soviet Union and Eastern Europe Dies in 1982 Prague Spring

Gorbachev becomes premier in 1985 Allows reforms Last Soviet leader

The Cold War

Threat of nuclear warfare World War II ends with atom bombs dropped over

Hiroshima and Nagasaki by US in 1945 Introduction of atom bombs change nature of

warfare Soviet Union explodes first atom bomb in 1949

US no longer holds monopoly on nuclear weapons

US and Soviet Union engage in nuclear arms race, increasing threat of nuclear war

The Cold War

The Cold War expands beyond EuropeChina

Fighting civil war between Nationalists (US supported) and Communists (Soviet supported) between 1945 and 1949

Communists under Mao Zedong gain control of China in 1949; shocks US

Nationalists retreat to Taiwan where they are protected by US

The Cold War

Cuba (1959)Fidel Castro overthrows US-backed

dictatorshipCastro ultimately sides with SovietsCuban Missile Crisis

Soviet Union discovered to be installing missiles in Cuba

Kennedy demands Soviets to take out missiles; closest b oth countries got to nuclear war

The Cold WarThe Vietnam War Vietnam a former French colony France attempts retake Vietnam between 1945 and 1954

and fails Vietnam divided into communist north and anti-

communist south US spends 20 years protecting South Vietnam against

Communist guerrillas Lyndon Johnson escalates US involvement in 1965 “Domino Theory”—if Vietnam becomes communist, other

countries could become communist South Vietnam falls to communists in 1975 Major blow to American military and society

The Cold War

Changes in Western society Most affluent society in history Rise in middle class Major population growth Western Europe develops welfare states Religion plays less of a role in Europe and US

Catholic Church makes reforms in Vatican II

More opportunities for women Popular culture spreads around the world

The Cold WarChallenge to Soviet domination Hungary (1956)

Hungarians demonstrate against communist rule Demand Soviets withdraw troops from Hungary Uprising put down by Soviet tanks

Czechoslovakia (1968) “Prague Spring”

Czechs wanted to make domestic reforms: Dubcek and “socialism with a human face”

Soviet tanks put down Prague Spring Brezhnev Doctrine stated that no country in the Warsaw

Pact may leave and USSR had a right to intervene in any Communist nation if they attempted to via internal or external strife

The Cold War

Middle East US replaces Britain as major power in the Middle East State of Israel created in 1948; seen as “catastrophe”

for Arabs who wanted to create Arab state in Palestine US backs Israel, while Soviets back Arab states Oil plays major role in Middle Eastern politics Review:

McMahon-Hussein Correspondence Sykes-Picot Agreement Balfour Declaration

Détente Period of decreased tensions between US and Soviet Union Nuclear arms agreements reached during 1960s and 1970s US recognizes People’s Republic of China as legitimate

government of China Split between Soviet Union and China during 1960s Nixon hoped friendship with China would weaken Soviet Union. Everybody wondering what the other side is talking about. Nixon visits USSR and China in 1972

Realpolitik: Nixon and Kissinger think US should make alliances based on national interests not a particular world view (pragmatic).

End of Dètente Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to U.S. refusal to ratify SALT II treaty (reducing nuclear armaments) President Carter boycotting 1980 Olympics in Moscow

US stopped shipments of grain and certain advanced technology to the Soviet Union.

Only Britain stood behind U.S. in its sanctions.

France, Italy and especially West Germany argued that Soviet’s deplorable action should not be turned into an East-West confrontation.

Arab NationalismArab nationalists loosely united by opposition to colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine

Israel and Palestine Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored creation of

Jewish “national home” in Palestine—opposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordan

Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in 1948. United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and

one Jewish Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed or

until they established own independent Palestinian state; led to several wars and numerous conflicts in late 20th century

Student Revolts in the Late 1960s

Causes of Student Revolts

Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among youthsInfluenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & “new left” thinking in USBelieved older generation & US fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam. Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive and flawed.

Causes of Student Revolts

Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little contact with professors; competition for grades intense; demanded even more practical areas of study to qualify for

high-paying jobs after college

Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to the detriment of working class.

French Student Revolt 1968 Students took over the university (Uparis), leading to violent clashes with police.Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real voice in running the universityAppealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous general strike spread across France. At first distanced from students)To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might collapseDe Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections (which he won decisively)The mini-Revolution collapsed.For much of the older generation in western Europe, the student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions and end of an era.

The End of the Cold WarCauses Soviet Union unable to keep up with the West

Unable to provide consumer goods Technology behind the US and the West “Détente” period of decreased tensions with the West

Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991) Youngest Soviet leader Believed reforms could save Soviet Union

The End of the Cold War

Glasnost “Openness” Gorbachev allowed criticism of the government

Perestroika “Restructuring” Gorbachev allowed economic and political reforms

Reforms caused instability in Soviet society

The End of the Cold War

Unrest in Eastern Europe Poland

Economic stagnation during 1980s Rise of Solidarity Movement

Led by Lech Walesa at the Gdansk shipyard Demanded recognition as a trade union:better pay and

political rights Gained support of new pope John Paul II (Polish)

Government recognizes Solidarity in 1989 after years of it being underground and Poland resorting to martial laws

Promises political reforms Communist Party gives up power Walesa elected President

The End of the Cold War

Demonstrations throughout Eastern Europe Hungary opens border with Austria Mass migrations

Gorbachev announces he would not interfere in Eastern Europe Leads to series of revolutions in ‘89:

Hungary, Czechoslovakia(Velvet Revolution—non-violent), Bulgaria, Albania, Romania and East Germany

The Berlin Wall goes down in November 1989 Germany reunifies in 1990

By Chancellor Helmut Kohl of West Germany With support from the US

The End of the Cold War

Reforms destabilize Soviet Union Soviet economy in chaos People question government and communist system Soviet republics demand independence Coup by hard-liners put Gorbachev in house arrest in 1991

Demonstrations bring back Gorbachev (more on this later)

Soviet Union dissolves in 1991 Unable to reach agreement with Soviet republics

RomaniaMost revolutions in E. Europe were relatively peaceful. Romania? Not so much.

The violent dictator, Nicolae Ceausescu refused to give in to the will of the people. Used his private police force to desperately cling to power.

He and his equally repugnant wife, Elena, were executed on Christmas Day, 1989.

Break-up of Yugoslavia

Death of dictator Josef Tito in 1980 causes instability in Yugoslavia Yugoslav republics declare their independence

Ethnic and religious tensions rise among Serbs, Croats, Bosnians Civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992-95 United Nations unable to stop fighting NATO action brings war to an end

Occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by US and NATO troops

Break-up of Yugoslavia

Kossovo WarSerbs begin ethnic cleansing in Kossovo (a

Serbian province) in1999Serbs drive out Albanian population back to

Albania and MacedoniaSerbs believe Kossovo the birthplace of

Serbian people US an NATO intervene and launch air

raids on BelgradeKossovo under NATO occupation

The USSRGorbachev’s glastnost + perestroika + political transformation of the Soviet satellites = a desire for change in the Soviet population.

Disasters such as Soviet invasion of AfghanistanChernobyl nuclear accident revealed the deplorable state of affairs within the

nation.

Problems in the USSR

Gorbachev saw the need for change but wanted Communist party to lead and control them. economic changes very slow reformers, such as Boris Yeltsin, wanted to speed

up process.

1990: The Soviet government was forced to allow the political participation of non-Communist parties.

More Problems

As political and economic structure of the USSR began to collapse nationalist movements throughout the USSR also

popped up, begins with the declaration of independence by

Lithuania.

Other republics, such as Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakistan, and Uzbekitan soon followed. By 1992, 17 republics had broken away.

Revolution in Russia

December 1990: Gorbachev appointed a few hard-liners to government positions hoping to stop the tide of rebellion. Hard liners very concerned about break-away

republics and wanted to stop the secessionist movement.

This move backfired and started a rivalry between Gorbachev and Yeltsin (a reformer and Chairman of the Russian Parliament)

That Coup vs. Gorby = Epoch FailAugust 1991: Gorbachev on vacation the hard-line communists staged a coup and placed

him under house arrest in his vacation home. Why did they do this?

because the hard-liners feared that Gorbachev’s policies were threatening the existence of the Communist party.

Yeltsin bravely stood atop a tank outside the parliament building and led the resistance, thus becoming the popular hero of the revolution.

The Coup Fails, EpicallyAs a result of Yeltsin’s leadership and the popular support for the reform movement, the coup failed, and the hard-liners were discredited.

August 1991-December 1991: More of the Soviet republics continued to break away, further weakening the USSR.

December 1991: The USSR was dissolved and Gorbachev resigned.

Problems in RussiaThe Commonwealth of Independent States formed in 1992, but ineffective and short-lived because break-away republics feared that Russia had too much power in the confederacy.

The new Russian Republic faced serious political, social, and economic challenges, many of which still continue, today.

The mob became very influential in Russia and many break-away republics, as well.

Western Europe Political Recovery

Economic hardship after WWII: scarcity of food, runaway inflation, black markets

Many people believed Europe was finished.

Suffering was worst in Germany

Western Europe Political Recovery

Political restructuring Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian and European

heritage. Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had faith in democracy and cooperation.

Catholic parties also progressive in natureSocialists and Communists also emerged with increased power and prestige, especially in France and Italy. Pushed for social change and economic reform with considerable

success.

Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance.

Italy

Christian Democrats gained control in 1946 led by Alcide De Gasperi

Socialist influence: social benefits came to equal a large part of the average worker’s wages

France

General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime leader of Free French, re-established free and democratic Fourth Republic

Socialist influence: large banks, insurance companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the Renault auto company were nationalized by gov’t.

Britain followed same trend

Great Britain

Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives in 1945.Attlee moved toward establishment of a “welfare state.”Many industries nationalized, gov’t provided each citizen with free medical service and taxed the middle and upper classes more heavily. (Up to 90% at the highest margins)

Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) 1949, Konrad Adenauer began long, highly successful democratic rule.

Christian Democrats became West Germany’s majority party for a generation

“Economic Miracle”

Unprecedented economic growth in European historyEurope entered period of rapid economic progress lasting into late 1960s.By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2.5X more than before the war.

European Integration (1948-Present)

Council of Europe: 1948—a European federal system w/ European parliament (sovereignty)

Britain opposed19621991

Western European nations begin integrating economies

European Coal and Steel Community an attempt to integrate coal and steel production

European Economic Community formed in 1957(Treaty of Rome)

Goal to create Common Market

By France, W.Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg

Continues to expand to include most of Western Europe

Becomes European Union in 1992

EuropeWestern European economy fully integrated by 1992Political and econ union hopefully1991: Maastricht treaty: To establish a common European currency and a central bank structure by 1999 European Monetary Union (1999-2002) Western Europe (except Britain, Norway, Sweden, and

Denmark) discard traditional currencies for the Euro

European Union wants to form its own defense and foreign policy Wants to act as counterweight to US

EUGoal: single competitive market w/o national tariffs or

quotassingle “FREE” market as big as USFree mov’t of capital and laborCommon econ institutions and policiesRegions specialized in what they do best

L-T goal: Bind nations so closely economically, that war would be impossible.

Philosophy and Religion

Existentialism

Roman Catholicism

Protestantism

ExistentialismTheistic –

Søren Kierkegaard(19th c.), Martin Buber, Paul Tillich, Gabriel Marcel, Karl Jaspers

Atheistic – Paul Sartre, Simon de Beauvoir,

Albert CamusFriedrich Nietzsche (19th c. precursor)

Key ThemesFreedom: We are condemned to be free

Responsibility: because we have freedom fundamentally and in our attitudes, we are responsible for the people we become

Angst/Dread/Anguish/Anxiety: When we reflect on our freedom we experience anxiety.

Bad Faith: Those who refuse to take responsibility for themselves are living an inauthentic existence in bad faith; they are self deluded.

The Keyest Theme: Existence Precedes Essence

What is meant here by saying that existence precedes essence? It means that, first of all, humans exist, turn

up, appear on the scene, and, only afterwards, define themselves.

Kierkegaard

Part of the revolt against reason. Mid-19th c.

Leap in the dark—leap of faith

Truths of Christianity are not revealed in organized religion or in doctrine, but in experiences of individuals facing crises in their lives

Jean Paul Sartre

Atheist

Human existence has no transcendent significance fundamentally absurdhumans are free to make choices. in choices, humans can give life meaning and purpose

RCC

John XXIII (r. 1958-1963)

A new era with his papacy

Mater et Magistra: reaffirmed Ch’s commitment to econ. and social reform. Called for increased assist to developing nations

Vatican II

Vatican II

Movement for renewal and aggiornamento(“bringing up to date”)

Reform Church’s liturgy. Vernacular mass instead of Latin. Lay participation increases. More open expression, Condemns anti-Semitism. Ecumenical movement.

Paul VI (r. 1963-1978): Humanae Vitae: reaffirms RCC’s opposition to artificial birth control

Protestantism

Karl Barth: Neoorthodoxy.Rejected religious modernism. Reaffirms

Reformation theologyBiblical authority. Revelation of God in Jesus.

Human dependence on God

Another Protestant thinker

Paul TillichGod=ultimate truthOriginal sin, atonement, immortality—

symbolicecumenical

PresentUS fighting War on Terror After attacks in New York City and Washington, DC Threatens to restrict civil rights for “security”

US wants to bring democracy to the Middle East Topples Saddam Hussein in 2003 over weapons of mass destruction Fighting insurgency

The Future? Environmental concerns Poverty in developing world Globalization—decreasing of trade barriers New technology (Internet, cell phones) brings people closer Anybody’s guess