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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR A~rD HUi~cIAI~I PERFOR~[ANCE 49 1 76 -2 1 1 1969)

Equi ty Theory : A Rev iew and Cr i t ique

ROBERT D PRITCHARD

Dep artmen t o] Psycho logy Un iversity o] M innesota

The theoret ical precision and research related to equity theory, as i t is

conceived by A dam s, are reviewed. While e quity th eo ry is a significant step

forward, the theory itself needs further specification. The research supports

equ ity predict ions in the area of underpaym ent, bu t the overp aym ent effects

have not been satisfactorily demonstrated. Elaborations of the theory are

presented in the areas of (1) determinants of inequity, (2) dissatisfaction

resulting from inequity, and (3) responses to dissatisfaction.

E q u i t y t h e o r y i s o n e o f t h e m a j o r f o r m u l a t i o n s r e l e v a n t t o f i n a n c i a l

c o m p e n s a t i o n. E q u i t y t h e o ri e s h a v e b e e n p r o p o se d b y A d a m s ( 19 6 3a ,

1 9 6 5 ), H o m a n s ( 1 9 6 1 ), J a c q u e s ( 1 9 6 1 ), a n d P a t c h e n ( 1 9 61 ) .

T h i s p a p e r c o n c e n t r a t e s o n e q u i t y t h e o r y a s i t is c o n c e iv e d b y A d a m s

( 1 9 6 3 a, 1 9 6 5 ) . T h i s i s d o n e f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s . F i r s t , a s V r o o m ( 19 6 4 , p .

1 70 ) p o i n t s o u t , t h e f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t s o f v a r i o u s e q u i t y t h e o r i e s d i ff e r

s o li t t l e t h a t t e s t a b l e d i ff e re n c e s c a n n o t b e d e d u c e d f r o m t h e m i n a r e a s

w h e r e t h e y w o u l d m a k e p r e d i c t io n s . S ec o n d, A d a m s p r e s e n t a t i o n is t h e

m o s t e x p l i c i t a n d e x t e n d e d o f t h e t h e o r i e s . T h i r d , h i s t h e o r y a n d t h e r e -

s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o it h a s r e c e i v e d w i d e s p r e a d a t t e n t i o n a m o n g p e r s o n s c o n -

c e r n e d w i t h c o m p e n s a t i o n t h e o r i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s .

O u r p r i m a r y p u r p o s e t h e n , is t o t a k e a c l o se r l o o k a t b o t h t h e t h e o r y

a n d r e s e a r c h g e n e r a t e d b y e q u i t y t h e o r y . I n t h e p a g e s f o ll o w i ng , w e

p r e s e n t t h e t h e o r y b r i e f l y , c o m m e n t o n i t as a t he or y d i s c u s s a n d c r i t i -

c a l l y e v a l u a t e r e s e a r c h d o n e t o t e s t d e d u c t i o n s f r o m i t, a n d s u g g e s t c er -

t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f e q u i t y t h e o r y t h a t s e e m t o b e i n d i c a t e d .

I n i ts m o s t r e c e n t f o r m u l a t i o n ( A d a m s , 1 9 6 5 ), t h e t h e o r y c o n s i de r s

( 1 ) t h e n a t u r e o f

i n p u t s

a n d

o u t c o m e s

(2 ) t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s o c ia l c o m -

p a r i s o n p r o c e s s, (3 ) t h e c o n d i t i o n s l e a d in g to e q u i t y o r i n e q u i t y a n d t h e

p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f i n e q u i t y , a n d ( 4 ) t h e p o s s i b l e re s p o n s e s o n e m a y

m a k e t o r e d u c e a c o n d i t i o n o f i n e q u i t y .

I n p u t s i n c l u d e a n y a n d a l l f a c t o r s p e r c e i v e d b y a p e r s o n t o b e r e l e -

v a n t f o r g e t t i n g s o m e r e t u r n o n h i s p e r s o n a l i n v e s t m e n t , f o r e x a m p l e ,

1The author gratefully acknowledges the detailed comments and invaluable,

cr i t ic isms of ear l ier draf ts of th is paper made by John P. Campbell , Marvin D.

Dunnette , and Norman Miller .

176

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Q U I T Y T H O R Y

177

s u c h f a c t o r s a s e ff o rt , e d u c a t i o n , a g e , b e a u t y , e t c . T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t

is t h a t t h e p e r s o n a c t u a l l y p e r c e iv e s t h e m a s s o m e t h i n g o f v a l u e t h a t h e

b r in g s o r p u t s i n t o a r e l a t io n s h i p . I n c o n t r a s t ,

outcomes

i n c l u d e a n y a n d

a l l f a c t o r s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e p e r s o n as r e t u r n s t o h i m s e l f t h a t is , f a c t o r s

t h a t h a v e u t i l i t y o r v a l u e t o h im . O u t c o m e s a n d i n p u t s f o r m a r a t io ,

a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l o u t c o m e s a n d i n p u t s a r e w e i g h t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r

p e r c e i v e d i m p o r t a n c e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e fi n al v a l u e o f t h is o u t c o m e /

i n p u t r a t i o .

A p e r s o n i s s a id t o c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y c o m p a r e h is o u t c o m e /

i n p u t r a t io t o t h a t o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n o r p e rs o n s. T h i s c o m p a r i s o n p e r -

s o n d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e t o b e a n y o n e i n d i v id u a l , i t c ou l d b e a

b r o a d c l a s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e p e r c e i v e d b y t h e p e r s o n a s r e l e v a n t f o r

c o m p a r i s o n .

A d a m s r e f e r s t o t h is g e n e r a l i z e d c o m p a r i s o n p e r s o n a s Other, a n d t o

t h e c o m p a r e r a s P e r s o n . T h i s n o t a t i o n w i ll b e f o l lo w e d i n t h e re -

m a i n d e r o f t h i s p a p e r .

E q u i t y is s a id t o o c c u r w h e n P e r s o n p e r c e i v e s t h a t t h e r a t i o o f h is

o u t c o m e s t o h is in p u t s i s e q u a l t o O t h e r ' s o u t c o m e / i n p u t r a t io . C o n -

v e r s e l y , P e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s

inequi ty

w h e n h e p e r c e i v e s t h a t h i s r a t i o is

n o t e q u a l t o O t h e r ' s . I n e q u i t y c a n r e s u l t e i t h e r w h e n P e r s o n a n d O t h e r

a r e i n a d i r e c t e x c h a n g e r e l a t i o n s h i p , f o r e x a m p l e t w o l o v e rs o r t w o p a r t -

n e r s ; o r , w h e n b o t h P e r s o n a n d O t h e r a r e r e l a t e d to a t h i r d p a r t y a n d

P e r s o n c o m p a r e s h i m s e l f w i t h O t h e r , f o r e x a m p l e , t w o e m p l o y e e s b e in g

p a i d b y o n e e m p l o y e r .

I n e q u i t y c a n o c c u r i n m a n y w a y s . S e v e r a l po s s ib i li ti e s a r e s h o w n

i n T a b l e 1 .

T h u s , p e r c e i v e d e q u i t y r e s u lt s w h e n P e r s o n ' s i n p u t s m a t c h h is o u t e o m e s

a n d w h e n O t h e r ' s i n p u t s m a t c h h i s ( O t h e r ' s ) o u t c o m e s . ( L L , L L ; 2 H H ,

H H ; L L , H H ; H H , L L . )

T h i s i s t r u e r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a b s o l u t e l e v e l

o f i n p u t s a n d o u t c o m e s f o r e i t h e r p a r t y . E q u i t y is a ls o s a id t o e x i s t

i n t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e P e r s o n ' s i n p u t s d o n o t m a t c h h is o u tc o m e s b u t

O t h e r i s p e r c e i v e d t o b e a n i d e n t i c a l s i t u a t i o n

( L H , L H ,

o r

H L , H L ) .

P e r c e i v e d i n e q u i t y a r i s e s w h e n e v e r P e r s o n ' s r a t i o d i f f e r s f r o m O t h e r ' s

In exemplifying various input-outcome relationships, the notation used by Weiek

and N esset (unpublished m anuscript) will be em ploye d in place of the mo re com-

plicated nota tion of Adams (1965). Th is simplified no tatio n is based on a te m pora l

sequence, and'is

not

to be read as a ratio. The first letter of a pair refers to level of

inputs,

the second letter to level of

outcomes.

Thus,

H L

= Person invests high input

and receives low outcomes. In situations involving two persons, the input-outcome

relationship for Person will appear first and the input-outcome relationship for

Other, the generalized comparison person, appears second. Thus

HL, LH

= Person

invests high inputs and receives low outcomes while his generalized comparison

person invests low inputs and receives high outcomes.

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ROBERT D. PRITCHARD

T A B L E 1

SITUATIONS OF ]~QUITY AND INEQUITY

E q u i t a b l e I n e q u i t a b l e

U n d e r r e w a r d O v e r r e w a r d

LL LL 2 LL LH LL HL

HH HH HL LL LH LL

LL HH HL LH LH HL

HH LL HL HH LH HH

LH LH HH LH HH HL

HL HL

ratio. This is the case not only when Person is under-rewarded relative

to Other L L , L H ; H L , L L ; H L , L H ; H L , H H ; H H , L H ) but also when

Person is over-rewarded relative to Other L L , H L ; L H , L L ; L H , H L ;

L H , H H ; H H , H L ) . The degree or magnitude of felt inequity is said

to vary as a function of the degree of discrepancy between the two ratios.

For example,

H L , L H

should produce more inequity than

L L , L H .

Although Adams is somewhat imprecise in the discussion of the conse-

quences of inequity, he does postulate that it will create tension and

that this tension has motivating properties impelling Person to reduce

or eliminate it. Moreover, the force of the motivation is proportional

to the magnitude of the inequity. Thus, the strength of the behavioral

tendencies to reduce inequity is determined by the amount of difference

between the two ratios.

Adams lists several things Person can do to reduce or avoid inequity.

He can attempt to equalize his and Other's ratios by (1) cognitively dis-

tor ting his or Other's inputs or outcomes, (2) by acting on Other to get

him to change his inputs or outcomes, (3) Person can change his own

inputs or outcomes, (4) Person can change his comparison person or

leave the field. Adams notes that not all of these modes of inequity re-

duction are equally available to Person psychologically, and he sets down

some tentative hypotheses about how Person will choose to reduce in-

equity. Person will maximize positive outcomes; he will minimize in-

creasing effortful or costly inputs. He will resist real and cognitive

changes in inputs and outcomes that are more central to his self-concept

and to his self-esteem. Person will be more resistant to altering cogni-

tions about his own inputs and outcomes than to altering cognitions about

the inputs and outcomes of Other. Leaving the field will be a last resort,

occuring only when inequity is high and other means of reducing it are

unavailable. Once comparison with a particular Other has stablized over

time, Person will be highly resistant to changing comparison persons.

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E Q U I T Y T H E O R Y 7 9

EQUITY THEORY AS A THEORY

W h i l e e q u i t y t h e o r y i s a l a r g e s t e p f o r w a r d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

a s y s t e ma t i c t h e o ry o f e x c h a n g e , t h e fo rmu la t i o n n e e d s fu r th e r s p e c i f i c a -

t i o n i n s e v e ra l a r e a s . Th re e g e n e ra l a r e a s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d : Qu e s t i o n s

r e l a t i n g to ( 1) t h e n a tu r e o f i n p u t s a n d o u t c o m e s , ( 2 ) t h e c o mp a r i s o n

p e r s o n a n d c o m p a r i s o n p ro c e ss , a n d (3) t h e m o d e s o f i n e q u i ty r e s o lu -

t ion .

I t i s n o t a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e

a p r i o r i

w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r

a s p e c t o f t h e e x c h a n g e r e l a t io n s h ip w i l l b e p e r c e iv e d a s a n i n p u t o r a s

a n o u t c o m e . F o r e x a m p l e , a g r e a t d e a l o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o n t h e j o b m a y

b e s e e n b y o n e p e r s o n a s a n o u t c o m e H e i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e o p e r a t i o n s

o f t h e o r g a n i z a t io n a n d h i s s u p er i or s t r u s t h is j u d g m e n t . T o a n o t h e r

p e rs o n , h o w e v e r , r e s p o n s i b il i ty i s a n i n p u t i n t h a t h e m u s t t a k e t h e

j o b h o m e w i th h im a t n ig h t , a n d m u s t b e a r t h e b u r d e n f o r a n y t h i n g t h a t

goes wrong .

A n o t h e r d if fi cu lt y w i t h i n p u t s a n d o u t c o m e s , w h i c h A d a m s p o i n t s o u t

in h i s 1 9 6 3 fo rmu la t i o n o f t h e t h e o ry , i s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n P e r s o n p e r c e iv e s

b e t w e e n i n p u t s a n d b e t w e e n o u t c o m e s . O b j e c t i v e l y , a g e a n d j o b e x p e r i -

e n c e m a y b e v e r y h i g h l y c o r r el a te d , b u t d o e s P e r s o n se e th e m a s

s e p a ra t e i n p u t s ? S imi l a r ly , p o s i t i o n a n d f r i n g e b e n e f i t s s u c h a s a s p e c i a l

p a r k i n g p l a c e m a y a g a i n b e h i g h l y c o r re l a te d , b u t p e r c e i v e d a s s e p a ra t e .

A l s o , w o u l d i t n o t b e p o s s i b l e f o r P e r s o n t o c o g n i t i v e l y m a n i p u l a t e t h e s e

c o r r e l a t i o n s t o r e d u c e i n e q u i ty ? F o r e x a mp le , i f P e r s o n p e r c e iv e s h i s

in p u t s a s h ig h e r t h a n h i s o u t c o me s r e l a t i v e t o O th e r , h e mig h t a c h i e v e

e q u i ty b y p e r c e iv in g h i s d e s i r a b l e p a rk in g p l a c e , h i s c a rp e t , h i s wa ln u t

d e s k , a n d h i s l i b e r a l e x p e n s e a c c o u n t a l l a s s e p a r a t e o u t c o m e s t h a t a d d

to h is t o t a l a m o u n t o f o u t c o me . Th e r e a l i s su e s e e ms to b e wh e th e r i n -

d i v i d u a l i n p u t s a n d o u t c o m e s a n d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e

a r e c o n s t a n t s f o r P e r s o n o r w h e t h e r t h e y c h a n g e i n t h e s e r v i ce o f i n -

e q u i ty r e s o lu t i o n .

Th e s e c o n d a r e a o f c o n s id e r a t i o n i n e q u i ty t h e o ry i s P e r s o n ' s c h o i c e

o f a c o m p a r i s o n p e r s o n . A d a m s d o e s n o t e l a b o r a t e o n h o w o r w i t h w h o m

P e r s o n w i l l c h o o s e t o c o mp a re h i s i n p u t -o u t c o me r a t i o . Th i s i s c ru c i a l

t o a n y p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o r ma g n i tu d e o f p e r c e iv e d i n e q u i ty .

Y e t s e v e r a l q u e st io n s a r e l e f t u n a n s w e r e d b y t h e t h e o r y . H o w m a n y

O t h e r s w i ll P e r s o n u s e ? A r e t h e y m u t u a l l y e x c l u si v e ? I s t h e r e s o m e r a n k -

i n g o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d i f f e r e n t O t h e r s ? H o w , o r w h a t d i m e n s i o n s a r e

s a l i e n t i n t h e c h o i c e o f a n O th e r? Ho w s t a b l e i s t h e c h o i c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r

O th e r? Do e s c h o ic e o f a n O th e r c h a n g e w i th c h a n g e s i n P e r s o n ' s s t a tu s ,

p a y , e t c ?

W e ic k (1 96 5 ) d i s c u s se s a n o th e r c o n s id e r a t i o n : w h a t a r e t h e e f fe c t s

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180 ROBERT D PRITCHARD

o f t h e a m o u n t o f c o m p a r a b i li t y b e t w e e n P e r so n a n d O t h e r? W e i c k m a k e s

t h e p l a u s i b l e h y p o t h e s e s t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n P e r s o n

a n d O t h e r o n r e l e v a n t i n p u t a n d o u t c o m e d i m e n si o n s, t h e g r e a t e r d i s -

c o mfo r t P e r s o n w i l l e x p e r i e n c e w i th a g iv e n a mo u n t o f i n e q u i ty . S in c e

t h e a m o u n t o f d i s c o m f o r t i s p r e s u m a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f

a t t e m p t s t o r e d u c e i n e q u i t y , t h e a m o u n t o f f e l t i n e q u i t y i s i m p o r t a n t

t o a n y a c t u a l p r e d i c t i o n o f b e h a v i o r .

A d a m s ' d i s c u s s io n o f t h e m o d e s o f i n e q u i ty r e s o lu t i o n p r e s e n t a

th i rd a r e a o f d i s c u ss io n . As Op s a h l a n d D u n n e t t e ( 1 96 6 ) p o in t o u t , t h e

h a z y f o r m u l a t i o n s o f w h a t f o r m o f i n e q u i t y r e so l u t io n w i ll o cc u r m a k e t h e

theory d i f f icu l t t t e s t e mp i r i c a l l y . Th e i r e x a mp le i s wo r th q u o t in g .

i f a n o v e rc o m p e n s a t e d g ro u p f a i l e d to s h o w in c r e a s e d i n p u t

( i n t h e f o r m o f h i g h e r q u a n t i t y o r q u a l i t y ) , m i g h t t h i s b e r e g a r d e d

a s d i s c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y o r m e r e l y a n i n s t a n c e o f t h e s u b -

j e c t s c h o o s in g u n d e r m o d e (e .g ., a l t e r i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t io n s o f t h e i r

o w n o r o t h e r s' i n p u t s o r o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e j o b b e i n g p e r f o r m e d ) f o r

reduc ing fee l ings o f inequ i ty (p . 113) .

W e ic k (1 96 5) f e el s t h e l i s t o f m o d e s o f i n e q u i ty r e d u c t io n i s n o t c o m-

p le t e , a n d i n c lu d e s s u c h f a c to r s a s d e n i a l a n d t a s k e n h a n c e me n t . W e ic k

a l s o p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n p r e d i c t i n g mo d e s o f i n e q u i ty r e s o lu -

t i o n i s i n c r e a s e d b y t h e i n c r e d ib l e r i c h n e s s a n d c o mp le x i ty o f i n p u t s a n d

o u tc o me s . I t i s t h u s d i ff ic u lt t o p r e d i c t j u s t wh ic h i n p u t s a n d o u t c o m e s

wi l l be changed .

A f in a l p o i n t a b o u t m o d e s o f i n e q u i t y r e d u c t i o n i s t h a t A d a m s m a k e s

n o me n t io n o f i n d iv id u a l d i f fe r e n c e s v a r i a b l e s . As Op s a h l a n d D u n n e t t e

(1 9 6 6 ) p o in t o u t , t h e d i f f e r e n t mo d e s o f i n e q u i ty r e d u c t io n a r e

un-

d o u b t e d l y a f u n c t i o n o f i n d iv i d u a l m o t i v e c o n f ig u r a ti o n s a n d a b i l i ty , i n -

t e r e s t , a n d p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s ( p . 1 1 3 ) .

The d i f f icu l t i e s in ac tua l ly mak ing a

speci f ic predic t ion

a b o u t f e e l i n g s

o f i n e q u i t y a r e p r o b a b l y b e s t s u m m a r i z e d b y V r o o m ( ] 9 6 4 ) . T h e v a r i -

a b l e s t h a t mu s t b e c o n s id e r e d fo r p r e d i c t i n g P e r s o n ' s f e l t i n e q u i ty i n -

c lu d e :

(1 ) h i s be l ie f s concern ing the degree to which he possesses

v a r io u s c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s ; ( 2 ) h i s c o n v ic t i o n s c o n c e rn in g t h e d e g re e

to wh ic h t h e s e c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s s h o u ld r e s u l t i n t h e a t t a in me n t o f r e -

w ard ing ou tcom es f rom h is job , i .e ., the i r va lue as inpu ts ; (3) h i s

b e l i e f s c o n c e rn in g t h e d e g re e t o wh ic h h e r e c e iv e s t h e s e r e wa rd in g

o u tc o m e s f ro m h i s j o b ; (4 ) h i s b e l i e fs c o n c ern in g t h e d e g re e t o wh ic h

o th e r s p o s s e s s t h e s e c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s ; ( 5) h i s b e li e f s c o n c e rn in g t h e

d e g re e t o wh ic h o th e r s r e c e iv e r e wa rd in g o u t c o me s f ro m th e i r j o b s ;

a n d (6 ) t h e e x t e n t t o wh ic h h e c o mp a re s h ims e l f t o t h e s e o th e r s

(pp . 171-172) .

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E Q U I T Y T H E O R Y 8

T h i s m a y b e a g o o d p l a c e to i n j e c t a p o i n t t h a t d e s e rv e s m e n t i o n. T h e s e

c r it ic i sm s o f A d a m s ' t h e o r y m a y s e e m q u i t e u n f a i r i f t h e y a r e s e e n a s

p o in t s Ad a ms f a i l e d t o c o n s id e r . Th i s i s n o t me a n t t o b e t h e c a s e . Th i s

d i s c u s s i o n i s m e a n t t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t h e o r y n e e d s f u r t h e r w o r k , a n d

t o p o i n t o u t s o m e o f t h e d i r e c t io n s t h is f u r t h e r w o r k s h o u l d ta k e .

R E V I E W O F E M P I R I C A L L I T E R A T U R E

S t u d i e s b e a r in g o n e q u i t y t h e o r y d i v i d e c o n v e n i e n t l y i n to t w o g r ou p s :

t h o s e s tu d y in g t h e e f f e c ts o f underpayment a n d th o s e d e a l i n g w i th t h e

effects of

overpayment.

Th e f i r s t t h r e e d i s c u s s e d b e lo w a r e c i t e d b y

A d a m s a s s u p p o r t f o r hi s t h e o r y , b u t w e r e n o t o r ig i n a ll y p l a n n e d i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f t h e t h e o r y .

Homans 1963)

T h e r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y c o n s i s te d o f i n t e r v ie w d a t a f r o m t w o

ty p e s o f c l e r i c a l wo rk e r s i n a l a rg e c o mp a n y . I n o n e p a r t o f t h e b i l l i n g

d e p a r t m e n t t h e r e w e r e t w o g r o u p s o f f em a l e c l e ri c al w o r k e r s , c a sh p o s t e r s

a n d l e d g e r c l e rk s . On e g ro u p , k n o wn a s c a s h p o s t e r s , d id t h e f a i r l y

m o n o t o n o u s j o b o f e n te r i n g p a i d b il ls o n t h e c u s t o m e r 's a c c o u n t w h i l e t h e

o th e r g ro u p , t h e l e d g e r c l e rk s , we re r e q u i r e d t o r e c o rd a d d re s s c h a n g e s ,

m a k e b r e a k d o w n s o f o v e r - a n d u n d e r p a y m e n t s a n d d e a l w i t h o t h e r

e mp lo y e e s a n d c u s to me r s o n t h e p h o n e . A g i r l h a d t o b e a c a s h p o s t e r f o r

s e v e ra l y e a r s b e fo r e s h e b e c a me a l e d g e r c l e rk . A l th o u g h th e l e d g e r c l e rk s

h a d h ig h e r s t a tu s , t h e y we re n e a r ly a l l p a id t h e s a me a s t h e c a s h p o s t e r s .

A d a m s (1 96 5) s e e s t h i s a s a s i t u a t i o n w h e re t h e l e d g e r c l e rk s h a v e h ig h e r

i n p u t s t h a n t h e c a s h p o s t e r s , b u t t h e i r o u t c o m e s a r e n o t c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y

h ig h . Th u s , i n e q u i ty s h o u ld b e e x p e r i e n c e d to t h e e x t e n t t h e l e d g e r c l e rk s

u s e d t h e c a s h p o s t e r s a s O th e r s ; a n d g iv e n t h a t t h e l e d g e r c l e rk s p e r -

c e i ve d t h e i n p u t - o u t c o m e r a t io s a s u n eq u a l . T h e r e s ul ts o f t h e o p e n -

e n d e d i n t e rv i e w s i n d i c a t e t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 5 % o f t h e l e d ge r c le r ks

s t a t e d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s u n j u s t a n d t h a t t h e y s h o u ld g e t a f e w

d o l l a r s m o re b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h ig h e r s e n io r i t y a n d g r e a t e r s ki ll . I t w a s

n o t s o m u c h t h a t t h e y w e r e a c t u a l l y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e p a y ; i n a n s w e r

t o t h e s a m e o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t io n o f H o w d o y o u li k e y o u r j o b , 11 o f

t h e 1 9 v o l u n t a r i l y r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y l ik e d t h e p a y ; r a t h e r , t h e y f e l t t h e y

s h o u ld g e t a l it t l e mo re t h a n t h e c a s h p o s t e r s b e c a u s e t h e i r i n p u t s w e re

h ig he r . A d a m s (1 96 5 ) i n t e rp r e t s t h i s a s s u p p o r t f o r t h e t h e o r y i n t h a t

u n e q u a l i n p u t - o u t c o m e r a t i o s l e d t o f e l t i n e q u i t y .

Clark 1958)

T h e r e s u lt s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e a v a i l a b l e o n l y th r o u g h A d a m s ( 1 9 65 ) . A s

s u c h , we a r e l im i t e d t o t h e d e t a i l s h e r e p o r t s .

T h e s u b j e c t s i n C l a r k ' s s t u d y c o n s is t ed o f t w o g r o u ps o f e m p l o y e e s in

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182 ROBERT D. PRITCt IARD

a s u p e r m a r k e t : c a s h ie r s a n d b u n d l e r s ( e m p l o y e e s w h o p u t t h e g r o ce r ie s

i n t o b o x e s ) . T h e c a s h i e r w a s a h i g h e r s t a t u s , b e t t e r p a i d l o b , u s u a l l y

s t a ff e d b y f u l l -t i m e e m p l o y e e s , w h i l e t h e b u n d l e r s w e r e g e n e r a ll y p a r t -

t i m e . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , t h e b u n d l e r s w e r e w o r k i n g

]or

t h e c a s h i e r s . F r e -

q u e n t ly , c a s h i e r -b u n d le r t e a ms we re fo rme d th a t o n t h e b a s i s o f a g e , s e x ,

a n d e d u c a t i o n l e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y i n e q u i t a b l e s i t u a ti o n s , s in c e m a n y o f t h e

b u n d l e r s w e r e m a l e c o l le g e s t u d e n t s w h o w e r e g e n e r a l l y o l d e r t h a n t h e

female , l e ss educa ted cash ie rs .

T h e t h e o r y w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t t h e b u n d l e r s , i f t h e y p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y

w e r e u n d e r p a i d i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e c a s h i e r s , w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e i n e q u i t y

a n d t a k e s t ep s t o r e d u c e it . T h e f in d in g s a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h is

p r e d i c t io n i n t h a t C l a r k f o u n d t h a t w h e n i n t e r v ie w e d , th e s e b u n d l e rs

we re q u i t e e x p l i c i t a b o u t e x p re s s in g i n e q u i ty . Th e i n t e rv i e w d a t a a l s o

i n d i c a t e d t h e p r i n c i p a l m o d e o f i n e q u i t y r e s o l u t i o n w a s d e c r e a s i n g i n p u t s

i n t h e f o r m o f l o w e r e d p r o d u c t i v i t y . C l a r k a l so s t u d i e d c a s h i e r - b u n d l e r

p a i r s i n s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n t s t o r e s , a n d fo r e a c h s to r e h e d e t e rmin e d th e

a v e r a g e d i s c r e p a n y b e t w e e n i n p u S - o u t c o m e r a t i o s f o r t h e p a i r s i n e a c h

s to r e. H e f o u n d t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s to r e w a s r e l a t e d t o t h is

a v e ra g e . Th e l e s s a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e twe e n r a t i o s f o r t h e p a i r s ( t h e l e s s

t h e o b j e c t i v e i n e q u i t y ) , t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s t o re .

T h i s i s s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e u n d e r p a y m e n t a s p e c t o f e q u i t y t h e o r y ,

s i n c e p e r c e i v e d i n p u t - o u t c o m e r a t i o s s e e m e d t o b e d i s c r e p a n t ; t h i s l e d

to f e e l i n g s o f i n e q u i ty , a n d l o we re d i n p u t s i n t h e fo rm o f p ro d u c t iv i t y

o c c u r r e d .

Patchen 1961)

P a tc h e n ' s t h e s i s wa s e x p l i c i t l y d e s ig n e d to t e s t d e r iv a t i o n s f ro m c o g n i -

t i r e d i s s o n a n c e t h e o r y . H e d e a l s w i t h o v e r p a y m e n t o n l y i n p a s s i n g ,

d e v o t i n g t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f h is e f fo r t t o e q u i t a b l e a n d u n d e r p a y m e n t .

I n t h i s r e s p e c t i t i s s im i l a r t o t h e f i r s t two s tu d i e s d i s c u s s e d .

T h e d a t a t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t h e r e w e r e c o l le c te d b y a s k i n g s k il le d a n d

u n s k i l l e d w o rk e r s (N = 4 8 9 ) i n a n o il r e f i n e ry t o d e s c r ib e tw o p e r s o n s

e i t h e r i n s id e o r o u t s id e t h e c o mp a n y wh o s e e a rn in g s we re d i f f e r e n t f r o m

th e i r o w n . Th e s u b j e c t w a s a l so a s k e d s e v e ra l o th e r q u e s t i o n s i n c lu d in g

w h e t h e r t h e c o m p a r i s o n p e r s o n e a r n e d m o r e o r l es s t h a n h i m s e lf , t h e

c o mp a r i s o n p e r s o n ' s o c c u p a t io n a l l e v e l , a n d t h e wo rk e r ' s s a t i s f a c t i o n

wi th h i s o wn e a rn in g s . Ac tu a l p a y r a t e s we re a l s o a v a i l a b l e .

P a t c h e n ' s r e s u l t s g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e q u i t y t h e o r y . S u b j e c t s w h o c h o s e

h ig h e r - e a rn in g O th e r s s h o we d a c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d t o b e l e s s s a t i s f i e d w i th

th e s e c o m p a r i s o n s t h e c lo s e r O th e r ' s o c c u p a t io n a l l e v e l wa s to t h e i r o wn .

P a t c h e n i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e d a t a a s i n d i c at i n g t h a t t h e m o r e a c o m -

p a r i s o n p e r s o n w h o e a r n s m o r e t h a n t h e c o m p a r e r is s i m i l ar t o t h e c o m -

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E Q U I T Y T H EO R Y 8 3

parer in occupational level (and thus, the more objectively dissonant the

comparison), the less satisfied the comparer is (p. 39). This is consistent

with the equity theory prediction earlier elaborated from Weick (1965)

that a given amount of inequity will create more dissatisfaction the more

similar Person is to Other. These data are also consistent with the

postulate that the greater the difference between the input-outcome ratios

the greater inequity and the greater the dissatisfaction. A comparison

with an individual who earns more than Person should not be bothersome

if that individual also has higher inputs. For example, if the comparison

were with a professional man (Person is a blue-collar worker) the situa-

tion would be

LL

HH--an equitable condition. On the other hand, if the

comparison is with an individual who is of more similar occupational

level the situation would be closer to LL LH. This should generate

feelings of inequity and lead to dissatisfaction.

Reasons for reported satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a comparison

with a higher-earning Other were also recorded. Included in reasons for

satisfaction were: Person has compensating financial and nonfinancial

advantages; Other is superior in what his job requires in seniority, ex-

perience, age, and in personal qualities; Person is not interested in com-

paring earnings; and Person earns enough for his needs. Predominantly

reported reasons for dissatisfaction with a comparison with a higher

earning Other were: Person is superior in job requirements, seniority,

age, and experienee; and Person wants more money and a higher living

standard. This list is very similar to types of inputs and outcomes Adams

discusses as relevant in determining the input-outcome ratio.

One of the methodological drawbacks with Patehen's study concerns

the procedures he used in obtaining comparison persons. By asking

Person to name someone he knew inside or outside the company who

earned more than he, Patchen may easily have obtained nominees who

were in no way real Others for Person. Person's doctor makes more than

he, but is very unlikely to be an Other. Furthermore, a large source of

nominees could have come from the direct fami ly of Person since these

could easily be the first people to come to Person's mind if he was not

trying to name someone he actually used as an Other. We have no direct

evidence of the number of nominees named who were irrelevent for

Person's comparisons, but 30% of these comparisons made were a close

relative of Person. Admittedly, some portion of these nominees were

Others, but the point is, we don't know how many.

Another related problem is tha~ Person was prohibited, by the direc-

tions, from naming someone who earned the same as he did. The degree

to which this procedure precluded the choice of relevant Others is again

not estimable.

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184 ROBERT D PRITCHARD

La wle r and O Gara (1967)

T h i s s t u d y e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d u n d e r p a y m e n t . A f t e r c o m p l e t -

i n g a j o b a p p l i c a t i o n , c o ll e g e s tu d e n t S s we re h i r e d a n d to ld t h e y wo u ld

b e p a i d 1 0 p e r in t e r v i e w ( u n d e r p a i d ) o r 2 5 p e r i n te r v i e w ( e q u i t a b l y

p a i d ) . T w o m e a s u r es o f p r o d u c t i v i t y w e re t a k e n , q u a n t i t y - - t h e n u m b e r

o f i n t e r v i e w s c o m p l e t e d , a n d q u a l i t y - - t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s r e c o r d e d p e r

i n t e r v i e w . T h e r e s u l t s s u p p o r t e d e q u i t y t h e o r y i n t h a t r e l a t i v e t o e q u i t a -

b l y p a i d S s , u n d e r p a i d S s c o n d u c t e d m o r e i n t e r v i e w s , a n d t h e i r q u a l i t y

w a s l ow e r . P r e s u m a b l y t h e u n d e r p a i d S s f e l t t h a t r e l a t iv e t o s o m e O t h e r,

t h e i r i n p u t s w e r e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i r o u t c o m e s ( p a y ) , a n d a t t e m p t e d t o

r e d u c e i n e q u i ty b y i n c r e a s in g o u t c o me s w i th o u t i n c r e a s in g i n p u t s , i . e . ,

c o n d u c t in g mo re i n t e rv i e ws , b u t s p e n d in g l e s s t ime o n e a c h o n e .

L a w l e r a n d O ' G a r a a l so in c l ud e d m e a s u r e s t h a t a t t e m p t e d t o t a p o t h e r

mo d e s o f i n e q u i ty r e d u c t io n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e a u th o r s o b t a in e d me a s u re s

o f p e r c e iv e d i n t e r e s t i n g n e s s , imp o r t a n c e , c o mp le x i ty , a n d c h a l l e n g in g -

n e ss o f t h e i n t e r v ie w i n g t a s k . T h e y h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t u n d e r p a i d S s w o u l d

f in d t h e t a s k mo re i n t e r e s t i n g , mo re imp o r t a n t , l e s s c o mp le x , a n d l e s s

c h a l l e n g in g t h a n t h e e q u i t a b ly p a id S s , s i n c e p e r c e iv in g t h e t a s k i n t h i s

w a y w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y t e n d t o b r i n g i n p u t s m o r e i n l i n e w i t h o u t c o m e s

c o m p a r e d t o O t h e r. D a t a f r o m t h e q u e s t io n n a i r e s h o w e d t h a t d if fe r en c e s

b e t w e e n u n d e r p a i d a n d e q u i t a b l e p a i d S s g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e d t h e

pred ic t ions .

T h i s a t t e m p t e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m o d e s o f i n e q u i t y r e s o l u t i o n i s v e r y

l a u d a b l e , b u t i t s e e m s e q u i t y t h e o r y w o u l d h a v e a d i ff ic u lt t i m e a c t u a l l y

p re d i c t i n g wh ic h d i r e c t i o n t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s s h o u ld s h o w, a n d n o ma t t e r

wh ic h d i r e c t i o n a c tu a l l y o c c u r r e d , b e a b l e t o i n t e rp r e t t h e r e s u l t s a s a t

l e a s t n o t c o n t r a r y t o e q u i t y t h e o r y . T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m , a s d i s c u s s s e d

p re v io u s ly , i s t h e a prior i d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e t h e r a p a r t ic u l a r j o b

c h a ra c t e r i s t i c i s a n i n p u t o r a n o u t c o me fo r a p a r t i c u l a r P e r s o n . F o r

e x a mp le , a l o b t h a t i s s imp le c o u ld b e i n t e rp r e t e d a s i n c r e a s in g i n p u t s

s in c e i t i s b o r in g ; o n t h e o th e r h a n d , a s imp le j o b c o u ld b e a n o u t c o me in

t h a t i t d o e s n o t d e m a n d t o o m u c h e f f or t.

La wle r a n d O ' Ga ra a l s o c o l l e c t e d d a t a o n i n d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s .

Be c a u s e o f t h e i r l im i t e d s a mp le s i ze , i t s e e ms u n w a r r a n t e d a t t h i s p o in t

t o d e a l w i th t h e s u b s t a n t iv e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r r e s u l t s . H o w e v e r , t h e i r r e s u l t s

d o i n d i c a t e t h a t i n d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r i n i n e q u i ty r e d u c t io n , a n d

d e s e rv e c a r e fu l s t u d y .

A d a m s a n d R o s e n b a u m (1 96 2)

T h i s s t u d y w a s d e s i g n e d t o t e s t s o m e o v e r p a y m e n t a s p e c t s o f e q u i ty

t h e o r y . I n t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t , S s w e r e m a d e e i t h e r t o f e e l o v e r p a i d b y

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Q IJ IT Y T H O R Y ~8

t h e h o u r o r e q u i t a b l y p a i d b y t h e h o u r i n r e la t i o n t o a h y p o t h e t i c a l g r o u p

o f q u a l i f ie d i n t er v i e w e r s . T h e a r g u m e n t w a s t h a t th e i n e q u i t y g e n g r a t e d

b y o v e r p a y m e n t sh o u l d l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y s i n c e t h i s ~v ou ld

i n c r e a se i n p u t s , w h i le f i n a n c ia l o u t c o m e s w o u l d r e m a i n c o n s t a n t :d ue t o

t h e h o u r l y p a y s c he d u le . T h u s i n c r e as in g p r o d u c t i v i t y ( i n p u t s ) c h a n g e s

P e r s o n f r o m

LH to HH

a c o n d i t i o n wh i c h i s e q u i t a b l e i n r e l a t i o n t o

Ot h e r wh o i s

HH.

T h e o v e r p a y m e n t m a n i p u l a t i o n w a s d e si g n ed t o in d u c e

c o g n i ti o n s t h a t P e r s o n wa s n o t r e a l l y q u a l if i e d f o r t h e i n t e r v i e wi n g t a s k ,

b u t t h a t E w o u l d h a v e t o h i re h im a n y w a y , a n d w o u ld h a v e t o p a y h i m

at, t h e r a t e a q u a l i f ie d i n t e r v ie w e r w o u l d b e p a i d . T h e e q u i t a b l ? / p a i d

S s w e r e to l d t h e y w e r e q u a li fi e d a n d w o u l d b e p a i d a c c o r d in g l y . T h e d a t a

s u p p o r t e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s in t h a t t h e o v e r p a i d S s c o n d u c t e d m o r e i n t e r -

v i e w s t h a n t h e i r e q u i t a b l y p a i d c o u n t e r p a r t s .

I n t h e s e c o n d e x p e ri m e n t , u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s w e r e a g a in h i r e d t h r o u g h

t h e U n i v e r s i t y P l a c e m e n t C e n t e r f o r a n i n t e r v ie w i n g j ob . S u b j e c t s w e r e

p l a c e d i n t o o n e o f f o u r c o n d i t i o n s ; t h e f i r s t t wo c o m p r i s e d a r e p l i c a t i o n

o f t h e f ir s t s t u d y i n t h a t S s w e r e p a i d b y t h e h o u r a n d m a d e t o f e e l e i t h e r

o v e r p a i d o r e q u i t a b l y p a i d . I n t h e o t h e r t wo c o n d i t i o n s , S s we r e p a i d o n

a piece-rate

b a si s, a n d a g a i n m a d e t o f e e l o v e r p a i d o r e q u i t a b l y p a i d .

T h e m e t h o d o f i n d u c i n g c o g n i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g S s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ( i . e . ,

i n p u t s ) w e r e i d e n t i c a l to t h o s e u s e d i n t h e f i rs t e x p e r i m e n t .

H e r e e q u i t y t h e o r y m a k e s d i f f e re n t p r e d i c ti o n s : i n e q u i t y r e s o l u ti o n

w i ll t a k e d i f fe r e n t f o rm s d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r o v e r p a i d S s w e r e p a i d b y

t h e h o u r o r b y t h e i n t e r v i e w. S p e c i f ic a l ly , S s o v e r p a i d b y t h e h o u r s h o u l d

i n c r e a s e t h e i r i n p u t s b y c o n d u c t i n g m o r e i n t e rv i e ws . T h i s m o d e o f in -

e q u i t y r e s o l u t i o n i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o S s p a i d b y t h e p i e c e s i n c e c o n d u c t i n g

m o r e in t e r v i e ws ( i n c r e a s i n g i n p u t s ) w o u l d a ls o r a is e f in a n c i a l o u t c o m e s .

I t w a s p r e d i c t e d t h a t S s o v e r p a i d i n t h e p i e c e - r a t e c o n d it io n w o u l d d e -

c r e a s e t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e i r o u t co m e s , in a n e f fo r t t o

a c h i e v e e q u i t y .

A d a m s a n d R o s e n b a u m f ee l t h a t t h e r e su lt s s u p p o rt t h e e q u i t y t h e o r y

p r e d i c t i o n s i n t h a t (1 ) t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t we r e r e p l i c a t e d :

S s m a d e t o f e e l o v e r p a i d b y t h e h o u r p r o d u c e d more i n t e r v i e ws t h a n S s

w h o w e r e e q u i t a b l y p a i d b y t h e h o u r ; a n d (2 ) S s o v e r p a id o n a p ie c e -

w o r k b a s i s c o n d u c t e d

]ewer

i n te r v i ew s t h a n p i e c e - w o r k S s w h o w e r e

e q u i t a b l y p a i d .

T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h d e a l s w i t h t h e m e t h o d

o f m a n i p u l a t i n g p e r c e i v e d in p u t s. S s i n t h e o v e r p a i d c o n d i ti o n w e r e t o ld ,

Y o u d o n ' t h a v e a n y ( n e a r l y e n o u g h ) e x p e r ie n c e i n i n t e rv i e w i n g o r

s u r v e y w o r k o f t h e k i n d w e ' r e en g a g e d in h e re . I s p e c i fi c a ll y a s k e d

t h e P l a c e m e n t S e r v ie e t o r e f e r o n l y p eo p l e w i t h t h a t k i n d o f e x p e ri -

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~86 ROBERT D PRITCHARD

ence. This was the maior qualification set. I can't understand how

such a slip-up could have occurred . . . (agonizing pause) . . .

Research in this area has shown that the nature of the response

elicited by a skilled and experienced interviewer is more accurate

and representative of the respondent's sentiments and differs sub-

stantially from the responses elicited by inexperienced people.

Who interviewed you at Placement? (tries to call Blacement).

Gets a busy signal and slams the receiver down . . .

I guess I'll have to hire you anyway, but

please

pay close attention

to the hlstructions I will give you. If anything I say seems compli-

cated, don't hesitate to ask for clarification. If it seems simple, pay

close attention. Some of this stuff, on the surface, may appear to be

deceptively easy.

Since I'm going to hire you, I'll just have to pay you at the rate

we advertized; tha t is, $3.50 per hour (or 30 per interview for piece-

rate conditions) (p. 165, emphasis on original).

The purpose of this extended quote describing the manipulation is

to emphasize the nature of the message the Ss received. The essence

of E's sta tement seems to be (1) wha t is an unqualified person like you

doing here; (2) you will be a poor interviewer; (3) you will cause errors

in my data ; (4) I'm going to raise hell with the idiot who sent you over

here; (5) I have to hire you, but I don' t want to; (6) you will have

to be extremely careful of these interviews; (7) you may think this

stuff is simple, but it's not ; and (8) I'm forced to pay you a t the going

rate, but you don' t deserve it. E then proceeds to describe the extremely

simple interviewing procedure.

It seems quite likely that the result of this initial contact with the

employer was not only to induce cognitions of L H , H H inequity in the

S, but also to threaten the S's self-esteem. This threat could be relative

to the subject himself I' ll be a poor interviewer, and/or relative

to E - - H e thinks I' ll be a poor interviewer. If these were indeed the

feelings aroused by the manipulation, it seems quite plausible that the

S would at tempt to do an especially good job to convince himself

and/or E th at he was not as poor an interviewer as he was made out

robe. The essential point is, how would increasing self-esteem by doing

a bette r job take the form of increasing the number of interviews

in the hourly paid condition, and decreasing the number of interviews

in the piece-rate condition. Since the task was a Simple one,s it seems

zThe interviewers were only to record which of five kinds of automobile the

interviewees associated with six brief personal descriptions such as, A rising junior

executive.

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E Q U I TY T H E O R Y 1 8 7

u n l i k e l y t h a t i n p u t s c o u l d h a v e b ee n v e r y d i f fe r e n t i n t e r m s o f a c t u a l

q u a l i t y f o r t h e t w o c o n d it io n s . T h u s i t s e e m s t h a t t h e s h e e r n u m b e r o f

i n te r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d is t h e i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e . F o r t h e h o u r l y p a i d

S s, s u p p o s e d ly e x p e r ie n c i n g i n e q u i t y d u e t o o v e r p a y m e n t , c o n d u c t i n g

a l a r g e n u m b e r o f i n t e r v i e ws c o u l d b e s e e n a s d o i n g a g o o d j o b . T h i s

wo u l d t e n d t o r a i s e t h e p r e v i o u s l y r e d u c e d f e e l i n g s o f s e lf -e s ~ee m , t t o w -

e v e r , t h e s e l f - e s t e e m e x p l a n a t i o n i s n o t s o s t r a i g h t f o r wa r d f o r S s i n

t h e p i e c e - r a t e c o n d i t io n . I t c o u l d be t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f i n t e r v ie w s w a s

a m o r e s a l i e n t a s p e c ~ o f t h e j o b i n t h e p i e c e - r a t e c o n d i t i o n s i n c e S s

w o u l d b e p a i d o n t h is b a s is . A p p r o a c h i n g E w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l

n u m b e r o f c o m p l e t e d i n t e r v i e w s c o u l d c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y

e x p re s s t o E t h a t S c o n d u c t e d t h e i n t e r d e w s w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f c a r e

a n d h e n c e w o u l d n o t b i a s h is e m p l o y e r ' s d a t a .

T h e a r g u m e n t f o r t h e p i e c e - r a t e S s a d m i t t e d l y r e s ts o n t h e t w o l es s-

t h a n - o b v i o u s a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t n u m b e r o f i n t e r v i e w s w a s m o r e s a l i e n t

f o r p i e c e - r a t e S s a n d t h a t p e r c e p t io n s o f s u b j e c t i v e q u a l i t y e x is te d

i n t h e p i e c e - r a t e c o n d i t i o n t h a t d i d n o t e x i s t i n t h e h o u r l y c o n d i t i o n .

Ne v e r t h e l e s s , p e r c e p t i o n s o f s e l f - e s t e e m a n d m e t h o d s o f i n c r e a s i n g s e l f -

e s t e e m p o t e n t i a l l y c o n f o u n d t h e d a t a a n d m a k e t h e r e s u lt s d i ff ic u lt t o

i n t e r p r e t .

T h e r e i s a n o t h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n wh i c h i s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h i s s t u d y a n d

t o a ll t h e f o ll o w in g s t u d ie s t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l ly te s t e q u i t y th e o r y .

N a m e l y , t h e w o r k p e r i o d s a r e s h o r t ; t h e y r a n g e f r o m o n e t o t w o - a n d -

o n e h a l f h o u r s . I f t h e s u b j e c t s a r e n o t r e a l l y a w a r e o f h o w d i ff ic u lt t h e

l o b w i l l be a n d e s p e c ia l ly h o w m u c h t h e y w i ll r e a l l y b e e a r n i n g i n t h e

p i e c e - r a t e c o n d i ti o n s (e .g ., h o w m a n y i n t e r v ie w s t h e y a r e d o i n g i n a n

h o u r ) , it i s d if fi cu lt t o se e h o w t h e y c a n m a k e a c c u r a t e e s t im a t e s o f

t h e i r i n p u t - o u t c o m e r a t i o s . A l s o , i t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t w h e n S s a r e

f ir s t h i re d , t h e y w o u l d t e n d t o b e u n d e r h i g h m o t i v a t i o n t o m a k e a

good in i t i a l impress ion .

Arrowood 1961)

A n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l d i f fi cu l ty i n i n t e r p r e t in g t h e A d a m s a n d R o s e n -

b a u m s t u d y w a s f o r e s e en a n d d i sc u ss e d b y t h e m , u s in g d a t a f r o m a

t h e s is b y Ar r o w o o d . 4 T h e c r i t ic i s m t h e y b r i n g u p i s t h a t t h e d i f fe r e n c e s

i n p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e LH cond i t ions (Ss to ld they were unqua l i f i ed~

b u t h i r e d a n y w a y ) m i g h t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e s u l t i n g f r o m f e e l i n g s o f

j o b i n s e c u r i t y . I f S s w h o w e r e t o l d t h e y w e r e r e a l l y u n q u a l i f i e d f o r

t h e j o b p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e y m i g h t b e f i r e d i f t h e y d i d n o t d o a n e s p e -

T h e A r r o w o o d t h e s i s w a s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h i s a u t h o r , a n d a s s u c h , w e a r e o n c e

a g a i n l i m i t e d t o w h a t h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d a b o u t i t i n o t h e r s o u rc e s, e s p e ci a ll y A d a m s

1 9 6 3 ) .

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~ 8 R O B E R T D P R I T C H A R D

ic ia t'ly good job , t h e y cou l d hav e i nc r eas ed t he i r j ob i npu t s t o m i n i mi ze

. t h i s ' l ~os s i b i t i t y r a t he r t han t o a t t empt t o e s t ab l i s h equ i t y .

~ i l t ~ ho ~'ld :be~ n o t e d , p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t p r e s e n t e d

b y , ~ ~ d a m s ~ n d ~ R ose nb au m i s s im i la r t o t h a t p r e s e n t e d a b o v e c o n c e r n -

i~r/~ t h6~p0s s~b le co n t a m i na t i ng e f fec t s o f l ower ed s e l f - e s teem . T h ey a r e

ta ci~ Jly a S m i t ti n g t h e p o s s i b il it y t h a t p e r c e p t i o n s o f l o w e r e d l o b s e e u -

~ i t y :, w o u ld : " h a v e d i f f e r e n ti a l ef fe c ts o n p i e c e - w o r k a n d h o u r l y p a i d

w o r k e r s ~ . n u m e l y , t o : l o w e r t h e p i e c e - r a te S s ' p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d r a is e . th e

p'roductivity ib' f: .hour' ly p a i d Ss. T h i s is t h e s a m e p o s s ib i li ty m e n t i o n e d

~a'bove ',~oneern ing low er ed s e lf - e s t eem. T he f ac t t ha t A dam s a nd R os e n-

b a u m : ~t h em s e lv e s f e e l t h is c o u l d o c c u r g i v e s s o m e a d d e d c r e d e n c e : t o

the= i ~ rgument f o r t he co n t a m i na t i ng e f f ec ts o f l ower ed s e l f -e s t eem . :

A r r o w o o d e m p l o y e d a . f a c t o r ia l d e s ig n w h e r e i n S s w e r e e i t h e r :o V er,

p a i d o r ,~ e q ~ i ta b l y p a i d o n a n h o u r l y b as is , a n d p e r f o r m e d u n d e r e i t h e r

p u b l i c ~ r ,: p r i v a t e c 0 n d i ti o n s . T h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e m a n i p u l a t i o n . w a s

ach ieve~i by . '.hav ing 8S s u bm i t t he r e s u l t s o f t he i r i n t e r v i ew s t o t h e

eml~ 'l:oye r ( t he exp er i m en t e r ) o r m a i l t h e i r w or k i n p r e ad dr e s s ed : e r/-

V e lo pe sl t o :: :a n a d d r e s s s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d m i l e s a w a y . I n t h e l a t t e r

, (p r iv a t6 ) c o n d i ti o n s , S s w e r e g i v e n t h e i m p r e s s io n t h a t t h e e x p e r i .

r e e n t e r w o u l d n e v e r s e e t h e i r w o r k . T h e o v e r p a i d - e q u i t a b l y p a i d m a n i p -

u l a t i o n w a s s i m i l ar t o t h a t u s e d i n t h e A d a m s a n d R o s e n b a u m (1 96 2)

stud~)~ Ss h i r ed a t $3 .50 pe r ho ur an d m ad e t o f e e l qua l i f i ed o r un -

q u a l if ie d f o r t h e j o b .

: If Ss i nc r eas e i np u t s m er e l y t o dec r eas e t he pos s i b i l it y o f be i ng f ir ed ,

o v e r p a y m e n t s h o u l d n o t l ea d t o h i g h e r p ro d u c t i v i t y w h e n j ob s e c u ri ty

i s m a x i m i z e d , i.e ., t h e p r i v a t e c o n d i ti o n . T h e d a t a s h o w t h a t t h e e q u i t y

p r e d i c t i o n d o es i n d e e d o c c u r in t h e p r i v a t e c o n d i ti o n : o v e r p a i d S s

c o n d u c t e d m o r e i n te r v ie w s t h a n t h e e q u i t a b l y p a i d S s. A d a m s a n d

R o s e n b a u m i n t e r p r e t th e s e r e s u lt s a s s h o w i n g t h a t p e r c e iv e d jo b i n -

s e c u r i t y w a s n o t a c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y o f " u n -

qual i f i ed 8s .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n u p o n w h i c h t o b a s e a n

e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e A r r o w o o d s t u d y , o n e c o n s i d e r a t i o n d o e s d e s e r v e m e n -

t i o n . S i n c e t h e A r r o w o o d m a n i p u l a t io n a t te m p t e d t o m a k e t h e o v e r-

pa i d Ss f ee t . unqua l i f ied , t he pos s ib l e c on t am i na t i ng e f f ec t s o f l ow er ed

s e l f i e s te e m c o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d h e r e a ls o . T h e r e s u lt s s h o w a v e r y

s t r o n g e f f e c t f o r t h e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e m a n i p u l a t i o n : S s w h o s e p r o d u c -

t i v i t y w a s n o t u n d e r E ' s s u r v e il la n c e c o n d u c t e d f a r f e w e r i n te r v ie w s

t h a n t h e 'S s w h o r e p o r t e d d i r e c t l y t o E . T h i s w o u l d s e e m t o i n d i c a t e

t h a } s i n c e E h a d n o a c c e ss to t h e p r o d u c t i o n fi g ur e s o f t h e S s i n t h e

p d ~ a t e c o n d i t i o n , t h e s e S s d i d n o t w o r k a s h a r d a s t h e S s w h o r e p o r t e d

d i r e c t l y t o E . T h e r e a ls o w a s a m a i n e f f e c t d u e to p a y m e n t c o n d i ti o n s,

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E Q U I T Y T H E O R Y 8 9

w i t h t h e o v e r p a i d Ss c o n d u c t in g m o r e i n t er v ie w s t h a n t h e e q u i t a b l y

p a i d S s. ( T h e re w a s no i n te r a c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o t r e a t m e n t d i m e n -

s io n s . ) W h i l e t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s i n t e rp r e t e d b y Ad a ms a s c o n f i rmin g th e

o v e r p a y m e n t p r e d i c t i o n o f e q u i t y t h e o r y ~ i t c o u l d a l s o b e e x p l a i n e d

b y t h e s e l f - e st e e m a r g u m e n t . S u b j e c t s w h o w e r e t o l d t h e y w e r e : u n q u a l i -

f i e d c o u ld h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e i r p ro d u c t iv i t y t o c o u n te r a c t f e e l i n g s o f

lo we re d s e l f - e s t e e m.

W e m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y t h a t t h i s l o w e r e d s e l f - e s t e e m c o u l d e x i s t

v i s - a - v i s E o r v i s - a - v i s t h e s u b j e c t h i m s e l f . I n t h i s c a s e , a t t e m p t s t o

r a i s e s e l f - e s t e e m b y i n c r e a s e d i n p u t s c o u l d o c c u r v i s - a - v i s b o t h t h e

s u b j e c t a n d E i n t h e p u b l i c c o n d i t i o n , b u t i n t h e p r i v a t e c o n d i t i o n E

w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y n e v e r k n o w h o w m a n y i n t e r v i e w s S c o n d u c t e d a n d

t h u s S c o u l d n o t r a i s e h i s s e l f - e s t e e m b y b e h a v i n g i n w a y s t h a t c o u l d

c a u s e E t o e v a l u a t e h i m m o r e f a v o r a b l y . R e c a l l t h a t b o t h o v e r p a i d

a n d e q u i t a b l y p a i d S s in t h e p r i v a t e c o n d i t io n c o n d u c t e d f e w e r i n t e r -

v i e w s t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e p u b l i c c o n d it io n , a n d t h a t t h i s

d i f f e r e n c e w a s c o n s t a n t f o r b o t h p a y m e n t c o n d i t i o n s . W e s a i d e a r l i e r

t h a t t h is d i ff e re n c e c o u l d h a v e r e s u l te d f r o m l a c k o f s u r v e i ll a n c e b y E

i n t h e p r i v a t e c o n d it io n . H o w e v e r , a n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e is p o ss ib l e. T h e

SS i n t h e o v e r p a i d - p r i v a t e g r o u p m a y n o t h a v e b e e n r e a c t i n g t o t h e

lo we re d s u rv e i l l a n c e , b u t i n s t e a d we re t r y in g t o r a i s e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m

(v i s - a -v i s t h e ms e lv e s ) b y r a i s in g t h e i r l e v e l o f i n p u t s , b u t s i n c e E

w o u l d n e v e r k n o w t h e i r n u m b e r o f i n te r v i ew s , t h e y d i d n o t r a i s e

t h e m a s h i g h a s t h e y w o u l d h a v e i f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t e d t h a t h e w o u l d

c h a n g e h i s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e m . T h e S s w h o w e r e e q u i t a b l y p a i d , h o w -

e v e r , we re i n d e e d r e a c t i n g t o t h e l o we re d s u rv e i l l a n c e b y s imp ly l o we r -

ing the i r e f fo r t s .

T o s u m m a r i z e t h i s r a t h e r t o r t u o u s a r g u m e n t , t h e o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e

i n n u m b e r o f i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d i n t h e p u b l i c c o n d i ti o n c o u l d . . l m v e

o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e o v e rp a id S s we re a t t e mp t in g t o i n c r e a s e s e l f - e s t e . e m

v i s - a - v i s th e m s e l v e s a n d t h e e x p e r im e n t e r . H o w e v e r , i n th e p r ~ v a t v

c o n d i t i o n t h e o b s e rv e d d i f fe r e n c e r e s u l t e d f ro m tw o f a c to r s : (1 ).~ ,o ve rr

p a i d S s w e r e a t t e m p t i n g t o r a i se s e l f -e s t e e m b u t c o u l d d o s o o n J y

v i s - a - v i s th e m s e l v e s a n d n o t E , a n d ( 2) e q u i t a b l y p a i d S s d i d n o t w o r k

as ha rd due to lack o f su rve i l l ance . : :. .

A d a m s 19 63 D ) :.: ~:~ : . .. . :

I n t h is s t u d y A d a m s c o n s i d er s t h e e f f ec ts o f o v e r p a y m e n t o n w o r k

q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y . U p t o t h i s p o i n t , r e s e a r c h o n o v e r p a y m e n t h a s

c o n s id e r e d o n l y t h e q u a n t i t y o f w o r k p r o d u c e d . E q u i t y t h e o r y a ls o

p re d i c t s t h a t wh e n P e r s o n i s o v e rp a id r e l a t i v e ~o O th e r (e :.g .,

L H , H H ) ,

o n e w a y o f i n c r e a s in g i n p u t s i s f o r P e r s o n to i n c r e a s e t h e q u a l i t y o f :

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i 9 0 ROBERT D PRITCHARD

h i s w o r k . I n t h e t w o p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , t h e t a s k w a s s o s i m p l e t h a t i t

w a s d i ff ic u lt f o r P e r s o n t o m a n i p u l a t e w o r k q u a l i ty . I n t h is s t u d y , t h e

t a s k w a s s u c h t h a t S s c o u l d d i f fe r i n wo r k q u a l iW , a n d t h i s d i f f e r e n c e

c o u l d b e m e a s u r e d .

S u b j e c t s w e r e m a d e t o f e e l e i t h e r q u a l i f ie d o r u n q u a l i f i e d f o r c o n -

d u c t i n g o p e n - e n d e d i n t e r v i e w s a b o u t o p i n i o n s , a n d w e r e p a i d o n a

p i e c e - ra t e b as is . T h e q u a n t i t y m e a s u r e w a s s i m p l y t h e n u m b e r o f

i n t er v i e w s c o n d u c t e d , a n d q u a l i t y w a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e a m o u n t o f

r e c o r d e d i n f o r m a t i o n S s e l i c i t e d f r o m t h e r e s p o n d e n t s .

T h e p r e d i c t io n m a d e b y e q u i t y t h e o r y is t h a t (1 ) S s o v e r p a i d o n a

p i e c e - r a t e b a s is wi l l c o n d u c t f e we r i n t e r v ie ws , a n d ( 2) wi l l r e c o r d

m o r e in f o r m a t i o n p e r i n t e rv i e w t h a n S s w h o w e r e e q u i t a b l y p a i d . T h e

d a t a s u p p o r t b o t h h y p o t h e s e s .

T w o p o i n t s s h o u l d b e d i s c u s s e d i n r e g a r d t o t h i s s t u d y . T h e fi r st is

t h e s e l f- e s t ee m p r o b l e m d i sc u s se d a t l e n g t h a b o v e. I f w e a g a i n a s s u m e

t h a t f e el in g s o f l o w e r e d s e l f- e s te e m w e r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e m a n i p u l a -

t i o n o f j o b q u a l if i c a t io n s ( t h e p r o c e d u r e wa s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e u s e d in

t h e t wo p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s ) , p o s s i b l e m o d e s o f i n c r e a s i n g s e l f - e s t e e m

a p p e a r t o c o n t a m i n a t e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y e v e n m o r e t h a n i n t h e

p r e v i o u s t w o s t u d i e s . I n t h i s s t u d y , S s h a d m u c h g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o v e r

t h e q u a l i t y o f th e i r w o r k , a n d t h u s o n e w a y t o

d o

a g o o d j o b " v i s - a - v i s

t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r o r th e m s e l v e s w o u l d b e t o r e c o r d v e r y c a r e f u l l y e v e r y -

t h i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s a id , i .e ., i n c r e a s e q u a l i t y . T h u s , t h e i n c r e a s e d

q u a l i t y o f t h e u n d e r q u a l i f i e d ( o v e r p a i d ) S s co u l d h a v e r e s u l te d f r o m

m e a s u r e s t o e n h a n c e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m .

T h e s e c o nd p o i n t i s o n e p r e s e n t e d b y O p s a h l a n d D u n n e t t e (1 96 6)

i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e A d a m s a n d J a c o b s e n (1 96 4) s t u d y , b u t w h i c h is

a l s o r e l e v a n t h e r e . T h e m a n i p u l a t i o n u s e d b y A d a m s t e l l s t h e

over -

p a i d 8 s

t h a t t h e j o b is n o t a s s im p l e a s i t m a y s e e m a n d t h a t t h e y w i l l

h a v e t o b e e x t r e m e l y c a r e f u l w i t h t h e i n t e r v i e w s . T h u s i n t h i s e x p e r i -

m e r i t, w h e r e Bs c a n a f f e c t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r wo r k , t h e i n i t ia l c o n t a c t

w i t h t h e " e m p l o y e r " t el ls t h e m t o p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t io n t o q u a li W

M o r e o v e r , t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e f o r t h e e q u i t a b l y p a i d S s ; t h e y a r e s i m p l y

h i r e d a n d t h e n t h e t a s k is e x p la i n e d t o t h e m . T h u s , t h e d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t y

s e ts i n d u c e d b y E c o u ld h a v e i n c r e a s e d q u a l i t y i n t h e o v e r p a i d g r o u p ,

a n d s i n c e d o i n g a h ig h q a u l i t y j o b ( r e c o r d i n g m a n y i d e a s ) n e c e s s i -

t a r e s c o n d u c t i n g fe vc er i n t e r v ie ws , h a v e t h e a d d i t i o n a l e f fe c t o f r e d u c -

i n g q u a n t i t y .

A d a m s a n d Ja c o b s e n ( 19 6 4)

T h i s e x p e r i m e n t e m p l o y e d a 3 X 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n w i t h t h r e e c o n d i -

t i o n s o f e q u i t y a n d t w o c o n d it io n s r e l a t e d t o p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e j o b ,

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E Q U I T Y T H E O R Y 9

A f t e r c o m p l e t in g a jo b a p p l ic a t io n , t h e S s t o o k a c o n t r i v e d p r o o f r e a d -

i ng t e st . T h e E t h e n i n t e rv i e w e d t h e S s t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t o h i r e

t h e m f o r a p r o o f r e a d i n g t a s k . I n t h e o v e r p a i d c o n d it io n , w h i c h A d a m s

a n d J a c o b s e n c a ll h i g h d i ss o n a n ce , S s w e r e t o ld t h e y d i d n o t h a v e

e n o u g h e x p e r i e n ce ; e x pe r ie n c e is i m p o r t a n t ; a c c u r a c y w a s v e r y i m -

p o r t a n t ; t h e i r p r o o f r e a d i n g t e s t w a s n o t r e a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y ; t h e y w o u l d

b e h ir e d a n y w a y ; t h e y s h o u ld p a y c lo se a t te n t i o n t o t h e i n s t ru c t i o n s ;

a n d t h a t E w o u l d p a y t h e m a t t h e g o in g r a t e (3 0 p e r p a g e ) . I n t h e

s e c o n d e q u i t y c o n d i t i o n , t e r m e d t h e r e d u c e d d i s s o n a n c e c o n d i t i o n , S s

we r e a l s o t o l d t h e y we r e u n q u a l i f i e d a n d , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r l o w q u a l i -

f i c a t i o n s wo u l d o n l y b e p a i d 2 0 p e r p a g e i n s t e a d o f t h e r a t e o f 3 0 f o r

q u a l i f i e d p r o o f r e a d e r s . I n t h e t h i r d c o n d i t i o n ( l o w d i s s o n a n c e ) Ss w e r e

t o l d t h e y we r e we l l q u a l i f i e d a n d wo u l d b e p a i d 3 0 , wa g e s f o r q u a l i f i e d

peop le .

T h e o t h e r f a c t o r i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s j o b p r o s p e ct u s. S u b j e ct s i n t h e

h i g h j o b p r o s p e c t u s c o n d i t i o n w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e b o o k t h e y w e r e p r o o f -

r e a d i n g wa s o n e o f a s e r i e s h e ( t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ) wo u l d b e wo r k i n g o n ,

a n d i t wa s p o s si b le t h a t t h e S wo u l d a ls o b e a b l e t o h e l p h i m i n t h e

f u t u r e . I n t h e l o w j o b p r o s p e c t u s , S s w e r e t o l d t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

( s m a l l ) b o o k h a d to b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e p u b l i s h e rs s o on , a n d t h a t i t wa s

a l l t h e w o r k t h a t t h e y w o u l d d o .

E q u i t y t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t S s w h o a r e o v e r p a i d ( e . g . , LH, HH

s h o u l d n o t p r o d u c e a s m u c h a s t h o s e wh o a r e e q u i t a b l y p a i d ( s i n c e t h i s

is p i e c e - r a t e ) a n d t h a t t h e s e o v e r p a i d 5 s s h o u ld d o h i g h e r q u a l i t y w o r k .

S u b j e c t s i n t h e r e d u c e d d i s s o n a n c e a n d t h e l o w d i s s o n a n c e c o n d i t i o n s

s h o u l d n o t e x p e r i e n c e i n e q u i t y , s in c e t h e f o r m e r wo u l d b e m o r e in a

posi t ion of e .g . ,

LL, HH;

and the l a t t e r a pos i t ion o f e .g . ,

HH, HH.

T h e d i m e n s i o n o f j o b p r o s p e c t u s w a s i n c l u d e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a

j o b s e c u r i t y v a r i a b l e c o u ld a c c o u n t f o r t h e r e s u l ts . T h e a r g u m e n t is t h a t

i f u n q u a l i fi e d Ss f e e l t h e y m a y b e f ir e d a t s o m e l a t e r t i m e , t h e y m a y t r y

t o d o a g o o d j o b t o d e c r e a s e t h e c h a n c e s o f b e i n g f i r e d . Ho we v e r , t h e

p r e d i c t i o n i s t h a t i f u n d e r q u a l i f i e d S s f e e l t h e j o b wi l l b e o f s h o r t d u r a -

t io n , t h e r e w o u l d b e n o r e a s o n t o t r y t o l o o k g o o d f o r f u t u r e e m p l o y -

m e n t . T h u s , t h e p r e d i c ti o n is t h a t i f j o b s e c u r i t y is a f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g

t o i n c r e a s e d i n p u t s b y t h e o v e r p a i d S s , i n c r e a s e d i n p u t s s h o u l d n o t r e s u l t

i n t h e l o w j o b p r o s p e c t u s c o n d i t i o n ; i . e . , i f j o b s e c u r i t y i s a c o n t a m i n a n t ,

e q u i t y p r e d i c t io n s h o u l d n o t h o l d f o r t h e o v e r p a id , l o w jo b p r o s p e ct u s

group .

T h e r es u lt s s u p p o r t t h e p r e d ic t io n s m a d e b y A d a m s a n d J a c o b se n . T h e

h i g h d i s s o n a n c e ( o v e r p a i d ) S s p r o o f e d f e w e r p a g e s t h a n t h e r e d u c e d

d i s s o n a n c e a n d t h e l o w d i s s o n a n c e g r o u p s, a n d t h e h i g h d i s s o n a n c e g ro u p s

s h o w e d h i g h e r q u a l i t y s c o r e s t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o g r o u p s . T h e r e w e r e n o

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t9 ROBERT D PRITCHARD

differences in quality or quantity between the reduced dissonance and

the low dissonance groups. The results also indicated that job prospectus

was not a contaminant in that there was no interaction between iob

prospectus and payment condition.

Discussion of this study will largely center around points mentioned

in connection with previous studies. The first is the self-esteem question.

It could be argued that if methods of enhancing self-esteem were operat-

ing, they should operate not only under the high dissonance condition,

but also under the reduced dissonance condition since both groups were

told that they were unqualified for the iob. The data indicate that only

the high dissonance groups raised inputs in comparison to the equitably

paid groups; there was no difference in inputs between the reduced dis-

sonance and the low dissonance (equitably paid) groups. Also, if the

set to increase quality is operating, the reduced dissonance Ss should also

have produced higher quality work since they were given the same

instructions to pay close attention, etc. One explanation for these

results is suggested by Opsahl and Dunnette (1966) who point out,

It is likely, for example, that the pay reduction (in the reduced

dissonance group) would be sufficient to suggest to an unqualified

subject that his expected poor performance was already being taken

into account, and he might then be expected to work in accordance

with his employer's implied expectations (p. 112).

Some confirmation of this proposition is found in a study by Goodman

and Friedman (1968), which will be discussed more completely later in

the paper. Using a reduced dissonance group similar to that employed

by Adams and Jacobsen, they found that if the reduced dissonance Ss

knew the production rates of qualified workers, their performance was

comparable to the overpaid Ss, but if they did not know these production

norms, they produced less than the overpaid Ss. Thus if one controls

for the Opsahl and Dunnette criticism by stating production norms, the

insulted reduced dissonance Ss perform much like the insulted over-

paid Ss.

Andrews 1967)

This experiment considered three variables: amount of payment,

interestingness of the task, and previous wage experience. Subjects were

assigned to do one of two piece-rate tasks at either 15 per piece (under-

payment), 20 per piece (equitable payment), or 30 per piece (over-

payment). The asymmetry of the payments was employed to reflect the

proposed different thresholds for under- and overpayment.

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EQUITY THEORY 93

S u b j e c t s we r e a s s i g n e d t o o n e o f t wo t a s k s , i n t e r v i e wi n g s t u d e n t s

( i n t er e s t in g t a s k ) o r c h e c k in g p a g e s o f d a t a ( d u ll t a s k ) . I n d e p e n d e n t

c h e e k s o n t h e a m o u n t o f p a y m e n t a n d t h e i n t e r e s t i n g n e s s o f t h e t a s k s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f t h e s e t wo v a r i a b l e s we r e p e r c e i v e d

a s i n t e n d e d . T h e t h i r d v a r i a b l e c o n s i d e r e d wa s p r e v i o u s w a g e e x p e ri e n c e ,

a n d c o ll e ge s t u d e n t Ss we r e d i v i d e d i n t o h i g h , m e d i u m , a n d l ow o n t h e

b a si s o f t h e h i g h e s t w a g e s t h e y h a d r e c e iv e d p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r im e n t .

A n d r e w s g a v e n o i n it ia l i n s tr u c t io n s o r c o m m e n t s t h a t c o u ld h a v e

i n d u c e d a q u a l i t y s e t o r t h a t c o u l d s e r v e t o a f f e c t s e l f- e s te e m . Hi s p a y -

m e n t m a n i p u l a t i o n w a s a d d r e s s e d s o l e l y t o

outcomes

r a t h e r t h a n t h e

i n p u t m a n i p u l a t i o n s e m p l o y e d i n t h e o v e r p a y m e n t e x p e r i m e n t s ab o v e.

T h e p r e d i c ti o n s m a d e b y e q u i t y a r e t h a t s in c e S s a re e m p l o y e d o n a

p i e c e - r a t e b a s i s , S s w h o a r e u n d e r p a i d s h o u l d p r o d u c e m o r e w i t h l o w e r

q u a l i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e e q u i t a b l y p a i d g r o u p s , a n d o v e r p a i d S s s h o u ld

p r o d u c e l e s s wi t h h i g h e r q u a l i t y . I f o n e c a n a s s u m e t h a t p r e v i o u s wa g e

e x p e ri e n c e is r e l a t e d t o p e r c e i v e d i n p u ts , e q u i t y t h e o r y w o u l d p r e d i c t

t h a t S s w i t h a h i g h e r w a g e h i s t o r y s h o u l d b e m o s t s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d b y

u n d e r p a y m e n t i n t h a t o f a ll th e g r o u p s, t h e y s h o u l d p r o d u c e th e m o s t

w o r k w i t h l o w e s t q u a l i t y . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e S s w i t h a l o w w a g e h i s t o r y

s h o u ld b e m o s t a f f e ct e d b y o v e r p a y m e n t i n t h a t o f a ll t h e g r ou p s , t h e y

s h o u l d p r o d u c e t h e l e a s t w i t h t h e h i g h e s t q u a l i t y . F i n a l l y , t o t h e e x t e n t

t h a t h i g h t a s k i n t e r e s t i n g n e s s wa s p e r c e i v e d a s a p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e ,

u n d e r p a y m e n t e ff ec ts ( h i g h e r q u a n t i t y , l o w e r q u a l i t y ) s h o u ld n o t b e a s

s t ro n g i n t h e d u l l t a s k a s i n t h e i n t e r e s t in g t a s k ; a n d s i m i la r ly , o v e r p a y -

m e r i t e f f e c t s ( l o we r q u a n t i t y , h i g h e r q u a l i t y ) s h o u l d a l s o b e l e s s s t r o n g

i n t h e d u l l t a s k t h a n i n t h e i n t e r e s t i n g t a s k . T h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e o v e r -

p a y m e n t s i d e o f t h i s p r e d i c t i o n i s t h a t i f a P e r s o n i s i n e .g . ,

LH HH

s i t u a t io n , l o we r i n g h i s o u t c o m e s v i a a d u l l t a s k wo u l d t e n d t o r e d u c e t h e

d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n h is a n d O t h e r s i n p u t - o u t c o m e r a t i o s, t h u s t e n d i n g

t o r e d u c e i n e q u i t y , a n d t e n d i n g t o r e d u c e p r e s s u r e s t o a l l e v i a t e i n e q u i t y

v i a i n c r e a s i n g q u a l i t y ( i n c r e a s in g i n p u t s ) a n d l o we r i n g q u a n t i W .

T a k i n g t h e l a s t p r e d i c t i o n f i r s t , A n d r e w s r e p o r t s t h a t n o n e o f t h e

a n a l y s e s r e l a t e d t o q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y s h o w e d a n y s i g n if ic a n t di ff e re n c e

b e t w e e n t h e d u l l t a s k a n d t h e i n t e r e s ti n g t a sk . W h i le t h is c o u ld b e t a k e n

a s d i s c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e e q u i t y p r e d i c t i o n , r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d b y W e i c k

(1 96 4) i n d i c a t e t h a t e q u i t y p r e d i c t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h t a s k a t t r a c t i v e n e s s

a r e v e r y d if fi cu lt t o m a k e . I - Ie f o u n d t h a t c o m p a r e d w i t h a m o r e a t t r a c t i v e

t a s k , S s p e r f o r m i n g a l e s s a t t r a c t i v e t a s k w o r k e d h a r d e r a n d r e p o r t e d i t

m o r e e n j o y a b l e . T h u s e q u i t y t h e o r y c o u l d e x p l a i n t h e l a c k o f d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n t h e t w o t a s k s a s b e i n g d u e to S s u s i ng a n o t h e r m o d e o f i n e q u i t y

r e s o lu t io n ; n a m e l y , c o g n i t iv e l y m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e t a s k a t t r a c ti v e n e s s t o

i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e o u t c o m e s i n t h e u n d e r p a i d a n d o v e r p a i d c o n d i t i o n s

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194

ROBERT n PRITCHARD

r e s p e c t i v e ly . S in c e t h e r e w e r e n o d i f fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e tw o t a s k s , t h e

r e s u l t s o f t h e t w o t a s k t r e a t m e n t s w e r e c o m b i n e d i n r e p o r t i n g t h e r e s t

o f t h e d a t a .

A n d r e w s f o u n d t h a t

q u a n t i t y

o f w o r k t e n d e d t o d e c r ea s e w i t h i n c r ea s e d

p a y m e n t , i.e., u n d e r p a i d S s p r o d u c e d m o r e t h a n e q u i t a b l y p a i d S s w h o ,

i n t u r n , p r o d u c e d m o r e t h a n o v e r p a i d S s. A p p a r e n t l y , h o w e v e r , t h e o n l y

s t a t is t i c a ll y s i g n if ic a n t d i ff e re n c e w a s b e t w e e n t h e t w o e x t r e m e p a y m e n t

g r o u p s ; o v e r p a i d v s . u n d e r p a i d . I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e

a n a l y s i s w o u l d b e t o s e p a r a t e l y c o m p a r e b o t h t h e o v e r p a y m e n t a n d

u n d e r p a y m e n t g r o u p w i t h t h e e q u i ta b l e p a y m e n t g ro u p . V i s u a l in s p e c ti o n

o f th e s e m e a n s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d i ff e re n c e b e t w e e n t h e e q u i t a b l y p a i d

g r o u p s m e a n a n d t h e u n d e r p a i d g r o u p s m e a n is t w i c e a s l a rg e a s t h e

d i ff e re n c e b e t w e e n t h e e q u i t a b le p a y m e n t m e a n a n d t h e o v e r p a i d g ro u p s

m e a n . T h u s , m o s t o f t h e o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o e x t r e m e

p a y m e n t g r o u p s i s d u e t o u n d e r p a i d S s p r o d u c i n g

m o r e

a s o p p o s e d t o

o v e r p a i d S s p r o d u c i n g

l e s s

T h e s e d a t a , t h e r e f o r e , d o n o t c l e a r l y s u p p o r t

t h e o v e r p a y m e n t p r e d ic t io n s .

T h e r e i s a p r o b l e m w i t h i n t e r p r e t i n g A n d r e w s d a t a i n t h a t , f o r

q u a n t i t y o f w o r k a t l e a s t, t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a v e r y m a r k e d i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n r a t e o f p a y a n d p r e v io u s w a g e h i s to r y . I t is t h e a u t h o r s o p in i on ,

f r o m i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e c e l l m e a n s , t h a t a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e ( w h i c h

i s r e a l l y m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t h a n t h e m u l t i p l e t - t e s t s u s e d b y A n d r e w s )

w o u ld s h o w n o t o n ly a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n , b u t w o u ld y i e ld a n o n -

s ig n i f i c a n t d i f fe r e n c e b e tw e e n p a y m e n t c o n d i t i o n s . S in c e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

a p p e a r s t o b e s o m a r k e d , i t is r e a l l y in a p p r o p r i a t e t o i u s t c o n s id e r m a i n

e f fe c ts , r a t h e r t h e d i f fe r e n c e b e tw e e n l e v e ls o f o n e v a r i a b l e s h o u ld b e

c o n s id e r e d

w i t h i n

a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l o f t h e o th e r .

Wi th o th i s i n m in d , a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e q u a n t i t y d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n

t h e h i g h w a g e h i s t o r y g r o up , e q u i t y p r e d i c t io n s d o n o t h o l d u p f o r o v e r-

p a y m e n t s i n c e o v e r p a i d S s p r o d u c e d

m o r e

t h a n e q u i t a b l y p a i d S s . I n

t h e m e d i u m w a g e h i s t o r y g r o up , t h e p r e d i c t e d p a t t e r n o c c ur s, w h i le in t h e

lo w w a g e h i s t o r y g r o u p , t h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o d i f fe r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e

q u a n t i t y o f t h e e q u i t a b l y p a i d g r o u p a n d q u a n t i t y o f t h e o v e r p a i d g r o u p .

W i t h i n e a c h l e v e l o f w a g e h i s t o ry , t h e p r e d i c t e d e f fe c ts o f u n d e r p a y m e n t

( i n c r e a s e d q u a n t i t y ) d o o c c u r . T h u s , w h i l e e q u i t y t h e o r y c o r r e c t l y

p r e d i c ts t h e e ff ec ts o f u n d e r p a y m e n t , i t f a il s to m a k e a c c u r a t e p r e d i c ti o n s

f o r o v e r p a y m e n t .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e e ff ec ts o f w a g e h i s t o r y o n q u a n t i t y , a g a i n t h e t r e n d

i s a c c u r a t e ly p r e d i c t e d b y e q u i t y t h e o r y , i.e ., t h e h ig h e r t h e w a g e h i s t o r y ,

t h e g r e a t e r w o r k q u a n t i t y , b u t h e r e a g a i n , t h e o n l y s i g n i fi c a n t d i ff e re n c e

is b e t w e e n t h e e x t r e m e w a g e h i s t o r y g r o u ps . L o o k i n g a t w a g e h i s t o r y

e ff e ct s w i t h i n l ev e ls o f p a y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e e q u i t y p r e d i c t i o n w a s

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EQUITY THEORY 95

u p h e l d i n t h e u n d e r r e w a r d a n d o v e r r e w a r d c o n d i t i o n s , b u t w a s n o t

u p h e l d i n t h e e q u i t a b l y p a i d c o n d i t i o n .

I n r e p o r t i n g q u a l i t y d a t a w e a r e f a c e d w i t h a s i m p l e r t a s k i n t h a t t h e

P a y m e n t l e v el X W a g e h i s t o r y i n t e r a c t io n d o e s n o t a p p e a r v e r y s t r on g .

C o m p a r i so n o f q u a l i t y s c o re s b e t w e e n t h e o v e r p a i d a n d u n d e r p a i d S s

( t h e t wo e x t r e m e c o n d i ti o n s ) r e s u l t e d i n a n i n s i g n i fi c a n t 2 - t a i l e d t - t e s t ,

b u t s i g n i fi c a n c e ( .0 5) wa s r e a c h e d wi t h a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t . T h e e f fe c ts o f

w a g e h i s t o r y o n q u a l i t y o f w o r k c o n f o r m e d t o t h e d i re c t io n p r e d i c t e d b y

e q u i t y t h e o r y i n t h a t q u a l i t y i n c r e a s e d w i t h l o w e r w a g e h i s t o r y . H e r e ,

h o we v e r , wh i l e o n l y t h e e x t r e m e s a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , a l l o f t h e

e f fe c t w a s d u e t o t h e o v e r p a i d g r o u p p r o d u c i n g h i g h e r q u a l i t y w o r k . I t

i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e

e q u i t a b l y p a i d g r ou p a n d t h e o v e r p a i d g r o u p w o u l d h a v e b e e n s i gn i fi c an t .

T h e s e r e su l ts a r e v e r y i n t e r e s ti n g i n l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h is is t h e

o n l y s t u d y o f o v e r p a y m e n t t h a t w a s n o t p o t e n t i a ll y c o n t a m i n a t e d b y t h e

s e l f - e s t e e m p r o b l e m n o r t h e s e t t o i n c r e a se