1890 1900...1910 mexico revises and adopts its constitution. 1917 the panama canal opens. 1914...

546 CHAPTER 18

Businessgroups, aided byU.S. marines, over-throw Hawaii’sQueen Liliuokalani.

1893U.S.S. Maine

explodes and sinks. The Spanish-American War begins.

1898

TheodoreRooseveltbecomes president after McKinley is assassinated.

1901

GuglielmoMarconi developsthe technology thatled to the modernradio.

1895

Marie Curiediscovers radium.

1898In China,

the Boxers rebel.1900

Panamadeclares itsindependencefrom Colombia.

1903

This lithograph of Roosevelt leading the RoughRiders at San Juan Hill shows the men onhorseback, although they actually fought on foot.

USAWORLD 1900190018901890

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America Claims an Empire 547

I N T E R A C TI N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

In the late 1890s, American news-papers are running sensational storiesabout Spain’s harsh rule of Cuba. Such articles anger Americans. Amongthose willing to fight for Cuba’s free-dom are a group of volunteers, theRough Riders. Led by future presidentTheodore Roosevelt, the Rough Ridersbecome a model for others to follow.

Does the U.S.have a duty tofight for freedomin neighboringcountries?Examine the Issues

• When should the U.S. intervene inthe affairs of another country?

• In what ways do dramatic head-lines influence American opinion?

WilliamHoward Taft iselected president.

1908WoodrowWilson iselected president.

1912

WorldWar I begins in Europe.

1914The MexicanRevolution begins.1910 Mexico revises and

adopts its constitution.1917

ThePanamaCanalopens.

1914Puerto Ricans

become U.S. citizens.

The UnitedStates enters WorldWar I.

1917

1917

1920192019101910

Visit the Chapter 18 links for more informationrelated to America Claims an Empire.

RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

p0546-547aspe-0518co 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 547

http://www.classzone.com/books/americans05/index.cfm

One American's Story

Imperialism andAmerica

In 1893 Queen Liliuokalani (lE-lCQE-I-kE-läPnC) realized thather reign in Hawaii had come to an end. More than 160 U.S.sailors and marines stood ready to aid the haoles (white for-eigners) who planned to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy.In an eloquent statement of protest, the proud monarch sur-rendered to the superior force of the United States.

A PERSONAL VOICE QUEEN LILIUOKALANI

“ I, Liliuokalani, . . . do hereby solemnly protest against anyand all acts done against myself and the constitutional govern-ment of the Hawaiian Kingdom. . . . Now, to avoid any collision ofarmed forces and perhaps the loss of life, I do under this protest . . .yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United Statesshall . . . undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authoritywhich I claim as the constitutional sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.”

—quoted in Those Kings and Queens of Old Hawaii

U.S. ambassador to Hawaii John L. Stevens informed the State Department,“The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour for the UnitedStates to pluck it.” The annexation of Hawaii was only one of the goals ofAmerica’s empire builders in the late 19th century.

American ExpansionismAmericans had always sought to expand the size of their nation, and throughoutthe 19th century they extended their control toward the Pacific Ocean. However,by the 1880s, many American leaders had become convinced that the UnitedStates should join the imperialist powers of Europe and establish colonies over-seas. Imperialism—the policy in which stronger nations extend their economic,political, or military control over weaker territories—was already a trend aroundthe world.

Terms & NamesTerms & NamesMAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

•QueenLiliuokalani

•imperialism•Alfred T. Mahan

•William Seward •Pearl Harbor •Sanford B. Dole

Beginning in 1867 andcontinuing through thecentury, global competitioncaused the United States toexpand.

During this time period, theUnited States acquired Hawaiiand Alaska, both of whichbecame states in 1959.

WHY IT MATTERS NOWWHY IT MATTERS NOW

▼

Hawaii’s “QueenLil” announcedthat if restored topower, she wouldbehead those whohad conspired todepose her.

548 CHAPTER 18

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GLOBAL COMPETITION European nations had beenestablishing colonies for centuries. In the late 19th centuryAfrica had emerged as a prime target of European expansionism. By the early 20th century, only two countries in all of Africa—Ethiopia and Liberia—remainedindependent.

Imperialists also competed for territory in Asia, espe-cially in China. In its late-19th-century reform era, Japanreplaced its old feudal order with a strong central govern-ment. Hoping that military strength would bolster industri-alization, Japan joined European nations in competition forChina in the 1890s.

Most Americans gradually warmed to the idea ofexpansion overseas. With a belief in manifest destiny, theyalready had pushed the U.S. border to the Pacific Ocean.Three factors fueled the new American imperialism:

• desire for military strength

• thirst for new markets

• belief in cultural superiority

DESIRE FOR MILITARY STRENGTH Seeing that othernations were establishing a global military presence,American leaders advised that the United States build up itsown military strength. One such leader was AdmiralAlfred T. Mahan of the U.S. Navy. Mahan urged govern-ment officials to build up American naval power in orderto compete with other powerful nations. As a result of theurging of Mahan and others, the United States built ninesteel-hulled cruisers between 1883 and 1890. The con-struction of modern battleships such as the Maine and theOregon transformed the country into the world’s thirdlargest naval power.

THIRST FOR NEW MARKETS In the late 19th century,advances in technology enabled American farms and facto-ries to produce far more than American citizens could con-sume. Now the United States needed raw materials for itsfactories and new markets for its agricultural and manufac-tured goods. Imperialistsviewed foreign trade as thesolution to American over-production and the relatedproblems of unemploymentand economic depression.

In the early 1900s, theNavy’s Great White Fleet,so named because itsships were painted white,was a sign of America’sgrowing military power.

A

KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

ADMIRAL ALFRED T. MAHAN1840–1914

Alfred T. Mahan joined the U.S.Navy in the late 1850s andserved for nearly forty years. In1886, he became president ofthe newly established Naval WarCollege in Newport, Rhode Island.

Throughout his lifetime, Mahanwas one of the most outspokenadvocates of American militaryexpansion. In his book TheInfluence of Sea Power uponHistory, 1660–1783 (publishedin 1890), Mahan called for theUnited States to develop a mod-ern fleet capable of protectingAmerican business and shippinginterests around the world. Healso urged the United States toestablish naval bases in theCaribbean, to construct a canalacross the Isthmus of Panama,and to acquire Hawaii and otherPacific islands.

▼

A. AnswerOnly two African nationsremained independent;the rest of thecontinent wasdivided upamongEuropeannations.

BackgroundIn the late 1800s,new farmmachinery greatlyimproved grainproduction. Forexample, plows,harrows, threshingmachines, andreapers increasedcorn production by264 percent andthe wheat harvestby 252 percent.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingEffects

How didEuropeanimperialism affect Africa?

p0548-551aspe-0518s1 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 549

BELIEF IN CULTURAL SUPERIORITY Cultural factors also were used to justifyimperialism. Some Americans combined the philosophy of Social Darwinism—abelief that free-market competition would lead to the survival of the fittest—witha belief in the racial superiority of Anglo-Saxons. They argued that the UnitedStates had a responsibility to spread Christianity and “civilization” to the world’s“inferior peoples.” This viewpoint narrowly defined “civilization” according tothe standards of only one culture.

The United States Acquires AlaskaAn early supporter of American expansion was William Seward, Secretary ofState under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. In 1867, Sewardarranged for the U.S. to buy Alaska from the Russians for $7.2 million. Seward hadsome trouble persuading the House of Representatives to approve the treaty. Somepeople thought it was silly to buy what they called “Seward’s Icebox” or “Seward’sfolly.” Time showed how wrong they were. In 1959, Alaska became a state. Forabout two cents an acre, the United States had acquired a land rich in timber, min-erals, and, as it turned out, oil.

The United States Takes HawaiiIn 1867, the same year in which Alaska was purchased, the United States tookover the Midway Islands, which lie in the Pacific Ocean about 1300 miles north ofHawaii. No one lived on the islands, so the event did not attract much attention.

Hawaii was another question. The Hawaiian Islandshad been economically important to the United Statesfor nearly a century. Since the 1790s, American mer-chants had stopped there on their way to China andEast India. In the 1820s, Yankee missionaries foundedChristian schools and churches on the islands. Theirchildren and grandchildren became sugar planters whosold most of their crop to the United States.

THE CRY FOR ANNEXATION In the mid-19th century,American-owned sugar plantations accounted for aboutthree-quarters of the islands’ wealth. Plantation ownersimported thousands of laborers from Japan, Portugal,and China. By 1900, foreigners and immigrant laborersoutnumbered native Hawaiians about three to one.

White planters profited from close ties with theUnited States. In 1875, the United States agreed toimport Hawaiian sugar duty-free. Over the next 15years, Hawaiian sugar production increased nine times.Then the McKinley Tariff of 1890 provoked a crisis byeliminating the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar. As aresult, Hawaiian sugar growers faced competition in theAmerican market. American planters in Hawaii calledfor the United States to annex the islands so theywouldn’t have to pay the duty.

U.S. military and economic leaders already under-stood the value of the islands. In 1887, they pressuredHawaii to allow the United States to build a naval baseat Pearl Harbor, the kingdom’s best port. The basebecame a refueling station for American ships.

Vocabularyannex: toincorporateterritory into anexisting country or state

B

Hawaii’s Changing Population1853–1920

Perc

enta

ge o

f Tot

al P

opul

atio

n

Native HawaiianCaucasianOther (mostly Asian)

1853 1878 1900 1920

100

80

60

40

20

0

Source: Robert C. Schmitt,Demographic Statistics of Hawaii, 1778–1965

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Graphs1. What were the most dramatic changes

in Hawaiian population between 1853and 1920?

2. How might these changes have affectedthe political climate there?

B. AnswerAlaska is rich intimber, minerals,and oil.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. The percent-age of nativeHawaiiansdeclined fromabout 98% in1853 to about16% in 1920. Thepercentage ofother popula-tions (mostlyAsian) increasedfrom about 1%in 1853 to about62% in 1920.2. Thesechanges mayhave led to ten-sions betweennative Hawaiiansand newcomers.

550 CHAPTER 18

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

DevelopingHistoricalPerspective

How did timeprove that thepurchase ofAlaska was not anact of folly?

p0548-551aspe-0518s1 10/17/02 8:55 AM 50


THE END OF A MONARCHY Also inthat year, Hawaii’s King Kalakaua hadbeen strong-armed by white businessleaders. They forced him to amendHawaii’s constitution to grant votingrights only to wealthy landowners. Butwhen Kalakaua died in 1891, his sisterQueen Liliuokalani came to power witha “Hawaii for Hawaiians” agenda. Sheproposed removing the property-own-ing qualifications for voting. To preventthis from happening, business groups—encouraged by Ambassador John L.Stevens—organized a revolution. Withthe help of marines, they overthrew thequeen and set up a government headedby Sanford B. Dole.

President Cleveland directed thatthe queen be restored to her throne.When Dole refused to surrender power,Cleveland formally recognized theRepublic of Hawaii. But he refused toconsider annexation unless a majority ofHawaiians favored it.

In 1897, William McKinley, whofavored annexation, succeeded Clevelandas president. On August 12, 1898, Congress proclaimed Hawaii an American territory, although Hawaiians had never had thechance to vote. In 1959, Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States.

•Queen Liliuokalani•imperialism

•Alfred T. Mahan•William Seward

•Pearl Harbor•Sanford B. Dole

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

Copy this web on your paper and fillit in with events and concepts thatillustrate the roots of imperialism.

Choose one event to explain furtherin a paragraph.

CRITICAL THINKING3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Manifest destiny greatly influencedAmerican policy during the first halfof the 19th century. How do youthink manifest destiny set the stagefor American imperialism at the endof the century?

4. EVALUATINGIn your opinion, did Sanford B. Doleand other American planters havethe right to stage a revolt in Hawaiiin 1893? Think About:

• American business interests inHawaii

• the rights of native Hawaiians

5. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCESIn the following passage, how doesIndiana Senator Albert J. Beveridgeexplain the need for the U.S. toacquire new territories?

“ Fate has written our policy for us;the trade of the world must andshall be ours. . . . We will establishtrading posts throughout the worldas distributing points for Americanproducts. . . Great colonies govern-ing themselves, flying our flag andtrading with us, will grow about ourposts of trade.”

—quoted in Beveridge and the Progressive Era

PAC IF ICOCEAN

CANADA

RUSSIA

UNITED STATES

MEXICO

Alaska,1867

60°N

40°N

20°NTropic of Cancer

0°

160°W180° 140°W 120°W

W

N

S

EW

United States andits possessions

0

0 800 1,600 kilometers

800 1,600 miles

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location Where do the Hawaiian Islands lie

in relation to the United States?2. Human-Environment Interaction Given

their geographic location, why were Hawaiiand Alaska of value to the United States?

Alaska, 1867, and Hawaii, 1898Ec

onom

ic

Polit

ical

Cultu

ral

Roots of U.S. Imperialism

C

C. AnswerIn 1891, U.S.minister John L.Stevens organ-ized a revolutionthat dethronedHawaii’s queen.American plan-tation ownerSanford B. Dolebecame head ofthe new govern-ment. In 1897William McKinleybecame presi-dent. He favoredannexation.

SkillbuilderAnswer1. 2400 mileswest of UnitedStates2. Hawaii: re-fueling stations;Alaska:protected U.S.from Russianaggression

PearlHarbor

Hawaii

Oahu

KauaiMolokai

Maui

Hawaiian Islands, 1898

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingEvents

What factorsled to theannexation ofHawaii in 1898?

p0548-551aspe-0518s1 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 551


•José Martí•Valeriano Weyler•yellow journalism•U.S.S. Maine

•George Dewey•Rough Riders•San Juan Hill•Treaty of Paris

In 1898, the United Stateswent to war to help Cuba winits independence from Spain.

U.S. involvement in LatinAmerica and Asia increasedgreatly as a result of the warand continues today.


Early in 1896, James Creelman traveled to Cuba as a New YorkWorld reporter, covering the second Cuban war for independ-ence from Spain. While in Havana, he wrote columns about hisobservations of the war. His descriptions of Spanish atrocitiesaroused American sympathy for Cubans.

A PERSONAL VOICE JAMES CREELMAN

“ No man’s life, no man’s property is safe [in Cuba]. Americancitizens are imprisoned or slain without cause. American prop-erty is destroyed on all sides. . . . Wounded soldiers can befound begging in the streets of Havana. . . . The horrors of abarbarous struggle for the extermination of the native popula-tion are witnessed in all parts of the country. Blood on theroadsides, blood in the fields, blood on the doorsteps, blood,blood, blood! . . . Is there no nation wise enough, brave enough to aid this blood-smitten land?”

—New York World, May 17, 1896

Newspapers during that period often exaggerated storieslike Creelman’s to boost their sales as well as to provokeAmerican intervention in Cuba.

Cubans Rebel Against SpainBy the end of the 19th century, Spain—once the most powerful colonial nationon earth—had lost most of its colonies. It retained only the Philippines and theisland of Guam in the Pacific, a few outposts in Africa, and the Caribbean islandsof Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Americas.

AMERICAN INTEREST IN CUBA The United States had long held an interest inCuba, which lies only 90 miles south of Florida. In 1854, diplomats recommend-ed to President Franklin Pierce that the United States buy Cuba from Spain. TheSpanish responded by saying that they would rather see Cuba sunk in the ocean.


The Spanish-American War

▼

Cuban rebels burnthe town of Jarucoin March 1896.

552 CHAPTER 18

p0552-557aspe-0518s2 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 552

But American interest in Cuba continued. When theCubans rebelled against Spain between 1868 and 1878,American sympathies went out to the Cuban people.

The Cuban revolt against Spain was not successful, butin 1886 the Cuban people did force Spain to abolish slavery.After the emancipation of Cuba’s slaves, American capital-ists began investing millions of dollars in large sugar caneplantations on the island.

THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE Anti-Spanishsentiment in Cuba soon erupted into a second war for inde-pendence. José Martí, a Cuban poet and journalist inexile in New York, launched a revolution in 1895. Martíorganized Cuban resistance against Spain, using an activeguerrilla campaign and deliberately destroying property,especially American-owned sugar mills and plantations.Martí counted on provoking U.S. intervention to help therebels achieve Cuba Libre!—a free Cuba.

Public opinion in the United States was split. Manybusiness people wanted the government to support Spain inorder to protect their investments. Other Americans, how-ever, were enthusiastic about the rebel cause. The cry “CubaLibre!” was, after all, similar in sentiment to Patrick Henry’s“Give me liberty or give me death!”

War Fever EscalatesIn 1896, Spain responded to the Cuban revolt by sendingGeneral Valeriano Weyler to Cuba to restore order.Weyler tried to crush the rebellion by herding the entirerural population of central and western Cuba into barbed-wire concentration camps. Here civilians could not give aidto rebels. An estimated 300,000 Cubans filled these camps,where thousands died from hunger and disease.

HEADLINE WARS Weyler’s actions fueled a war over news-paper circulation that had developed between the Americannewspaper tycoons William Randolph Hearst and JosephPulitzer. To lure readers, Hearst’s New York Journal andPulitzer’s New York World printed exaggerated accounts—by reporters such asJames Creelman—of “Butcher” Weyler’s brutality. Stories of poisoned wells and ofchildren being thrown to the sharks deepened American sympathy for the rebels.This sensational style of writing, which exaggerates the news to lure and enragereaders, became known as yellow journalism.

Hearst and Pulitzer fanned war fever. When Hearst sent the gifted artistFrederic Remington to Cuba to draw sketches of reporters’ stories, Remingtoninformed the publisher that a war between the United States and Spain seemedvery unlikely. Hearst reportedly replied, “You furnish the pictures and I’ll furnishthe war.”

THE DE LÔME LETTER American sympathy for “Cuba Libre!” grew with eachday’s headlines. When President William McKinley took office in 1897, demandsfor American intervention in Cuba were on the rise. Preferring to avoid war withSpain, McKinley tried diplomatic means to resolve the crisis. At first, his effortsappeared to succeed. Spain recalled General Weyler, modified the policy regard-ing concentration camps, and offered Cuba limited self-government.


A

Vocabularyguerrilla: amember of amilitary force thatharasses theenemy

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingMotives

Why did JoséMartí encourageCuban rebels todestroy sugar millsand plantations?

A. AnswerMartí hoped toprovoke theUnited Statesinto helpingCuba win inde-pendence fromSpain.


JOSÉ MARTÍ1853–1895

The Cuban political activist JoséMartí dedicated his life to achiev-ing independence for Cuba.Expelled from Cuba at the age of16 because of his revolutionaryactivities, Martí earned a mas-ter’s degree and a law degree.He eventually settled in theUnited States.

Wary of the U.S. role in theCuban struggle against theSpanish, Martí warned, “I knowthe Monster, because I have livedin its lair.” His fears of U.S. impe-rialism turned out to have beenwell-founded. U.S. troops occu-pied Cuba on and off from 1906until 1922.

Martí died fighting for Cubanindependence in 1895. He isrevered today in Cuba as a heroand martyr.

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In February 1898, however, the New York Journal published a private letterwritten by Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish minister to the United States. ACuban rebel had stolen the letter from a Havana post office and leaked it to thenewspaper, which was thirsty for scandal. The de Lôme letter criticized PresidentMcKinley, calling him “weak” and “a bidder for the admiration of the crowd.”The embarrassed Spanish government apologized, and the minister resigned. Still,Americans were angry over the insult to their president.

THE U.S.S. MAINE EXPLODES Only a few days after the publication of thede Lôme letter, American resentment toward Spain turned to outrage. Early in1898, President McKinley had ordered the U.S.S. Maine to Cuba to bringhome American citizens in danger from the fighting and to protect Americanproperty. On February 15, 1898, the ship blew up in the harbor of Havana. Morethan 260 men were killed.

To this day, no one really knows why the ship exploded. In 1898, however,American newspapers claimed the Spanish had blown up the ship. The Journal’sheadline read “The warship Maine was split in two by an enemy’s secret infernalmachine.” Hearst’s paper offered a reward of $50,000 for the capture of theSpaniards who supposedly had committed the outrage.

War with Spain EruptsNow there was no holding back the forces that wanted war. “Remember theMaine!” became the rallying cry for U.S. intervention in Cuba. It made no differ-ence that the Spanish government agreed, on April 9, to almost everything theUnited States demanded, including a six-month cease-fire.

B

When the U.S.S. Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana, newspapers like the New YorkJournal were quick to place the blame on Spain.

▼

554 CHAPTER 18

B. AnswerPublication ofthe de Lôme let-ter, which criti-cized PresidentMcKinley, andthe explosion ofthe U.S.S.Maine, whichmany Americansblamed onSpain.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

BSummarizing

What eventsincreased thetension betweenthe United Statesand Spain?

p0552-557aspe-0518s2 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 554

Dewey

Apr. 25–May 1, 1898

PACIFICOCEAN

SouthChina

Sea

SulaSea

20˚N

10˚N

120˚E

Hong Kong

Manila

Luzon

Mindoro

Panay

NegrosPalawan

Mindanao

Samar

PhilippineIslands

U.S. Forces

Battle

0

0 100 200 kilometers

100 200 miles

N

S

EW

Despite the Spanish concessions, public opinion favored war. On April 11,McKinley asked Congress for authority to use force against Spain. After a week ofdebate, Congress agreed, and on April 20 the United States declared war.

THE WAR IN THE PHILIPPINES The Spanish thought the Americans wouldinvade Cuba. But the first battle of the war took place in a Spanish colony on theother side of the world—the Philippine Islands.

On April 30, the American fleet in the Pacific steamed to the Philippines. Thenext morning, Commodore George Dewey gave the command to open fire onthe Spanish fleet at Manila, the Philippine capital. Within hours, Dewey’s menhad destroyed every Spanish ship there. Dewey’s victory allowed U.S. troops toland in the Philippines.

Dewey had the support of the Filipinos who, like the Cubans, also wantedfreedom from Spain. Over the next two months, 11,000 Americans joined forceswith Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo. In August, Spanish troops in Manilasurrendered to the United States.

THE WAR IN THE CARIBBEAN In the Caribbean, hostilities began with a navalblockade of Cuba. Admiral William T. Sampson effectively sealed up the Spanishfleet in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba.

Dewey’s victory at Manila had demonstrated the superiority of United Statesnaval forces. In contrast, the army maintained only a small professional force,supplemented by a larger inexperienced and ill-prepared volunteer force. About


Santiago

Sh a fter June 22–July 1, 1898

Miles July 25–Aug. 13, 1898

CerveraM

ay, 1898

Schley

Sampson

Havana

Tampa

PUERTORICO

FLORIDA

Caribbean Sea

ATLANTICOCEAN

DOMINICANREPUBLIC

BAHAMAS(Br.)

HAITI

JAMAICA(Br.)

CUBA

15°N

Tropic of Cancer

N

S

EW

U.S. Forces

U.S. Naval Blockade

Spanish Forces

Battle

0

0 100 300 kilometers

100 300 milesGEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location Where does Cuba lie in relation to the United States?2. Location Look at the location of the Philippines. How does the

map help explain why Spain was surprised by the American attackin the Philippines?

C

War in the Caribbean War in the Philippines

The Spanish-American War, 1898

SkillbuilderAnswer1. Cuba liesclose to theUnited States, tothe south ofFlorida.2. ThePhilippines lie in the Pacific,hundreds ofmiles away fromthe UnitedStates. Spainwould not beexpecting U.S.forces to comefrom Hong Kong.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingEvents

How did theSpanish try toavoid war with theUnited States?

C. Answer TheSpanish agreedto all of thedemands of theUnited States,including a sixmonth ceasefire.

p0552-557aspe-0518s2 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 555

125,000 Americans had volunteered to fight. The new soldiers were sent to train-ing camps that lacked adequate supplies and effective leaders. Moreover, therewere not enough modern guns to go around, and the troops were outfitted withheavy woolen uniforms unsuitable for Cuba’s tropical climate. In addition, theofficers—most of whom were Civil War veterans—had a tendency to spend theirtime recalling their war experiences rather than training the volunteers.

ROUGH RIDERS Despite these handicaps, American forces landed in Cuba inJune 1898 and began to converge on the port city of Santiago. The army of 17,000included four African-American regiments of the regular army and the RoughRiders, a volunteer cavalry under the command of Leonard Wood and TheodoreRoosevelt. Roosevelt, a young New Yorker, had given up his job as AssistantSecretary of the Navy to lead the group of volunteers. He would later become pres-ident of the United States.

The most famous land battle in Cuba took place near Santiago on July 1. Thefirst part of the battle, on nearby Kettle Hill, featured a dramatic uphill charge bythe Rough Riders and two African-American regiments, the Ninth and Tenth

Cavalries. Their victory clearedthe way for an infantry attack onthe strategically important SanJuan Hill. Although Rooseveltand his units played only a minorrole in the second victory, U.S.newspapers declared him thehero of San Juan Hill.

Two days later, the Spanishfleet tried to escape the Americanblockade of the harbor at Santiago.The naval battle that followed,along the Cuban coast, ended inthe destruction of the Spanishfleet. On the heels of this victory,American troops invaded PuertoRico on July 25.

TREATY OF PARIS The UnitedStates and Spain signed anarmistice, a cease-fire agreement,on August 12, ending whatSecretary of State John Hay called“a splendid little war.” The actualfighting in the war had lastedonly 16 weeks.

On December 10, 1898, theUnited States and Spain met in

Paris to agree on a treaty. At the peace talks, Spain freed Cuba and turned over theislands of Guam in the Pacific and Puerto Rico in the West Indies to the UnitedStates. Spain also sold the Philippines to the United States for $20 million.

DEBATE OVER THE TREATY The Treaty of Paris touched off a great debatein the United States. Arguments centered on whether or not the United States hadthe right to annex the Philippines, but imperialism was the real issue. PresidentMcKinley told a group of Methodist ministers that he had prayed for guidance onPhilippine annexation and had concluded “that there was nothing left for us todo but to take them all [the Philippine Islands], and to educate the Filipinos, anduplift and Christianize them.” McKinley’s need to justify imperialism may

BackgroundThe Rough Riderstrained as cavalrybut fought on footbecause theirhorses didn’treach Cuba intime.

D

556 CHAPTER 18

▼

These African-American troopsprepare for battleduring the Spanish-American War.

D. AnswerSpain freedCuba and turnedover the islandsof Guam andPuerto Rico tothe UnitedStates. Spainalso sold thePhilippines tothe UnitedStates for $20 million.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

DSummarizing

What were theterms of theTreaty of Paris?

p0552-557aspe-0518s2 10/17/02 8:55 AM Page 556

have clouded his memory—mostFilipinos had been Christian forcenturies.

Other prominent Americanspresented a variety of arguments—political, moral, and economic—against annexation. Some felt thatthe treaty violated the Declarationof Independence by denying self-government to the newly acquiredterritories. The African-Americaneducator Booker T. Washingtonargued that the United Statesshould settle race-related issues athome before taking on social prob-lems elsewhere. The labor leaderSamuel Gompers feared thatFilipino immigrants would com-pete for American jobs.

On February 6, 1899, theannexation question was settledwith the Senate’s approval of theTreaty of Paris. The United Statesnow had an empire that includedCuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, and thePhilippines. The next questionAmericans faced was how andwhen the United States would addto its dominion.


•José Martí•Valeriano Weyler

•yellow journalism•U.S.S. Maine

•George Dewey•Rough Riders

•San Juan Hill•Treaty of Paris

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.


In 1898, a debate raged in theUnited States over whether the U.S. had the right to annex thePhilippines. Use a graphic organizerlike the one below to summarize thepros and cons of this debate.

Which side do you support? Why?

CRITICAL THINKING3. MAKING INFERENCES

What do you think were theunstated editorial policies of yellowjournalism? Support your answerwith evidence from the text. Think About:

• James Creelman’s account ofSpanish atrocities againstCubans (page 552)

• Hearst’s remark to Remington• the Journal headline about the

explosion of the battleshipMaine

4. ANALYZING EFFECTSMany anti-imperialists worried thatimperialism might threaten theAmerican democratic system. Howmight this happen?

5. DRAWING CONCLUSIONSIn 1898 Theodore Rooseveltresigned his post as AssistantSecretary of the Navy to organizethe Rough Riders. Why do you thinkRoosevelt was willing to take thisrisk? How do you think this decisionaffected his political career?

Reasons in Favorof Annexation

Reasons AgainstAnnexation

The Annexation ofthe Philippines

▼

This lithograph criticizes American foreign policy in 1898. In thecartoon, Uncle Sam is riding a bicycle with wheels labeled “westernhemisphere” and “eastern hemisphere.” He has abandoned hishorse, on whose saddle appears “Monroe Doctrine,” because thehorse is too slow.

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•Foraker Act•Platt Amendment•protectorate•Emilio Aguinaldo

•John Hay•Open Door notes•Boxer Rebellion

In the early 1900s, theUnited States engaged inconflicts in Puerto Rico,Cuba, and the Philippines.

Today, the United Statesmaintains a strong military andpolitical presence in strategicworldwide locations.



Acquiring New Lands

When Puerto Rico became part of the United States after theSpanish-American War, many Puerto Ricans feared that the UnitedStates would not give them the measure of self-rule that they hadgained under the Spanish. Puerto Rican statesman and publisherLuis Muñoz Rivera was one of the most vocal advocates of PuertoRican self-rule. Between 1900 and 1916, he lived primarily in theUnited States and continually worked for the independence of hishomeland. Finally, in 1916, the U.S. Congress, facing possible warin Europe and wishing to settle the issue of Puerto Rico, invitedMuñoz Rivera to speak. On May 5, 1916, Muñoz Rivera stoodbefore the U.S. House of Representatives to discuss the future ofPuerto Rico.

A PERSONAL VOICE LUIS MUÑOZ RIVERA

“ You, citizens of a free fatherland, with its own laws, its own institutions, and itsown flag, can appreciate the unhappiness of the small and solitary people thatmust await its laws from your authority. . . . when you acquire the certainty thatyou can found in Puerto Rico a republic like that founded in Cuba and Panama . . .give us our independence and you will stand before humanity as . . . a great creator of new nationalities and a great liberator of oppressed peoples.”

—quoted in The Puerto Ricans

Muñoz Rivera returned to Puerto Rico where he died in November 1916.Three months later, the United States made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens.

Ruling Puerto Rico Not all Puerto Ricans wanted independence, as Muñoz Rivera did. Some wantedstatehood, while still others hoped for some measure of local self-government asan American territory. As a result, the United States gave Puerto Ricans no prom-ises regarding independence after the Spanish-American War.

558 CHAPTER 18

▼

Luis Muñoz Rivera

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MILITARY RULE During the Spanish-American War,United States forces, under General Nelson A. Miles, occu-pied the island. As his soldiers took control, General Milesissued a statement assuring Puerto Ricans that theAmericans were there to “bring you protection,not only to yourselves but to your property, topromote your prosperity, and to bestow uponyou the immunities and blessings of the liberalinstitutions of our government.” For the timebeing, Puerto Rico would be controlled by themilitary until Congress decided otherwise.

RETURN TO CIVIL GOVERNMENT Althoughmany Puerto Ricans had dreams of independenceor statehood, the United States had differentplans for the island’s future. Puerto Rico wasstrategically important to the United States, bothfor maintaining a U.S. presence in the Caribbeanand for protecting a future canal that Americanleaders wanted to build across the Isthmus of Panama. In1900, Congress passed the Foraker Act, which ended mil-itary rule and set up a civil government. The act gave thepresident of the United States the power to appoint PuertoRico’s governor and members of the upper house of its leg-islature. Puerto Ricans could elect only the members of thelegislature’s lower house.

In 1901, in the Insular Cases, the U.S. Supreme Courtruled that the Constitution did not automatically apply topeople in acquired territories. Congress, however, retainedthe right to extend U.S. citizenship, and it granted thatright to Puerto Ricans in 1917. It also gave them the rightto elect both houses of their legislature.

Cuba and the United StatesWhen the United States declared war against Spain in 1898,it recognized Cuba’s independence from Spain. It alsopassed the Teller Amendment, which stated that the UnitedStates had no intention of taking over any part of Cuba. The Treaty of Paris,which ended the war, further guaranteed Cuba the independence that its nation-alist leaders had been demanding for years.

AMERICAN SOLDIERS Though officially independent, Cuba was occupied byAmerican troops when the war ended. José Martí, the Cuban patriot who had ledthe movement for independence from Spain, had feared that the United Stateswould merely replace Spain and dominate Cuban politics. In some ways, Martí’sprediction came true. Under American occupation, the same officials who hadserved Spain remained in office. Cubans who protested this policy were impris-oned or exiled.

On the other hand, the American military government provided food andclothing for thousands of families, helped farmers put land back into cultivation,and organized elementary schools. Through improvement of sanitation and med-ical research, the military government helped eliminate yellow fever, a diseasethat had killed hundreds of Cubans each year.

A


NOWNOW THENTHEN

PUERTO RICOEver since their transfer underthe Treaty of Paris from Spain tothe United States, Puerto Ricanshave debated their status, asshown above. In 1967, 1993,and 1998, Puerto Ricans reject-ed both statehood and independ-ence in favor of commonwealth, astatus given the island in 1952.

As members of a common-wealth, Puerto Ricans are U.S.citizens. They can move freelybetween the island and the main-land and are subjected to the mil-itary draft but cannot vote in U.S.presidential elections. A majorityof Puerto Ricans have rejectedstatehood because they fear itwould mean giving up their Latinoculture.

A. AnswerPuerto Rico wasstrategicallyimportant to theUnited States,both for main-taining a pres-ence in theCaribbean andfor protecting afuture canal thatAmerican lead-ers wanted tobuild across theIsthmus ofPanama.

Background Yellow feverdamages manybody parts,especially the liver.Dr. Carlos Finlaydiscovered thatthe disease is carried bymosquitoes.Clearing out the mosquitos’breeding placeshelped eliminatethe disease inCuba.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingIssues

Why wasPuerto Ricoimportant to theUnited States?

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AnalyzingAnalyzing

PLATT AMENDMENT In 1900 the newly formed Cuban government wrote aconstitution for an independent Cuba. The constitution, however, did not specifythe relationship between Cuba and the United States. Consequently, in 1901, theUnited States insisted that Cuba add to its constitution several provisions, knownas the Platt Amendment, stating that

• Cuba could not make treaties that might limit its independence or permita foreign power to control any part of its territory

• the United States reserved the right to intervene in Cuba

• Cuba was not to go into debt

• the United States could buy or lease land on the island for naval stationsand refueling stations

The United States made it clear that its army would not withdraw until Cubaadopted the Platt Amendment. In response, a torchlight procession marched onthe residence of Governor-General Leonard Wood in protest. Some protestorseven called for a return to arms to defend their national honor against thisAmerican insult. The U.S. government stood firm, though, and Cubans reluc-tantly ratified the new constitution. In 1903, the Platt Amendment became partof a treaty between the two nations, and it remained in effect for 31 years. Underthe terms of the treaty, Cuba became a U.S. protectorate, a country whoseaffairs are partially controlled by a stronger power.

PROTECTING AMERICAN BUSINESS INTERESTS The most important rea-son for the United States to maintain a strong political presence in Cuba was toprotect American businesses that had invested in the island’s sugar, tobacco, andmining industries, as well as in its railroads and public utilities.

“WELL, I HARDLY KNOWWHICH TO TAKE FIRST!”

Throughout the early 1900s, the UnitedStates intervened in the affairs of its LatinAmerican neighbors several times.American troops withdrew from Cuba in1902 but later returned three times toquell popular uprisings against conserva-tive leaders. The U.S. also intervened inNicaragua and Haiti. Not surprisingly, fewLatin Americans welcomed United Statesintervention. As the cartoon shows, theUnited States had a different point of view.

SKILLBUILDERAnalyzing Political Cartoons1. What is on the bill of fare, or menu,

in this restaurant?2. Which president does the waiter

portray?3. What seems to be Uncle Sam’s

attitude toward the offerings on the menu?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24.

Vocabularyratify: to makevalid by approving

560 CHAPTER 18

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Although many businesspeople were convinced that annexing and imposingcolonial rule on new territories was necessary to protect American business inter-ests, some were concerned about colonial entanglements. The industrialistAndrew Carnegie argued against the taking of nations as colonies.

A PERSONAL VOICE ANDREW CARNEGIE

“ The exports of the United States this year [1898] are greater than those of any other nation in the world. Even Britain’s exports are less, yet Britain ‘possesses’ . . . a hundred ‘colonies’ . . . scattered all over the world. The factthat the United States has none does not prevent her products and manufacturesfrom invading . . . all parts of the world in competition with those of Britain.”

—quoted in Distant Possessions

Despite such concerns, the U.S. state department continued to push for con-trol of its Latin American neighbors. In the years to come, the United Stateswould intervene time and again in the affairs of other nations in the WesternHemisphere.

Filipinos RebelIn the Philippines, Filipinos reacted with outrage tothe Treaty of Paris, which called for Americanannexation of the Philippines. The rebel leaderEmilio Aguinaldo (D-mClPyI äQgC-nälPdI) believedthat the United States had promised independence.When he and his followers learned the terms of thetreaty, they vowed to fight for freedom.

PHILIPPINE–AMERICAN WAR In February 1899,the Filipinos, led by Aguinaldo, rose in revolt. TheUnited States assumed almost the same role thatSpain had played, imposing its authority on acolony that was fighting for freedom. WhenAguinaldo turned to guerrilla tactics, the UnitedStates forced Filipinos to live in designated zones,where poor sanitation, starvation, and disease killedthousands. This was the very same practice thatAmericans had condemned Spain for using in Cuba.

During the occupation, white American soldierslooked on the Filipinos as inferiors. However, many of the 70,000 U.S. troops sentto the Philippines were African Americans. When African-American newspapersquestioned why blacks were helping to spread racial prejudice to the Philippines,some African-American soldiers deserted to the Filipino side and developed bondsof friendship with the Filipinos.

It took the Americans nearly three years to put down the rebellion. About20,000 Filipino rebels died fighting for independence. The war claimed 4,000American lives and cost $400 million—20 times the price the United States hadpaid to purchase the islands.

AFTERMATH OF THE WAR After suppressing the rebellion, the United Statesset up a government similar to the one it had established for Puerto Rico. The U.S.president would appoint a governor, who would then appoint the upper house ofthe legislature. Filipinos would elect the lower house. Under American rule, thePhilippines moved gradually toward independence and finally became an inde-pendent republic on July 4, 1946.

B


▼

U.S. military action in the Philippines resulted insuffering for Filipino civilians. About 200,000 peopledied as a result of malnutrition, disease, and suchguerrilla tactics as the burning of villages.

B. AnswerFilipinos wantedindependence.The U.S. wantedto govern theislands.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

BContrasting

What were the aims of theFilipinos? of theAmericans?

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Equator

30°N

0°

ATLANT ICOCEAN

PAC IF ICOCEAN

Hawaiian Islands1898

Puerto Rico1898

Panama CanalZone 1903

PhilippineIslands1898

Guam1898

Midway Island1867

Wake Island1899

Alaska1867

UNITED STATESMOROCCO

CONGO

C H I N A

AFRICA

SOUTHAMERICA

NORTHAMERICA

AUSTRALIA

A S I A EUROPE

Territory and date of acquisition

0

0 1,500 3,000 kilometers

1,500 3,000 miles

N

S

EW

U.S. Imperialism, 1867–1906

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location On what islands does Pearl Harbor lie?2. Human-Environment Interaction What events show the United

States acting as a mediator in international disputes? What doesthis role indicate about the status of the U.S. in the world?

C

Bering Sea, 1893 International tribu-nal denies U.S. claims to exclusiverights to waters of Bering Sea.

Open Door Policy, 1899 U.S. aimsto prevent foreign powers in Chinafrom shutting out the UnitedStates from Chinese markets.

Pearl Harbor, 1887 Hawaiigives U.S. exclusive rightsto build a naval base.

Alaskan Boundary Crisis, 1902–1903After gold is discovered in Klondike,Canadians want to redraw boundary toAlaskan Panhandle. A tribunal settles infavor of U.S.

Big Stick Diplomacy, 1904Roosevelt sends warships toMorocco when local authoritiesdetain a Greek citizen with dis-puted U.S. citizenship.

Algeciras Conference,1906 Roosevelt offersU.S. “good offices” tosettle Franco-German differences over Morocco.

Congo Conference, 1885U.S. persuades Europeanpowers to agree to freedomof trade and abolition ofslave trade in central Africa.

Samoa, 1889–1899 Hurricane destroys U.S.,British, and German ships, preventing armedclash over control of Samoa. Ten years later,the U.S. splits islands with Germany.

562 CHAPTER 18

C. AnswerTo protectAmericanaccess toChinese marketsand to helpmaintain theindependenceof China.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Pearl Harborlies on theHawaiianIslands.2. Mediator: TheAlgeciras andCongo confer-ences. Status:It shows thegrowing powerand prestige ofthe UnitedStates, becauseother powerfulnations chosethe U.S. to helpsettle their disputes.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingCauses

Why didSecretary of StateJohn Hay issuethe policystatements knownas the Open Doornotes?

Foreign Influence in ChinaU.S. imperialists saw the Philippines as a gateway to the rest of Asia, particularlyto China. China was seen as a vast potential market for American products. It alsopresented American investors with new opportunities for large-scale railroadconstruction.

Weakened by war and foreign intervention, China had become known as the“sick man of Asia.” France, Germany, Britain, Japan, and Russia had establishedprosperous settlements along the coast of China. They also had carved outspheres of influence, areas where each nation claimed special rights and eco-nomic privileges.

JOHN HAY’S OPEN DOOR NOTES The United States began to fear that Chinawould be carved into colonies and American traders would be shut out. To pro-tect American interests, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay issued, in 1899, a seriesof policy statements called the Open Door notes. The notes were lettersaddressed to the leaders of imperialist nations proposing that the nations sharetheir trading rights with the United States, thus creating an open door. Thismeant that no single nation would have a monopoly on trade with any part ofChina. The other imperialist powers reluctantly accepted this policy.

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THE BOXER REBELLION IN CHINA Although China kept its freedom, Europeansdominated most of China’s large cities. Resentment simmered beneath the surfaceas some Chinese formed secret societies pledged to rid the country of “foreigndevils.” The most famous of these secret groups were the Boxers, so named byWesterners because members practiced martial arts.

The Boxers killed hundreds of missionaries and otherforeigners, as well as Chinese converts to Christianity. InAugust 1900, troops from Britain, France, Germany, andJapan joined about 2,500 American soldiers and marchedon the Chinese capital. Within two months, the interna-tional forces put down the Boxer Rebellion. Thousandsof Chinese people died during the fighting.

PROTECTING AMERICAN RIGHTS After the BoxerRebellion, the United States feared that European nationswould use their victory to take even greater control ofChina. To prevent this, John Hay issued a second series ofOpen Door notes, announcing that the United States would“safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impar-tial trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire.” This policypaved the way for greater American influence in Asia.

The Open Door policy reflected three deeply heldAmerican beliefs about the United States industrial capitalisteconomy. First, Americans believed that the growth of theU.S. economy depended on exports. Second, they felt theUnited States had a right to intervene abroad to keep for-eign markets open. Third, they feared that the closing ofan area to American products, citizens, or ideas threatenedU.S. survival. These beliefs became the bedrock of Americanforeign policy.

WORLD STAGEWORLD STAGE

THE BOXER PROTOCOLOn September 7, 1901, Chinaand 11 other nations signed theBoxer Protocol—a final settle-ment of the Boxer Rebellion.

The Qing government agreed toexecute some Chinese officials,to punish others, and to payabout $332 million in damages.The United States was awardeda settlement of $24.5 million. It used about $4 million to payAmerican citizens for actual losses incurred during the rebellion. In 1908, the U.S. government returned the rest ofthe money to China to be usedfor the purpose of educatingChinese students in their owncountry and in the United States.


▼

During the Boxer Rebellion, shown here in this Chinese print, Chinese patriots demanded thatall foreigners be expelled from the country. The Boxers surrounded the European section ofBeijing and kept it under siege for several months.

Vocabularymartial arts:combat or selfdefense arts thatoriginated in EastAsia, such as judoor karate

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The Impact of U.S. Territorial GainsIn 1900, Republican William McKinley, a reluctant but confirmed imperialist, waselected to a second term against Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who staunch-ly opposed imperialism. McKinley’s reelection confirmed that a majority ofAmericans favored his policies. Under McKinley, the United States had gained anempire.

Yet even before McKinley was reelected, an Anti-Imperialist League hadsprung into being. The league included some of the most prominent people inAmerica, such as former president Grover Cleveland, industrial leader AndrewCarnegie, the social worker Jane Addams, and many leading writers. Anti-imperialists had different and sometimes conflicting reasons for their opposi-tion, but all agreed that it was wrong for the United States to rule otherpeople without their consent. The novelist Mark Twain questionedthe motives for imperialism in a satirical piece written in 1901.

A PERSONAL VOICE MARK TWAIN

“ Shall we go on conferring our Civilization upon the peoplesthat sit in darkness, or shall we give those poor things a rest?. . . Extending the Blessings of Civilization to our Brother whoSits in Darkness has been a good trade and has paid well, onthe whole; and there is money in it yet . . . but not enough, inmy judgment, to make any considerable risk advisable.”

—quoted in To the Person Sitting in Darkness

As a novelist, Twain had great influence on American culturebut little influence on foreign policy. In the early 20th century, theUnited States under President Theodore Roosevelt and PresidentWoodrow Wilson would continue to exert its power around the globe.

•Foraker Act•Platt Amendment

•protectorate•Emilio Aguinaldo

•John Hay•Open Door notes

•Boxer Rebellion1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.


Create a time line of key eventsrelating to U.S. relations with Cuba,Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.Use the dates already plotted on thetime line below as a guide.

Which event do you think was mostsignificant? Why?

CRITICAL THINKING3. EVALUATING

How did American rule of PuertoRico harm Puerto Ricans? How didit help Puerto Ricans? Do you thinkthe benefits outweighed the harmfuleffects? Why or why not?

4. COMPARING How was U.S. policy toward Chinadifferent from U.S. policy toward thePhilippines? To what can youattribute the difference?

5. ANALYZING ISSUESHow did U.S. foreign policy at theturn of the century affect actionstaken by the United States towardChina? Think About:

• why the United States wantedaccess to China’s markets

• the purpose of the Open Doornotes

• the U.S. response to the BoxerRebellion

564 CHAPTER 18

▼

Mark Twain

1899 1901

1900 1917

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•Panama Canal•RooseveltCorollary

•dollar diplomacy

•Francisco“Pancho” Villa

•Emiliano Zapata•John J. Pershing

The Russo-Japanese War, the Panama Canal, and theMexican Revolution added to America’s military andeconomic power.

American involvement inconflicts around 1900 led toinvolvement in World War I andlater to a peacekeeper role intoday’s world.


Joseph Bucklin Bishop, a policy adviser to the canal’schief engineer, played an important role in the build-ing of the Panama Canal. As editor of the CanalRecord, a weekly newspaper that provided Americanswith updates on the project, Bishop described a frus-trating problem that the workers encountered.

A PERSONAL VOICE JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP

“ The Canal Zone was a land of the fantastic and theunexpected. No one could say when the sun wentdown what the condition of the Cut would be when[the sun] rose. For the work of months or even yearsmight be blotted out by an avalanche of earth or thetoppling over of a mountain of rock. It was a task totry men’s souls; but it was also one to kindle in thema joy of combat . . . and a faith in ultimate victorywhich no disaster could shake.”—quoted in The Impossible Dream: The Building of the Panama Canal

The building of the Panama Canal reflected America’s new role as a worldpower. As a technological accomplishment, the canal represented a confidentnation’s refusal to let any physical obstacle stand in its way.

Teddy Roosevelt and the WorldThe assassination of William McKinley in 1901 thrust Vice-President TheodoreRoosevelt into the role of a world leader. Roosevelt was unwilling to allow theimperial powers of Europe to control the world’s political and economic destiny.In 1905, building on the Open Door notes to increase American influence in EastAsia, Roosevelt mediated a settlement in a war between Russia and Japan.

America as aWorld Power


▼

Workers diggingthe Panama Canalfaced hazardouslandslides anddeath fromdisease.


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ROOSEVELT THE PEACEMAKER In 1904, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia declaredwar on Japan, Russia’s neighbor in East Asia. Russia and Japan were both imperi-alist powers, and they were competing for control of Korea. The Japanese took thefirst action in the war with a surprise attack on the Russian Pacific fleet. To every-one’s surprise, Japan destroyed it. Japan then proceeded to destroy a second fleet

sent as reinforcement. Japan also won a series of land bat-tles, securing Korea and Manchuria.

As a result of these battles, Japan began to run out ofmen and money, a fact that it did not want to reveal toRussia. Instead, Japanese officials approached PresidentRoosevelt in secret and asked him to mediate peace negoti-ations. Roosevelt agreed, and in 1905, Russian and Japanesedelegates convened in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

The first meeting took place on the presidential yacht.Roosevelt had a charming way of greeting people with agrasp of the hand, a broad grin, and a hearty “Dee-lighted.”Soon the opposing delegates began to relax and cordiallyshook hands.

The Japanese wanted Sakhalin Island, off the coast ofSiberia, and a large sum of money from Russia. Russiarefused. Roosevelt persuaded Japan to accept half the islandand forgo the cash payment. In exchange, Russia agreed tolet Japan take over Russian interests in Manchuria andKorea. The successful efforts in negotiating the Treaty ofPortsmouth won Roosevelt the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.

As U.S. and Japanese interests expanded in East Asia,the two nations continued diplomatic talks. In later agree-ments, they pledged to respect each other’s possessions andinterests in East Asia and the Pacific.

PANAMA CANAL By the time Roosevelt became president,many Americans, including Roosevelt, felt that the UnitedStates needed a canal cutting across Central America. Sucha canal would greatly reduce travel time for commercial andmilitary ships by providing a shortcut between the Atlanticand Pacific oceans. (See Geography Spotlight, page 572.) Asearly as 1850, the United States and Britain had agreed toshare the rights to such a canal. In the Hay-PauncefoteTreaty of 1901, however, Britain gave the United Statesexclusive rights to build and control a canal throughCentral America.

Engineers identified two possible routes for the pro-posed canal. One, through Nicaragua, posed fewer obstaclesbecause much of it crossed a large lake. The other routecrossed through Panama (then a province of Colombia) and

was shorter and filled with mountains and swamps. In the late 1800s, a Frenchcompany had tried to build a canal in Panama. After ten years, the company gaveup. It sent an agent, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, to Washington to convince theUnited States to buy its claim. In 1903, the president and Congress decided to usethe Panama route and agreed to buy the French company’s route for $40 million.

Before beginning work on the Panama Canal, the United States had to getpermission from Colombia, which then ruled Panama. When these negotiationsbroke down, Bunau-Varilla helped organize a Panamanian rebellion againstColombia. On November 3, 1903, nearly a dozen U.S. warships were present asPanama declared its independence. Fifteen days later, Panama and the United

A

566 CHAPTER 18

A. AnswerJapan receivedhalf of SakhalinIsland but nocash payment.Russia agreedto let Japan takeover Russianinterests inManchuria andKorea. In futureyears, the twonations contin-ued diplomatictalks. Rooseveltwon the 1906Nobel PeacePrize.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

A

AnalyzingEffects

What were the results ofRoosevelt’snegotiations withthe Japanese andRussians?


THEODORE ROOSEVELT1858–1919

Rimless glasses, a bushy mus-tache, and prominent teeth madeRoosevelt easy for cartoonists tocaricature. His great enthusiasmfor physical activity—boxing, ten-nis, swimming, horseback riding,and hunting—provided cartoon-ists with additional material.Some cartoons portrayedRoosevelt with the toy teddy bearthat he inspired.

Roosevelt had six children, whobecame notorious for their rowdyantics. Their father once sent amessage through the WarDepartment, ordering them tocall off their “attack” on theWhite House. Roosevelt thrivedon the challenges of the presi-dency. He wrote, “I do not believethat anyone else has everenjoyed the White House asmuch as I have.”

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States signed a treaty in which the United States agreed to pay Panama $10 mil-lion plus an annual rent of $250,000 for an area of land across Panama, called theCanal Zone. The payments were to begin in 1913.

CONSTRUCTING THE CANAL Construction of the Panama Canal ranks as oneof the world’s greatest engineering feats. Builders fought diseases, such as yellowfever and malaria, and soft volcanic soil that proved difficult to remove fromwhere it lay. Work began in 1904 with the clearing of brush and draining ofswamps. By 1913, the height of the construction, more than 43,400 workers wereemployed. Some had come from Italy and Spain; three-quarters were blacks fromthe British West Indies. More than 5,600 workers on the canal died from accidentsor disease. The total cost to the United States was about $380 million.

On August 15, 1914, the canal opened for business, and more than 1,000merchant ships passed through during its first year. U.S.-Latin American relations,however, had been damaged by American support of the rebellion in Panama.The resulting ill will lasted for decades, despite Congress’s paying Colombia $25million in 1921 to compensate the country for its lost territory.

B

Gold Hill

Continental Divide

Gatún LocksMirafloresLocks

Pedro MiguelLocks

Pacific Ocean Gatún Lake Atlantic Ocean

Galliard Cut85 feet above sea level


ScienceScience

THE PANAMA CANALLocks are used to raise and lower ships a total of 170 feet during the 51-mile trip throughthe Panama Canal. For example, ships from the Atlantic Ocean are lifted by the GatúnLocks to the level of Gatún Lake. The ships cross the human-made lake, then move throughanother waterway, the Galliard Cut. The Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks then lower theships to the level of the Pacific Ocean.

▼This photo shows a ship that hasentered the canal from the PacificOcean side and is heading norththrough the Miraflores Locks. Shipsand boats can also enter the canalthrough the Atlantic Ocean side andhead south through the Gatún Locks.

B. AnswerBuilders foughtdiseases andthe difficultremoval of softvolcanic soil.They also had toclear brush anddrain swamps.

A ship enters a lock whenthe lower gates are open.

When all gates are shut, water is let intothe lock through a sluice (small gate).

When the water has risen, the uppergates are opened, and the ship passesthrough the lock to the next level.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

B

IdentifyingProblems

Whatproblems didcanal workersencounter inconstructing thecanal?

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AnalyzingAnalyzing

THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY Financial factors drew the United States furtherinto Latin American affairs. In the late 19th century, many Latin Americannations had borrowed huge sums from European banks to build railroads anddevelop industries. Roosevelt feared that if these nations defaulted on their loans,

Europeans might intervene. He was determined to makethe United States the predominant power in theCaribbean and Central America.

Roosevelt reminded European powers of the MonroeDoctrine, which had been issued in 1823 by PresidentJames Monroe. The Monroe Doctrine demanded thatEuropean countries stay out of the affairs of LatinAmerican nations. Roosevelt based his Latin Americapolicy on a West African proverb that said, “Speak softlyand carry a big stick.” In his December 1904 message toCongress, Roosevelt added the Roosevelt Corollary tothe Monroe Doctrine. He warned that disorder in LatinAmerica might “force the United States . . . to the exer-cise of an international police power.” In effect, thecorollary said that the United States would now use forceto protect its economic interests in Latin America.

DOLLAR DIPLOMACY During the next decade, theUnited States exercised its police power on several occa-sions. For example, when a 1911 rebellion in Nicaragua

left the nation near bankruptcy, President William H. Taft, Roosevelt’s successor,arranged for American bankers to loan Nicaragua enough money to pay its debts.In return, the bankers were given the right to recover their money by collectingNicaragua’s customs duties. The U.S. bankers also gained control of Nicaragua’sstate-owned railroad system and its national bank. When Nicaraguan citizensheard about this deal, they revolted against President Adolfo Díaz. To prop up

Vocabularycorollary: anadditionalstatement thatfollows logicallyfrom the first one

“ Speak softly andcarry a big stick; youwill go far.”THEODORE ROOSEVELT

“THE WORLD’S CONSTABLE”This cartoon, drawn by Louis Dalrymple in1905, shows Teddy Roosevelt implementinghis new world diplomacy. The cartoon impliesthat Roosevelt has the right to execute policepower to keep the countries of Europe (shownon the right) out of the affairs of LatinAmerican countries (shown on the left).

SKILLBUILDERAnalyzing Political Cartoons1. How does the cartoonist portray President

Roosevelt?2. Why is "The World’s Constable" a good title

for this cartoon?


568 CHAPTER 18

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Díaz’s government, some 2,000 marines were sent to Nicaragua. The revolt wasput down, but some marine detachments remained in the country until 1933.

The Taft administration followed the policy of using the U.S. government toguarantee loans made to foreign countries by American businesspeople. This pol-icy was called dollar diplomacy by its critics and was often used to justify keep-ing European powers out of the Caribbean.

Woodrow Wilson’s Missionary DiplomacyThe Monroe Doctrine, issued by President James Monroe in 1823, had warnedother nations against expanding their influence in Latin America. The RooseveltCorollary asserted, in 1904, that the United States had a right to exercise interna-tional police power in the Western Hemisphere. In 1913, President WoodrowWilson gave the Monroe Doctrine a moral tone.

According to Wilson’s “missionary diplomacy,” the United States had a moralresponsibility to deny recognition to any Latin American government it viewedas oppressive, undemocratic, or hostile to U.S. interests. Prior to this policy, theUnited States recognized any government that controlled a nation, regardless ofthat nation’s policies or how it had come to power. Wilson’s policy pressurednations in the Western Hemisphere to establish democratic governments. Almostimmediately, the Mexican Revolution put Wilson’s policy to the test.

THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION Mexico had been ruled for more than threedecades by a military dictator, Porfirio Díaz. A friend of the United States, Díazhad long encouraged foreign investments in his country. As a result, foreigners,mostly Americans, owned a large share of Mexican oil wells, mines, railroads, andranches. While foreign investors and some Mexican landowners and politicianshad grown rich, the common people of the country were desperately poor.

In 1911, Mexican peasants and workers led by Francisco Madero overthrewDíaz. Madero promised democratic reforms, but he proved unable to satisfy theconflicting demands of landowners, peasants, factory workers, and the urbanmiddle class. After two years, General Victoriano Huerta took over the govern-ment. Within days Madero was murdered. Wilson refused to recognize the gov-ernment that Huerta formed. He called it “a government of butchers.”

INTERVENTION IN MEXICO Wilson adopted a plan of“watchful waiting,” looking for an opportunity to actagainst Huerta. The opportunity came in April 1914, whenone of Huerta’s officers arrested a small group of Americansailors in Tampico, on Mexico’s eastern shore. TheMexicans quickly released them and apologized, but Wilsonused the incident as an excuse to intervene in Mexico andordered U.S. Marines to occupy Veracruz, an importantMexican port. Eighteen Americans and at least 200Mexicans died during the invasion.

The incident brought the United States and Mexicoclose to war. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile stepped in tomediate the conflict. They proposed that Huerta step downand that U.S. troops withdraw without paying Mexico fordamages. Mexico rejected the plan, and Wilson refused torecognize a government that had come to power as a resultof violence. The Huerta regime soon collapsed, however,and Venustiano Carranza, a nationalist leader, became pres-ident in 1915. Wilson withdrew the troops and formallyrecognized the Carranza government.

C


ANOTHER

PERSPECTIVEPERSPECTIVEINTERVENTION IN MEXICO

Most U.S. citizens supportedAmerican intervention in Mexico.Edith O’Shaughnessy, wife of anAmerican diplomat in Mexico City,had another perspective. Aftertouring Veracruz, O’Shaughnessywrote to her mother:

“I think we have done a greatwrong to these people; insteadof cutting out the sores with aclean, strong knife of war . . .and occupation, . . . we haveonly put our fingers in eachfestering wound and inflamedit further.”

C. AnswerWilson was fol-lowing his policyof missionarydiplomacy. HeconsideredHuerta a mur-derer becauseHuerta hadordered rebel leaderFranciscoMadero executed.

MAIN IDEAMAIN IDEA

C

AnalyzingMotives

Why didPresident Wilsonrefuse torecognize Huerta’sgovernment?

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History ThroughHistory Through

REBELLION IN MEXICO Carranza was in charge, but like others before him, hedid not have the support of all Mexicans. Rebels under the leadership ofFrancisco “Pancho” Villa (vCPE) and Emiliano Zapata (D-mCl-yäPnI zE-päPtE)opposed Carranza’s provisional government. Zapata—son of a mestizo peasant—was dedicated to land reform. “It is better to die on your feet than live on yourknees,” Zapata told the peasants who joined him. Villa, a fierce nationalist, hadfrequently courted the support and aid of the United States.

A PERSONAL VOICE PANCHO VILLA

“ [A]s long as I have anything to do with the affairs in Mexico there will be no fur-ther friction between my country and my friends of the North . . . To PresidentWilson, the greatest American, I stand pledged to do what I can to keep the faithhe has in my people, and if there is anything he may wish I will gladly do it, for Iknow it will be for the good of my country.”

—New York Times, January 11, 1915

Despite Villa’s talk of friendship, when President Wilson recognized Carranza’sgovernment, Villa threatened reprisals against the United States. In January 1916,Carranza invited American engineers to operate mines in northern Mexico.Before they reached the mines, however, Villa’s men took the Americans off atrain and shot them. Two months later, some of Villa’s followers raided Columbus,New Mexico, and killed 17 Americans. Americans held Villa responsible.

CHASING VILLA With the American public demanding revenge, PresidentWilson ordered Brigadier General John J. Pershing and an expeditionary forceof about 15,000 soldiers into Mexico to capture Villa dead or alive. For almost ayear, Villa eluded Pershing’s forces. Wilson then called out 150,000 NationalGuardsmen and stationed them along the Mexican border. In the meantime,

ZAPATISTAS (1931)José Orozco, one of Mexico'sforemost artists, paintedthese Zapatistas (followers ofZapata), to honor the peasantmen and women who foughtin the Mexican revolution.Orozco did many paintings insupport of the revolution.What aspects of the imagedoes the artist use to conveystrength and unity?

570 CHAPTER 18

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Mexicans grew angrier over theU.S. invasion of their land. InJune 1916, U.S. troops clashedwith Carranza’s army, resulting indeaths on both sides.

Carranza demanded thewithdrawal of U.S. troops, butWilson refused. War seemedimminent. However, in the end,both sides backed down. TheUnited States, facing war inEurope, needed peace on itssouthern border. In February1917, Wilson ordered Pershing toreturn home. Later that year,Mexico adopted a constitutionthat gave the government controlof the nation’s oil and mineralresources and placed strict regulations on foreign investors.

Although Carranza had called for the constitution of 1917, he failed to carryout its measures. Instead, he ruled oppressively until 1920 when a moderatenamed Alvaro Obregón came to power. Obregón’s presidency marked the end ofcivil war and the beginning of reform.

U.S. intervention in Mexican affairs provided a clear model of Americanimperialist attitudes in the early years of the 20th century. Americans believed inthe superiority of free-enterprise democracy, and the American governmentattempted to extend the reach of this economic and political system, eventhrough armed intervention.

The United States pursued and achieved several foreign policy goals in theearly 20th century. First, it expanded its access to foreign markets in order toensure the continued growth of the domestic economy. Second, the United Statesbuilt a modern navy to protect its interests abroad. Third, the United States exer-cised its international police power to ensure dominance in Latin America.

•Panama Canal•Roosevelt Corollary

•dollar diplomacy•Francisco “Pancho” Villa

•Emiliano Zapata•John J. Pershing

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its significance.

SUMMARIZING2. TAKING NOTES

In a two-column chart, list waysTeddy Roosevelt and WoodrowWilson used American power aroundthe world during their presidencies.

Choose one example and discussits impact with your classmates.

CRITICAL THINKING3. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

What do you think were the similari-ties and differences betweenRoosevelt’s Big Stick policy andWilson’s missionary diplomacy? Useevidence from the text to supportyour response. Think About:

• the goal of each of these foreignpolicies

• how the policies defined the roleof U.S. intervention in internation-al affairs

• how the policies were applied

4. EVALUATING DECISIONSIn your opinion, should the UnitedStates have become involved in theaffairs of Colombia, Nicaragua, andMexico during the early 1900s?Support your answer with details.Think About:

• the effect of the RooseveltCorollary

• the results of dollar diplomacy• the implication of Wilson’s mis-

sionary diplomacy

Using American PowerRoosevelt Wilson


▼

Pancho Villadirects a columnof his troopsthrough northernMexico in 1914.

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San Francisco

to Asia

572 CHAPTER 18

GEOGRAPHY

SPOTLIGHT

The Panama Canal:Funnel for Trade

By the late 19th century, the U.S. position in globaltrade was firmly established. A glance at a world mapduring that time revealed the trade advantages of cut-ting through the world’s great landmasses at twostrategic points. The first cut, through the Isthmus ofSuez in Egypt, was completed in 1869 and was a spectacular success. A second cut, this one throughPanama, in Central America, would be especiallyadvantageous to the United States. Such a cut, or canal,would substantially reduce the sailing time betweenthe nation’s Atlantic and Pacific ports.

It took the United States ten years, from 1904 to1914, to build the Panama Canal. By 1999, more than700,000 vessels, flying the flags of about 70 nations,had passed through its locks. In the year 2000, Panamaassumed full control of the canal.

NUMBERS TELL THE STORYA ship sailing from New York toSan Francisco by going aroundSouth America travels 13,000miles; the canal shortens thejourney to 5,200 miles.

13,000 mi.5,200 mi.

San Francisco New

York

▼

OCEANGOING VESSELSShips, like this one, must be of a certaindimension in order to fit through thecanal’s locks. These container shipsmust be no more than 106 feet acrossand 965 feet in length, with a draft (thedepth of the vessel below the water linewhen fully loaded) of no more than 39.5feet. Each ship pays a toll based on itssize, its cargo, and the number of pas-sengers it carries.

▼

INTERCOASTAL TRADEThe first boat through thecanal heralded the arrivalof increased tradebetween the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States.

▼

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New York

New Orleans

Panama Canal

toSo

uth Am

eric

a

to Europe

to Africa


NEW YORK CITYNew York City and other U.S.Atlantic ports accounted forabout 60 percent of the traf-fic using the Panama Canalin the early decades of itsexistence.

▼

Panama is a narrow stretch of land—or isthmus —thatconnects North and SouthAmerica. In building the canal,engineers took advantage ofnatural waterways. Movingships through the mountainsof the Continental Dividerequired the use of massivelocks. Locks allow a sectionof the canal to be closed offso that the water level can be raised or lowered.

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

1. Analyzing Patterns On a world map, identify the routethat ships took to get from New York City to SanFrancisco before the Panama Canal opened. How didthis route change after the opening of the canal?

2. Creating a Model Use clay to shape a model of across-section of the Panama Canal as shown in theScience and Technology feature on page 567. For thelocks, use styrofoam blocks or pieces of wood whichyou have glued together. Paint the model, and thenlabel each part of the canal.


IRESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM

Image not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theimage in the textbook.

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574 CHAPTER 18

CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

AMERICAN IMPERIALISM

VISUAL SUMMARY

AMERICA CLAIMSAN EMPIRE

CAUSES

• Economic competition among industrialnations

• Political and military competition, includingthe creation of a strong naval force

• A belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority

• The U.S. purchased Alaska in 1867. • The U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898.

• In 1898, the U.S. helped Cuba winindependence from Spain.

• In the Treaty of Paris, the U.S. gainedPuerto Rico, Guam, and the PhilippineIslands.

• Following the Spanish-American War, theU.S. —reorganized the government of Puerto Rico—established a protectorate over Cuba—crushed a revolt in Philippines

• In 1899, the Open Door policy establishedU.S. trading rights in China.

• In the early 1900s, President Rooseveltinitiated plans for the Panama Canal andasserted the right of the U.S. to exercisepolice power in the Western Hemisphere.

• President Wilson pressured Mexico andother countries in the Western Hemisphereto establish democratic governments.

TERMS & NAMES For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining itssignificance to U.S. foreign policy between 1890 and 1920.

1. Queen Liliuokalani 6. protectorate2. imperialism 7. Open Door notes3. José Martí 8. Boxer Rebellion4. yellow journalism 9. Panama Canal5. U.S.S. Maine 10. Roosevelt Corollary

MAIN IDEASUse your notes and the information in the chapter to answerthe following questions.

Imperialism and America (pages 548–551)1. What three factors spurred American imperialism?2. How did Queen Liliuokalani’s main goal conflict with

American imperialists’ goals?

The Spanish-American War (pages 552–557)3. Why was American opinion about Cuban independence

divided?4. Briefly describe the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898.

Acquiring New Lands (pages 558–564)5. Why was the U.S. interested in events in Puerto Rico? 6. What sparked the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, and how was

it crushed?7. What three key beliefs about America’s industrial capitalist

economy were reflected in the Open Door policy?

America as a World Power (pages 565–571)8. What conflict triggered the war between Russia and Japan?9. Why is the construction of the Panama Canal considered one

of the world’s greatest engineering feats?10. Explain the key difference between Woodrow Wilson’s moral

diplomacy and Teddy Roosevelt’s “big stick” diplomacy.

CRITICAL THINKING1. USING YOUR NOTES Create a Venn diagram like the one

below to show the similarities and differences between JoséMartí of Cuba and Emilio Aguinaldo of the Philippines.

2. HYPOTHESIZING Would Cuba have won its independence inthe late 19th century if the United States had not intervenedthere? Support your opinion with details from the text.

3. INTERPRETING MAPS Look carefully at the Caribbean map onpage 555 and the world map on page 562. Why do you thinkAmerican naval bases in the Caribbean and the Pacific werebeneficial to the United States?

Emilio AguinaldoJosé Marti Both

EFFECTS

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Use the cartoon and your knowledge of U.S. history to answer question 1.

1. What is the cartoonist’s point of view concerningthe relationship between the United States andCuba?

A The United States wishes to be friends withCuba.

B The United States will devour Cuba. C The United States is wasting its time fighting

over such a small area.D The United States has no interest in Cuba.

Use the map and your knowledge of U.S. history to answer question 2.

2. How did the building of the Panama Canal supportUnited States efforts to become a world power?

F It gave the United States a colony in CentralAmerica.

G It prevented Japan and China from attackingHawaii.

H It opened up a new avenue for trade with China.J By providing a shortcut between the Atlantic

Ocean and Pacific Ocean, it opened up newtrading opportunities.

ATLANTICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

NORTHAMERICA

Hawaii

toAsia

Puerto Rico

Cuba

PanamaCanal

San Francisco

NewYork

SOUTHAMERICA

EUROPE

AFRICA

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT1. Recall your discussion of

the question on page 547:

Does the U.S. have a duty to fight forfreedom in neighboring countries?Suppose you are a journalist at the end of theSpanish-American War. You work for WilliamRandolph Hearst’s the New York Journal. Write anewspaper editorial that presents your point of viewabout whether or not the Senate should ratify theTreaty of Paris, thus annexing the Philippines.

2. LEARNING FROM MEDIA Use the CD-ROM Electronic Library of PrimarySources and other resources to research

opinions on imperialism between 1895 and 1920.

• Choose a document, incident, or piece of writingabout imperialism. Decide if you support it or disagree with it.

• Write a speech that presents your point of view.Decide how you will make your arguments clearand convincing while also addressing opposingconcerns.

• Practice your speech aloud and then present it tothe class.

CD-ROMI N T E R A C TI N T E R A C T

W I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

Standardized Test Practice

ADDITIONAL TEST PRACTICE, pages S1–S33.

ITEST PRACTICE CLASSZONE.COM

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1890 1900...1910 mexico revises and adopts its constitution. 1917 the panama canal opens. 1914...

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