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History of Modern India: The Struggle for Freedom

Birth of the Congress

The credit for the birth of the Indian National Congress isgenerally given to A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant who

inaugurated it. However there is general consensus on the viewthat the Congress was a natural and inevitable consequence of

various political, economic and social forces.

A.O.Hume

Mr. Hume collected widespread evidence of the imminence of a

terrible revolution by the half-starved and desperatepopulation; so he set about to find ways and means to direct

the popular impulse into an innocuous channel. He wrote a

letter to Graduates of Calcutta University on March 1, 1883and the Indian National Union was formed in 1884, forconstitutional agitation, on an all-India basis; it was to meet in

Pune later that year. This organization was renamed the Indian

National Congress.

The British Government, which initially patronized thisorganization, later discovered that it outgrew its plans and

promptly withdrew support. After a while, the Congress came

to be called the factory of sedition and Lord Duff rein termed it

as a body representing microscopic minority ofIndiaspopulation.

In Bengal which was at the vanguard of progress at this time,

there were various political organizations that preceded theCongress. In 1843 was founded the British Indian Society,

which was founded in1843 later merged into the British Indian

Association. This body had such stalwarts as Rajendralal Mitra,

Ramgopal Ghosh, Peary Chand Mitterand Harish ChandraMukherjee. In Bombay there was the Bombay Association with

Jaggannath Sankerset, Dadabhai Naoroji, V.N, Mandlik among

others.

In December 1884, the Annual Convention of the TheosophicalSociety was held at Madras and there some leading public

figures met and decided to inaugurate an all India national

movement.

Right from its birth, the Indian National Congress took its job

seriously. In its early phase, which is called the phase of theModerates (1885-1905), the Congress was thoroughly loyal to

the British. Its members were British in all aspects. They werea class of elite erudite men. Dadabhai Naoroji, the most

prominent among their leaders observed: Let us speak out likemen and proclaim that we are loyal to the backbone; that we

understand the benefits the English rule has conferred upon

B.C.Pal

The Valiant Lala

Lajpat Rai

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

http://indiaheritage.org/history/history_struggle_freedom.htm#state

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us.

In 1907, there took place a split in the Congress, as there were

some members who were dissatisfied with the scheme of

affairs under the Moderate leaders. Fiery and spirited leaders

like Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak,parted company with them.

This was the time when extreme nationalists came to theforefront; this was sparked off by the Partition of Bengal into

west and east Bengal in 1905, by Lord Curzon (1899-1905), the

Viceroy and Governor-General. He declared that the step would

help to improve the administrative of the highly populatedregion, where the Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted

considerable influence on both local and national politics. The

partition created two provinces: Eastern Bengal & Assam, with

its capital at Dhaka, and West Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta(which at that time was the capital of British India). This hastilyimplemented action outraged the Bengalis. There we widespread

agitations acrosss the state. October 16, 1905, the day on whichthe partition came into effect, was observed as a day of mourning

and fasting throughout Bengal. RabindranathTagore, the famousNobel-laureate and writer, spoke out against this political event

by means of a highly inspiring poem:Banglar mati Banglar jal,Banglar bayu, banglar phal, punya houk, heyBhagaban(roughly

translated into English: "May the soil of Bengal, the water andthe air of Bengal be hallowed ... ") Tagore himself led hordes of

people o the streets, singing the song and tying Rakhi (an

ornamental ,colourful chord / strap) on each other's wrists ( tosymbolise unity and brotherhood).There was a mass-scalefasting by the people and no food was cooked on that day.

Aurbindo Ghose -The Revolutionarywhobecame a saint

This was the time when the Swadeshi Movement was firstlaunched. Indians all over the country came together in groups,

made public bonfires of foreign clothes, cigarettes, soap andanything that came handy. The vowed to use only indigenously

manufactured products. A large number of young leaders inBengal took up the mammoth task of educating people. On

August 15, 1906, a National Council of Education was introduced

under the educationist and revolutionary, Aurobindo Ghose.

The British government came down heavily on thesedemonstrations and protests. In 1907, leaders Lala Lajpat Rai

and Sardar Ajit Singh were deported from the Punjab. In 1908,Bal Gangadhar Tilak was arrested and sentenced to six years

imprisonment. Aurobindo Ghose was arrested, prosecuted and

when acquitted, escaped to Pondicherry (then a French colony)

to escape the clutches of the British. In later years he foundedthe Aurobindo Ashram - a centre for the evolution of another

kind of life which would in the end be moved by a higher

spiritual consciousness and embody a greater life of the spirit.

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Home Rule Movement

When Great Britain was involved in World War I, Indiasnational movement though assumed new dimensions. One of

them was the Home Rule Movement. On April 28, 1916, the

Home Rule League was set up with its headquarters atPune. Tilak went on a whirlwind tour of the country, appealingto everybody to unite under the banner of Home Rule

League. Annie Besant, an Irish lady, who was a member of theTheosophical Society of India, played a key role in this

movement.

To quell the growing revolutionary fervour and spirit, the

British government enforced stricter laws to prevent agitationsand meetings. The importance of the Home Rule movement lay

in the fact that for the first time, the independence of Indiaclearly became the objective of the Indian national movement.

The public at large especially the youth began to indulge in acts

of terrorism, bombing parliamentary meetings, blowing up

railway lines and picketing shops. It was at this juncture that anew leader appeared on the political horizon.

Annie Besant

Debut of Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, was a barrister who came back

to India from South Africa at the age of 49.While in South

Africa, he had already built a tremendous reputation forhimself as a political leader. Almost immediately after arriving

in Bombay, he was offered to lead the national movement.

Gandhi opted to travel and know the country thoroughly firstand to familiarize himself with the masses.

Gandhi and Nehru

Rowlatt Act

Meanwhile in 1917-18, came the Rowlatt Act, proposed byJustice Rowlatt which. among other things gave the courts the

right to try political cases without a jury while provincialgovernments, apart from the centre, had the power of

internment without trial. Gandhi vehemently opposed theRowlatt Act saying that since it raised issues of trust and self-

respect, and hence should be met by a moral response.

Jallianwallah Bagh tragedy

This gruesome incident added fuel to the fire of nationalist

movement. On April 12, 1919, General Michael O Dwyer,who

had taken over the command of the troops in Punjab, the day

before, prohibited all public meetings or gatherings.

Unfortunately a large number of men women and children had

assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden in Amritsar Rabindranath Tagore

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(which was hemmed in by buildings on all sides and had only a

narrow passage way for both entry and exit), on the occasion ofBaisakhi (new year celebrations held on 13th April every year)

and also to show their resentment against the government

policies. Enraged, General Dwyer fired 1600 rounds of

ammunition on the crowds, resulting in a stampede and abloody massacre of thousands of men women and children.

The brutality of the Jallianwallah Bagh tragedy shocked thecountry. It deeply moved the national leaders who now keenly

began to search for newer, more effective ways to express theiranguish and displeasure against the government. To show his

solidarity with the Indian masses, Tagore rejected theknighthood, earlier conferred upon him by the British

government.

Udham Singh -

avenged the

Jallianwala Baghtragedy

Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat (opposition) Movement was launched inSeptember 1919 as a communal movement to protect the

Turkish Khalifa and save his empire from dismemberment byGreat Britain and other European powers. The Ali

brothers,Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, Maulana Abul KalamAzad, and Dr M A Ansari, among others, initiated the Movement.

Khilafat conferences were organized in several cities in

northern India. Subsequently, the Ali Brothers produced theKhilafat manifesto. The Central Khilafat Committee started a

fund to help the nationalist movement in Turkey and to

organise the Khilafat Movement at home.

Maulana Abul Kalam

Non Co-operation MovementIn 1920, under the leadership of Gandhi, the Indian National

Congress launched his first innovative protest, the Non

Cooperation Movement. It involved surrender of all titles,

honorary offices and nominated posts in local bodies. Peoplestopped attending government functions and darbars (royal

court functions and ceremonies). Parents were requested towithdraw their children from all kinds of government-run

educational institutions.British courts and the army were boycotted. Indians were to

stand for elections to any government body orlegislature.Ahimsa or non-violencewas to be strictly observed.

The Non Cooperation Movement came to an abrupt end, with

the Chauri-Chaura incident which took place inGorakhpur (UP)

in 1922. Members of a Congress and Khilafat procession were

picketing the local bazaar in a campaign directed both againstliquor sales and high food prices.

Being provoked by some policemen, a section of the crowdattacked them. The police opened fire. In retaliation, the entire

procession killed 22 policemen and set the police station on fire.A stunned Gandhi decided to withdraw the movement.

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Kakori RobberyIn August 1925 a band of young revolutionaries in UP looted

official a large amount of cash (which belonged to the

government treasury) from a Kakori-bound train on the

Saharanpur- Lucknow railway section. The Government arrested

a large number of young men and tried them in the robbery case.Ashfaqualla Khan, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan Singh and Rajendra

Lahiri were hanged; four others were sentenced to a life term in

the penal colony on the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. ChandraShekhar Azad remained a fugitive but was ultimately shot down

in a park at Allahabad.

Chandrasekhar Azad

Civil Disobedience MovementLaunched in 1930 under Gandhi's leadership, it proved to be one

of the most important phases of India's freedom struggle.The Simon Commission, constituted in November 1927, by the

British Government to prepare and finalize a constitution forIndia, and consisting of members of the British Parliament only,

was boycotted by all sections of the Indian social and political

platforms as an 'All-White Commission'. The opposition to

the Simon Commission across the country was wide-spread.Massive demonstrations were held in Calcutta on 19

February1928, the day of Simon's arrival in the city.

On 30th October 1928 when the Simon Commission was expected

to arrive in Lahore, it was greeted by a sea of black flags and

slogans of Simon, go back".The police lathi-chargedthe mob,during which, Lala Lajpat Rai (a.k.a.The lion of Punjab) was

grievously injured and succumbed to his injuries two weeks later.

Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon

Commission by the Indians, an All-Party Conference was held atBombay in May 1928 under the president ship of Dr MA Ansari.

The Conference appointed a drafting committee under MotilalNehru, also a reputed barrister, to draw up a constitution for

India. The Nehru Report was accepted by all sections of Indiansociety barring a section of Muslims. In December 1928, the

Indian National Congress pressed the British Government toaccept the Nehru Report in toto.

The Calcutta Session of the Congress in December 1928 gave an

ultimatum to the British Government, that if dominion status was

not granted by December 1929, a countrywide Civil Disobedience

Movement would be launched. In mid-1929,the BritishGovernment, that India would be given dominion status within

the British Empire very soon. A few months later, upon assuming

office, Lord Irwin, the Governor General, reiterated that the

government would usher in some constitutional reforms whichwould end in granting of dominion status to the Indians. Reacting

to this statement, Indian leaders like Gandhi, Tej Bahadur Sapru,Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and Annie Besant urged theGovernor General to devise a more liberal formula so that the

entire issue could be sorted out in a peaceful manner.

The leaders demanded the release of all political prisoners. They

also urged the British government to convene the proposedRound Table Conference in which the constitutional problems of

India were could be discussed.

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Meanwhile within the Congress itself young leaders like Subhash

Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that their aim wasnot to fight for dominion status but for complete independence.

The Congress, at its historic Lahore Session held in December

1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, adopted a

resolution to this effect. It authorised the Congress WorkingCommittee to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement throughout

the country. It was decided that 26 January should be observed allover India as the Purna Swaraj(complete independence) Day.

Dandi March

Gandhi, who was called upon to lead the movement, decided to do

so in a totally non-violent manner. The violation of the Salt

Law was his first step. His famous march from SabarmatiAshram in Ahmedabad,Gujarat to Dandi (a tiny place on the seacoast of Gujarat in March-April 1930, led to a popular,

countrywide movement against the Salt Law. It soon turned into a

popular movement. Realising the popularity as well as theintensity of the movement, the government decided to crush it.

The Congress Committee was banned. Both Jawaharlal

Nehru and Gandhi were imprisoned.

The Final Phase

Bhagat Singh, a young marxist from Punjab, vowed to

avenge Lala Lajapt Raisdeath. With the helpofChandrashekhar Azad, Rajguru and Sukhdev, plotted to kill

Scott a police officer who had brutally beaten up Lalaji.

However instead of Scott, they killed a junior officer named Mr.

Sanders,thereby incurring the wrath of the administration.The

British, under the Defence of India Act, empowered the policeto arrest people and stop processions on the flimsiest pretext.

To protest against this decision, Bhagat Singh and an

accomplice, Batukeshwar Dutt threw handouts, and threw ahand grenade duirng an ongoing session in Delhis CentralAssembly , on 8 April 1929. They cheerfully courted arrest after

shouting slogans of "Inquilab Zindabad!"(Long Live,Revolution!). Bhagat Singh was found guilty, and was hanged

on 23 March 1931.

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru

and Sukhdev

On 18 April 1930, young revolutionaries in Bengal

(including Preetilata Waddedar and Kalapana Dutt) led

by Surya Sen (a.k.a Masterda = teacher,sir) attacked andburned down the British Armory in Chittagong (modernBangladesh).They fought a heroic battle on the hills

of Jalalabad where twelve revolutionaries were killed. On 23September 1932, Surya Sen masterminded an successful attackon the European Club in Chittagong, which displayed a

nefarious sign: Dogs and Indians not allowed. Surya Sen wasfinally captured on 17 February 1933 and hanged in Chittagong

Jail on 8thJanuary,1934.

In April 1930, there were violent clashes between the police

and the masses in Calcutta. Thousands of people were

imprisoned in the course of the Civil disobediencemovement (1930-31). While Gandhi was in jail, the first Round

Surya Sen

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Table Conference was held in London in November 1930; it

was completely boycotted by the congressmen and therefore,futile. The ban upon the Congress was removed due to the

economic hardships caused by the Salt Satyagraha (movement

for truth) Gandhi, and other members of the Congress Working

Committee, was released from prison in January 1931.

In March of 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, with the

government agreeing to release all political prisoners. Gandhiagreed to discontinue the civil disobedience movement and

participate in the second Round Table Conference, which was

held in London in September 1931. However, this meet too,ended in failure. In December 1931, a dejected Gandhi returned

to India, determined to resume the Civil Disobedience

Movement in January 1932.

During the next few years, the Congress and the governmentwere perpetually involved in conflicts and negotiations until

the enforcement of the Government of India Act of 1935. In themeantime, the gap between the Congress and theMuslim

League was growing with both sides indulging in accusations

and mud-slinging. The Muslim League disputed the claim of theCongress to represent all people of India, while the Congressdisputed the Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of

all Muslims.

Lord Irwin

During World War II the Congress decided that India should co-operate with Britain on condition that complete independence

be granted to India after the war was over. Meanwhile the riftbetween Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League and

the Congress' objectives widened further. Early in 1940, Jinnahpublicly declared the creation of Pakistanas the ultimate goal of

the League.

On 13th March 1940, more than two decades afterthe Jallianwala Bagh tragedy, Udham Singh, a revolutionary(who had many contacts in Europe and UK) shot dead MichaelO'Dwyer, the masterbrain behind the massacre, during a joint

meeting of the East India Association and the Royal CentralAsia Society, the venue for which was Caxton Hall in

London. Udham Singh was hanged in London on June 12, 1940.

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During the onging World War II, after the fall of France in 1940,

Gandhi declared, "We do not seek independence out of Britain'ruin." The British replied with the offer that a `constituent

assembly as well as Dominion status would be discussed `after

the war.

Indias arbitrary entry into theWorld War II was stronglyopposed by Subhash Chandra Bose, President of the Congress

in 1937 and later in1939. Resigning from Congress in 1939Bose floated a new party, the All India Forward Bloc. In 1941

he dexterously escaped from house arrest in Calcutta, andresurfaced in Germany. There he

garneredGerman and Japanese help to fight the British in India.

In March 1942, the British government, by means ofthe 'Cripps' Mission attempted to secure Indian cooperation

and support for their efforts in thestill raging World War II. The

mission was headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, a senior Labour

Party politician and government minister in the War Cabinetheaded by the premier Winston Churchill.

In India, Cripps parleyed with the Indian leaders. But his failureto present any concrete proposals for greater self-government,

the Congress leaders felt that the British were not interested ingranting India self-government or respecting Indian public

opinion on the war. Offended, the Congress halted all talkswith Cripps. The nation guided by Gandhi,vociferously

demanded immediate self-government in turn for war support.

Finding the British unresponsive, Gandhi gave the clarion callfor the British to Quit India. The movement was launched

on August 8, 1942 in Bombay and immediately caught on like

wild fire across the country. It was a Do or Dieattempt on thepart of the leaders as well as the masses.

In 1943, Bose went to Japan, where he helped

organize the Indian National Army (a.k.a Azad Hind Fauj) and

set up a government-in-exile. Shortly afterwards, the Andamanand Nicobar Islands came under INA control. Pressing forward,

the INA traversed Nagaland,finally reaching Manipur.Unfortunately, lack of equipment,ammunitions coupled half-

hearted support from Japan, took a heavy toll of the INAsoldiers. the INA's efforts ended with the surrender of Japan in

1945. Bose was reportedly killed in an air crash in August

1945. His end is still shrouded in mystery.The victory of BritainsLabour Party' in the elections of 1945was a shot in the arm for the Indian freedom fighters, as the

party had long championed the cause of Indias freedom.helped reassess the merits of the traditional policies. While the

British were negotiating to transfer power to India, the MuslimLeague renewed its demand for the formation of Pakistan.

Jinnah, who was opposed to sharing power with the IndianNational Congress, declared 16 August 1946 asDirect Action

Day, which led to communal rioting in many places in the

northern part of the country. Thousands of people lost theirlives. On 3 June 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last British

Viceroy, announced plans for the bifurcation o the BritishIndian Empire into a secular India, and Islamic Pakistan, which

Gandhi and Jinnah

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was divided into east and west wings on either side of India.

At midnight on August 14, 1947, India became an independent

nation, with Jawaharlal Nehru as its first primeminister.Gandhi, who as dead against the idea of a dividedIndia, spent the day fasting and praying in Calcutta. Muslims in

the northwest and northeast of India were assimilated into

Pakistan. Violent clashes between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs

followed. The area of Kashmir became a source of controversythat erupted into the First Indo-Pakistani War which lasted

from 1947 to 1949.India and Pakistan were granted fullautonomy, with the King-Emperor crowned as the Head of

State of both India and Pakistan, and the Governor General asthe King's representative. In 1948, Mountbatten was succeeded

by Chakravarti Rajgopalachari, a veteran Congress leader.Mohammed Ali Jinnah assumed charge as Pakistan's Governor

General, with Liaquat Ali Khan as Prime Minister.

The Indian Independence Movement incorporated the efforts byIndiansto liberate the regionfromBritish ruleand form the nation-state ofIndia.It involved a wide spectrum of Indian

political organizations, philosophies, and rebellions between 1857 and India's emergence as aunified nation-state onAugust 15,1947.The Indian independence movement incorporated the

efforts by Indians to liberate the region from British rule and form the nation-state of India. Itinvolved a wide spectrum of Indian political organizations, philosophies, and rebellions

between 1857 and India's emergence as a unified nation-state on August 15, 1947.

The initial Indian Rebellion of 1857 was sparked when soldiers serving in the British East India

Company's British Army and Indian kingdoms rebelled against the British. After the revolt was

crushed, the British partitioned the region into British India and the Princely States. They triedto develop a class of educated elites, whose political organizing sought Indian political rights

and representation. However, increasing public disenchantment with the British authority their curtailing of Indian civil liberties (such as the Rowlatt Act), political rights, and culture as

well as their avoidance of basic issues facing common Indians and an essential nonacceptance of

foreign occupation led to an upsurge in revolutionary activities aimed at overthrowing the

European colonial powers, particularly the British.The movement came to a head between 1918 and 1922 when the first series of non-violent

campaigns of civil disobedience were launched by the Indian National Congress under the

leadership of Mohandas Gandhi whose methods were to a large extent inspired by the

philosophy and methods of Baba Ram Singh, a Sikh who led the Kuka Movement in the Punjab in

the 1870s. Gandhi's movement came to encompass people from across India and across all

http://india.wikia.com/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/British_Rajhttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/British_Rajhttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/British_Rajhttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/August_15?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/August_15?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/August_15?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/1947?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/1947?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/1947?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/1947?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/August_15?action=edit&redlink=1http://india.wikia.com/wiki/Indiahttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/British_Rajhttp://india.wikia.com/wiki/History_of_India

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walks of life. These initial civil disobedience movements soon came to be the driving force thatultimately shaped the cultural, religious, and political unity of a diverse nation.

Committing itself to Purna Swaraj in 1930, the Congress led mass struggles between 1930 and

1932. By the late 1930s, however, with growing disenchantments over the delaying tactics of

the Raj and the Congress's failure to extract commitment on self-rule and political

independence, a faction within the movement turned towards more radical ideas of SubhashChandra Bose. Bose's actions proved controversial among the Congress party but popular

within the Indian populace, when Bose defeated Gandhi's candidate in leadership elections in

the Tripuri Session of the Congress Working Committee. However, this was the parting of waysbetween the radicals and the conservatives. Bose left the Congress to found his own party

during the war, seeking first Soviet and then Axis help to raise a liberation force. The raising of

the Indian National Army in 1942 by Subhash Chandra Bose would see a unique military

campaign to end British rule. Following the trial of Indian National Army officers at the RedFort, mutinies broke out in the navy, in the Air Force, and in the army. The Congress also led a

civil disobedience movement in 1942 demanding that the British leave India (a movementcalled the Quit India Movement). Following these and widespread communal rioting in Calcutta,

the Raj ended on the mid-night of 15 August 1947, but only at the expense of the partition of the

country into India and Pakistan.Contents [hide] 1 European rule 2 Regional movements prior to 1857 3 The First War of

Independence, 1857 3.1 Aftermath 4 Rise of organised movements 5 Rise of Indian nationalism5.1 Partition of Bengal 6 World War I 7 The Rowlatt Act and its aftermath 8 The Gandhian

generation 9 Dandi March and the civil disobedience movement 10 Elections and the Lahoreresolution 11 Revolutionary activities 12 The climax: war, Quit India, INA and Post-war revolts

12.1 The Indian National Army 12.2 Quit India 12.3 RIN Mutiny 12.4 Significance 13Independence, 1947 to 1950 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links

The initialIndian Rebellion of 1857was sparked when soldiers serving in theBritish East India

Company's British Army and Indian kingdoms rebelled against the British. After the revolt was

crushed, the British partitioned the region intoBritish Indiaand thePrincely States.They triedto develop a class of educated elites, whose political organizing sought Indian political rightsand representation. However, increasing public disenchantment with the British authority

their curtailing of Indian civil liberties (such as theRowlatt Act), political rights, and culture as

well as their avoidance of basic issues facing common Indians and an essential nonacceptance offoreign occupation led to an upsurge inrevolutionary activitiesaimed at overthrowing the

European colonial powers, particularly the British.The movement came to a head between 1918 and 1922 when the first series ofnon-

violentcampaigns ofcivil disobediencewere launched by theIndian National Congressunderthe leadership ofMohandas Gandhiwhose methods were to a large extent inspired by

thephilosophyand methods of BabaRam Singh,aSikhwho led theKukaMovement inthePunjabin the1870s.Gandhi's movement came to encompass people from across India and

across all walks of life. These initial civil disobedience movements soon came to be the drivingforce that ultimately shaped the cultural, religious, and political unity of a diverse nation.

Committing itself toPurna Swarajin 1930, the Congress led mass struggles between 1930 and1932. By the late 1930s, however, with growing disenchantments over the delaying tactics of

the Raj and the Congress's failure to extract commitment on self-rule and political

independence, a faction within the movement turned towards more radical ideas ofSubhashChandra Bose.Bose's actions proved controversial among the Congress party but popular

within the Indian populace, when Bose defeated Gandhi's candidate in leadership elections in

the Tripuri Session of the Congress Working Committee. However, this was the parting of ways

between the radicals and the conservatives. Bose left the Congress to found his own partyduring the war, seeking first Soviet and thenAxishelp to raise a liberation force. The raising of

theIndian National Armyin 1942 by Subhash Chandra Bose would see a unique military

campaign to end British rule. Following the trial of Indian National Army officers at the Red

Fort, mutinies broke outin the navy,in the Air Force, and in the army. The Congress also led

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acivil disobediencemovement in 1942 demanding that the British leave India (a movementcalled theQuit India Movement). Following these and widespread communal rioting in Calcutta,

theRajended on the mid-night of 15 August 1947, but only at the expense of thepartitionof the

country into India andPakistan.

Contents

[show]European rule

Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive with Mir Jafar after the Battle of

PlasseyAdded byDore chakravarty

Main articles:European colonies in India,British East India Company,Company rule in India,

andBritish RajEuropean traders came to Indian shores with the arrival of Portuguese explorerVasco da

Gamain 1498 at the port ofCalicutin search of the lucrativespicetrade. After the 1757Battle ofPlassey,during which the British army underRobert Clivedefeated theNawabofBengal,

theBritish East India Companyestablished itself. This is widely seen as the beginning oftheBritish Rajin India. The Company gained administrative rights over Bengal,Bihar,

andOrissain 1765 after theBattle of Buxar.They then annexedPunjabin 1849 after the deathof MaharajaRanjit Singhin 1839 and theFirst Anglo-Sikh War(18451846) and then

theSecond Anglo-Sikh War(184849).

The British parliament enacted a series of laws to handle the administration of the newlyconquered provinces, including theRegulating Actof 1773, the India Act of 1784, and theCharter Act of 1813; all enhanced the British government's rule. In 1835Englishwas made

themedium of instruction.Western-educated Hindu elites sought to ridHinduismof

controversial social practices, including thevarna(caste) system, child marriage, andsati.Literary and debating societies initiated inBombayandMadrasbecame fora for open political

discourse. The educational attainment and skillful use of the press by these early reformerscreated the growing possibility for effecting broadreforms,all without compromising larger

Indian social values and religious practices.Even while these modernising trends influenced Indian society, Indians increasingly despised

British rule. The memoirs of Henry Ouvry of the9th Lancersrecord many "a good thrashing" to

careless servants. A spice merchant, Frank Brown, wrote to his nephew that stories ofmaltreatment of servants had not been exaggerated and that he knew people who kept orderlies"purposely to thrash them". As the British increasingly dominated the continent, they grew

increasingly abusive of local customs by, for example, staging parties inmosques,dancing to themusic of regimental bands on the terrace of theTaj Mahal,using whips to force their way

through crowdedbazaars(as recounted by GeneralHenry Blake), and mistreatingsepoys.In theyears after the annexation ofPunjabin 1849, several mutinies amongsepoysbroke out; these

were put down by force.Regional movements prior to 1857

See also:Sannyasi RebellionandConspiracy Of The PintosandPolygar Wars

Several regional movements against foreign rule were staged in various parts of pre-1857 India.However, they were not united and were easily controlled by the foreign rulers. Examples

include theSannyasi RebellioninBengalin the 1770s,[1]the 1787 ethnic revolt againstPortuguese control ofGoaknown as theConspiracy Of The Pintos,[2]the revolt ofTitumirin

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Bengal in 1830's and uprisings bySouth Indianlocal chieftains likeVeerapandyaKattabommanagainst British rule.[3]Other movements included theSantal Rebellionand the

resistance offered to the British byTitumirinBengal,[4][5]theKittur

RebellioninKarnataka,Polygar WarsinTamil Nadu,Kutch RebellioninSaurashtra.[6]

The First War of Independence, 1857

States during the rebellion

Added byDore chakravarty

Secundra Bagh after the 93rd Highlanders and 4th Punjab

regiment fought the rebels, Nov 1857

Added byDore chakravartyMain article:Indian rebellion of 1857

The First War of Independence of 1857 was a period ofuprisingin northern andcentralIndiaagainst British rule in 185758. The rebellion was the result of decades of ethnic

and cultural differences between Indian soldiers and their British officers. The indifference of

the British towards Indian rulers like theMughalsand ex-Peshwasand

theannexationofOudhwere political factors triggering dissent amongstIndians.Dalhousiespolicy of annexation, thedoctrine of lapseor escheat, and the projected

removal of the descendants of the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace to the Qutb, nearDelhi also angered some people. The specific reason that triggered the rebellion was the

rumoured use of cow and pig fat in .557 calibrePattern 1853Enfield(P/53) rifle cartridges.Soldiers had to break the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their rifles. So if

there was cow and pig fat, it would be offensive to Hindu and Muslim soldiers, respectively. InFebruary 1857,sepoys(Indian soldiers in the British army) refused to use their new cartridges.

The British claimed to have replaced the cartridges with new ones and tried to make sepoysmake their own grease frombeeswaxandvegetable oils,but the rumour persisted.

In March 1857,Mangal Pandey,a soldier of the 34th Native Infantry inBarrackpore,attacked his

British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsay, who said Pandey was in some kindof "religious frenzy," ordered ajemadarto arrest him but the jemadar refused. Mangal Pandey

was hanged on7 Aprilalong with the jemadar. The whole regiment was dismissed as acollective punishment. On May 10, when the 11th and 20th Cavalry assembled, they broke rank

and turned on their commanding officers. They then liberated the 3rd Regiment, and on11

Maythe sepoys reached Delhi and were joined by other Indians. TheRed Fort,the residence of

the lastMughalemperorBahadur,was attacked and captured by the sepoys. They demanded

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that he reclaim his throne. He was reluctant at first, but eventually agreed to the demands andbecame the leader of the rebellion.

Soon, the revolt spread throughout northern India. Revolts broke out in places

likeMeerut,Jhansi,Kanpur,Lucknowetc. The British were slow to respond, but eventually

responded with brute force. British moved regiments from theCrimean Warand diverted

European regiments headed forChinato India. The British fought the main army of the rebelsnear Delhi in Badl-ke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi before laying siege on the city. The

siege of Delhi lasted roughly from1 Julyto31 August.After a week of street fighting, the British

retook the city. The last significant battle was fought inGwalioron20 June1858.It was duringthis battle thatRani Lakshmi Baiwas killed. Sporadic fighting continued until 1859 but most of

the rebels were subdued. Some notable leaders were Ahmed Ullah, an advisor of the ex-King of

Oudh;Nana Sahib;his nephew Rao Sahib and his retainers,Tantia Topiand Azimullah Khan;

theRani of Jhansi;Kunwar Singh;theRajputchief ofJagadishpurinBihar;Firuz Saha, a relativeof the Mughal Emperor,Bahadur ShahandPran Sukh Yadavwho along withRao Tula

RamofRewarifought with Britishers at Nasibpur, Haryana.Aftermath

The war of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. The British abolished

the British East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under theBritish crown.AViceroywas appointed to represent the Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to

"the Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples of India,"Queen Victoriapromised equal treatment underBritish law, but Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857 rebellion.

The British embarked on a program of reform and political restructuring, trying to integrateIndian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped land grabs, decreed religious

tolerance and admitted Indians into the civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. They alsoincreased the number of British soldiers in relation to native ones and allowed only British

soldiers to handle artillery.Bahadur Shahwas exiled toRangoon,Burmawhere he died in 1862,finally bringing theMughaldynasty to an end. In 1877,Queen Victoriatook the title ofEmpress

of India.

Rise of organised movementsMain articles:Indian National Congress - Freedom Era,Swami Vivekananda,RabindranathTagore,Subramanya Bharathy,andSyed Ahmed Khan

The decades following the Sepoy Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness,

manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at national andprovincial levels.Dadabhai NaorojiformedEast India Associationin 1867, andSurendranath

BanerjeafoundedIndian National Associationin 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made byA.O.Hume,a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and

founded theIndian National Congress.They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile andsuccessful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such aslaw,teaching,

andjournalism.At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded fewof the resources essential to a political organization. It functioned more as a debating society

that met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions onless controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government, especially the civil

service. These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's government and occasionally to theBritish Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were meagre. Despite its claim to represent all

India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other

economic backgrounds remained negligible.The influences of socio-religious groups such asArya Samaj(started bySwami Dayanand

Saraswati)andBrahmo Samaj(founded, among others, byRaja Ram Mohan Roy)became

evident in pioneering reform of Indian society. The inculcation of religious reform and social

pride was fundamental to the rise of a public movement for complete nationhood. The work ofmen likeSwami Vivekananda,Ramakrishna Paramhansa,Sri Aurobindo,Subramanya

Bharathy,Bankim Chandra Chatterjee,SirSyed Ahmed Khan,Rabindranath

TagoreandDadabhai Naorojispread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom.

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By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political organization, itsachievement was undermined by its singular failure to attractMuslims,who felt that their

representation in government service was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against

religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation ofUrduinArabicscript deepened

their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the

people of India. SirSyed Ahmed Khanlaunched a movement for Muslim regeneration thatculminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College atAligarh,Uttar

Pradesh (renamedAligarh Muslim Universityin 1921). Its objective was to educate wealthy

students by emphasizing the compatibility ofIslamwith modern western knowledge. Thediversity among India's Muslims, however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural

and intellectual regeneration.

Rise of Indian nationalismThe first spurts of nationalistic sentiment that rose amongst Congress members were when the

desire to be represented in the bodies of government, to have a say, a vote in the lawmaking andissues of administration of India. Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists, but wanted an

active role in governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was

personified byDadabhai Naoroji,who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election totheBritish House of Commons,becoming its first Indian member.

Bal Gangadhar Tilakwas the first Indian nationalist to embrace Swarajas the destiny of thenation. Tilak deeply opposed the British education system that ignored and defamed India's

culture, history and values. He resented the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, andthe lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation. For these reasons,

he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj is mybirthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration for Indians.

In 1907, the Congress was split into two. Tilak advocated what was deemed as extremism. Hewanted a direct assault by the people upon the British Raj, and the abandonment of all things

British. He was backed by rising public leaders likeBipin Chandra PalandLala Lajpat Rai,who

held the same point of view. Under them, India's three great states -Maharashtra,BengalandPunjabshaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. Themoderates, led byGopal Krishna Gokhale,Pherozeshah Mehtaand Dadabhai Naoroji held firm

to calls for negotiations and political dialogue. Gokhale criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of

violence and disorder. But the Congress of 1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilakand his supporters were forced to leave the party.

But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Congress lost creditwith the people, whileMuslimswere alarmed with the rise of Tilak'sHindu nationalism,and

formed theAll India Muslim Leaguein 1906, considered the Congress as completely unsuitablefor Indian Muslims. A Muslim deputation met with the Viceroy,Lord Minto(190510), seeking

concessions from the impending constitutional reforms, including special considerations ingovernment service and electorates. The British recognised some of Muslim League's petitions

by increasing the number of elective offices reserved for Muslims in the India Councils Act of1909. The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress, as

the voice of a "nation within a nation."Partition of Bengal

Main article:Partition of Bengal (1905)

In 1905,Lord Curzon,the Viceroy and Governor-General (18991905), ordered thepartition ofthe province of Bengalfor improvements in administrative efficiency in that huge and populous

region, where the Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and

national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed to consult

Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve todivide and rule.Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated

boycotting British products under the banner ofswadeshi.People showed unity by

tyingRakhion each other's wrists and observing Arandhan(not cooking any food). Actually

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