Human evolutionA long way from

Darwin and Wallace – or is it?

Colin GrovesSchool of Archaeology & Anthropology

Australian National University

1858

Light will be thrown on the origin of Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history. man and his history. - Darwin, 1859.- Darwin, 1859. On the On the

Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.

Darwin’s insights about human Darwin’s insights about human relationships and evolutionrelationships and evolution

• infectious diseases• embryology• anatomical changes• biogeography• adaptive radiation• technological advances

Man is liable to receive from the lower animals, and to communicate to them, certain diseases, as hydrophobia, variola, the glanders, syphilis, cholera, herpes, &c. - Darwin, 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. (p.8)

Examples of infectious diseases shared between humans and many nonhuman primates:

• Amoebiasis (Entamoeba spp.)• Non-tuberculous Mycobacterium spp.• Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)• Ebola • Hemorrhagic Fever• Viral Hepatitis• Herpes Simplex Virus• Herpesvirus B• Measles (Morbillivirus)• Sarcoptes scabiei• Shigella spp.• Monkeypox (Orthopoxvirus)• Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)• Dengue (Flavivirus)• Campylobacter spp.• Yellow Fever (Flavivirus)

The [human] embryo itself at a very early period can hardly The [human] embryo itself at a very early period can hardly be distinguished from that of other members of the be distinguished from that of other members of the

vertebrate kingdom.vertebrate kingdom. - - Darwin, 1871. Darwin, 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex.in Relation to Sex. (p.12) (p.12)

Human embryo Cat embryo

As the progenitors of man became more and more erect, with their hands and arms more and more modified for prehension and other

purposes, with their feet and legs at the same time transformed for firm support and progression, endless other changes of

structure would become necessary. The pelvis would have to be broadened, the spine peculiarly curved, and the head fixed in an altered position, all which changes have been attained by man. -

Darwin, 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. (p.79)

the spine peculiarly the spine peculiarly curved, and the head fixed curved, and the head fixed

in an altered positionin an altered position

chimpanzee human

the pelvis broadened, the pelvis broadened, the legs transformed for the legs transformed for

firm supportfirm support

valgus

knee

Darwin, 1871.Darwin, 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex :: We are naturally led to enquire, where was the birthplace of man We are naturally led to enquire, where was the birthplace of man

at that stage of descent when our progenitors diverged from the at that stage of descent when our progenitors diverged from the Catarrhine stock? Catarrhine stock?

The fact that they belonged to this stock clearly shews that they The fact that they belonged to this stock clearly shews that they inhabitated the Old World; but not Australia nor any oceanic inhabitated the Old World; but not Australia nor any oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws of geographical island, as we may infer from the laws of geographical distribution. distribution.

In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. related to the extinct species of the same region.

It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere.continent than elsewhere.

Old World Monkeys

Gibbons

Pongo pygmaeus

Pongo abelii

Gorilla gorilla

Gorilla beringei

G. g. gorillaG. g. diehli

G. b. beringei

G. b. graueriP. t. verus

P. t. vellerosusP. t. troglodytes

P. t. schweinfurthiiP. t. marungensis

Pan troglodytes

Pan paniscus

Homo sapiens

P. p. pygmaeus

P. p. wurmbiiP. p. morio

According to Darwin’s argument, this area should

(parsimoniously) also be yellow

12-14 Ma

8-10 Ma

6-7 Ma

Phylogeny of catarrhine Phylogeny of catarrhine primates, with molecular primates, with molecular

clock datingclock dating

Asia

Africa

The fossil record: The fossil record: between the time of the between the time of the separation of the gorilla line separation of the gorilla line and the separation of the and the separation of the chimpanzee and human lines, chimpanzee and human lines,

almost all relevant fossilsalmost all relevant fossils**are are AfricanAfrican

*although there are not many!

Sahelanthropus

Except this one:Graecopithecus

Nakalipithecusclosely related to Graecopithecus

Samburupithecus

• Remember, if you will, that there is no existing link between Man and the Gorilla, but do not forget that there is a no less sharp line of demarcation, a no less complete absence of any transitional form, between the Gorilla and the Orang, or the Orang and the Gibbon. • - Huxley, T. H. 1863. On the relations of man to the

lower animals. Man's Place in Nature. Reprinted in Man's Place in Nature and other Anthropological

Essays, 1890 (p. 145).

Hugh Falconer in 1864 popularises this “Missing Link”

• An unusual human skull had been discovered in Forbes’ Quarry, Gibraltar, in 1848.

• The palaeontologist Falconer, a friend of Darwin, examined it in 1864, and found it to be similar to the skull discovered in the Neanderthal, Germany, in 1856.

• In a letter to a relative (published posthumously in 1868), he wrote:

• If you hear any remarks made, you may say from me, that I do not regard this priscan pithecoid man as the "missing link" so to speak. It is a case of a very low type of humanity -- very low and savage, and of extreme antiquity -- but still man, and not a halfway step between man and monkey.

Now there are links: the “pre-australopithecines”: early members of

the human lineage

Ardipithecus ramidus – 4.4 Ma

Ardipithecus kadabba – 5.8-5.2 MaRelative canine length

chimpanzees – long thin

caninesArdipithecus

and australopithecines--short fat

canines

Reduction of

canines over time

Orrorin tugenensis – 5.9-6.0 Ma

Another principle, which may be called the principle of divergence, plays, I believe, an important part in the origin of species. The same spot will support more life if occupied by very diverse forms. - Darwin, 1858. Abstract of a

Letter from C. Darwin, Esq, to Prof.Asa Gray, Boston, US, dated Down, September 5th, 1857. Proceedings of the Linnean Society 3:52.

From 4 Ma until about 1 Ma, there were always at least two hominin species sympatric in East Africa:

4-3: Australopithecus afarensis – Kenyanthropus platyops

3-2.5: Australopithecus garhi – Paranthropus walkeri

2.5-2.0: Paranthropus walkeri – Homo rudolfensis –Homo cf.habilis

2.0-1.5: Paranthropus boisei – Homo habilis – Homo ergaster

1.5-1.0: Paranthropus boisei –Homo cf.ergaster

Homo habilis

Paranthropus boisei

Homo ergaster

The human fossil record:cranial capacity

(proxy for brain size)• From at least 4 until nearly 2

million years ago, the members of the human lineage, known informally as australopithecines, had small (ape-sized) cranial capacities (ECV)

• From then until nearly the present day, cranial capacities increased continuously (via “habilines” and “erectines” to “sapients” -- the genus Homo)

• Only the so-called “robust australopithecines” (the genus Paranthropus) continued with small cranial capacities

3 2 1 0

Million years

500

1000

1500

2000

ecv

(CC

)

AustralopithecusParanthropus"habilines""erectines"

"sapients“

The human fossil record:jaws and teeth

• The australopithecines had large molars and premolars, prominent jaws and receding mandibular symphysis, but reduced canines

• From about 2 million years ago, successive species of the genus Homo reduced the size of their jaws and teeth, and the mandibular symphysis became more vertical, eventually protruding as a Chin

The human fossil record:locomotion

• Australopithecines had S-curved vertebral column, valgus knee, and low wide pelvis, but funnel-shaped (ape-like) thorax and short legs

• Homo ergaster had barrel-shaped thorax and elongated legs

Psychology will be based on new foundation, that of the necessary Psychology will be based on new foundation, that of the necessary

acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation.acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. - Darwin, - Darwin, 1859.1859. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.

“Mental powers and capacities” now known to be exhibited by chimpanzees, hence inferred for the common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans, 6-7 Ma simple toolmaking, use of stone tools, self-recognition, symbolic

communication, fission-fusion social organisation, community territory, food sharing, social learning

First documented for habilines, 2 Ma simple stone toolmaking, activity bases, meat scavenging

First documented for erectines, 1.5-2 Ma first dispersal out of Africa (or was it? – Georgia, Pakistan, Java), fire

(controversial), “mental template” technology (not until 1.4 Ma), big game hunting (probably late in the record)

First documented for early sapients, 100 Ka? composite toolmaking, standing structures, water transport (settlement

of Australia, 50 Ka), language (presumed), burial, art

The first appearance of the human The first appearance of the human clade outside Africa, ± 1.7 millionclade outside Africa, ± 1.7 million

XX

XX

Homo georgicusDmanisi, Georgia

Homo erectusSangiran and Mojokerto, Java, Java

The second appearance of the human The second appearance of the human clade outside Africa, >1.2 millionclade outside Africa, >1.2 millionX

Atapuerca, Spain and Ceprano, ItalyHomo antecessor

Lantien and Zhoukoudian, China

Homo pekinensis

X

The third appearance of the human The third appearance of the human clade outside Africa, ± 600,000clade outside Africa, ± 600,000

Mauer, Germany

Arago, France

Atapuerca, Spain

Dali and Jinniushan, China

Hathnora, India

The origin of Homo sapiens

• Florisbad, South Africa 260ka

• Omo/Kibish, Ethiopia 195ka

• Jebel Irhoud, Morocco 160ka

• Herto, Ethiopia 160ka

• Skhul , Israel 100-120ka

• Qafzeh, Israel 100-120ka

The recency of the spread of Homo sapiens out of Africa and the Levant China:

Liujiang, 67,000 (controversial) Australia:

Malakunanja and Nawalibila, 50,000 (controversial)

archaeological deposits only Europe:

Pestera cu Oase, 34-36,000

The human world at about 50,000 BPThe human world at about 50,000 BPHomo

neanderthalensis

descended from Homo

heidelbergensis

Homo sapiens

Descended from Homo

heidelbergensis Homo

erectusStill there!Homo

floresiensisDescended from Homo habilis ?

The recency of modern human spread implies The recency of modern human spread implies that all modern humans are very much alikethat all modern humans are very much alike

19th-century Europeans were taught that other races were inferior19th-century Europeans were taught that other races were inferiorDarwin and Wallace reported, admittedly with some surprise, that Darwin and Wallace reported, admittedly with some surprise, that

they are notthey are not [Savages] possess a mental organ beyond their needs. [Savages] possess a mental organ beyond their needs.

Natural Selection could only have endowed savage man with a Natural Selection could only have endowed savage man with a brain a little superior to that of an ape, whereas he actually brain a little superior to that of an ape, whereas he actually possesses one very little inferior to that of a philosopher. possesses one very little inferior to that of a philosopher. Wallace, 1870.Wallace, 1870. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection: A Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection: A

Series of Essays.Series of Essays. He thought that this meant that the human mind could not have He thought that this meant that the human mind could not have

evolved by natural selection.evolved by natural selection. The American aborigines, Negroes and Europeans are as The American aborigines, Negroes and Europeans are as

different from each other in mind as any three races that can different from each other in mind as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck, whilst living with the be named; yet I was incessantly struck, whilst living with the Fuegians on board the "Beagle", with the many little traits of Fuegians on board the "Beagle", with the many little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to ours; and character, shewing how similar their minds were to ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once to be intimate. to be intimate. Darwin, 1871.Darwin, 1871. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to

Sex.Sex. He wrote He wrote The Descent of Man The Descent of Man in some haste, as he feared that Wallace in some haste, as he feared that Wallace

had done some damage to their joint “child”.had done some damage to their joint “child”.

• Wallace drew his Wallace drew his famous “Division of famous “Division of Indo-Malayan and Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan Austro-Malayan Regions” as a result Regions” as a result of his work in island of his work in island Southeast AsiaSoutheast Asia

• He noted that the He noted that the “Division between “Division between Malayan and Malayan and Polynesian [sic] Polynesian [sic] Races” lies further Races” lies further to the eastto the east

• ““The maritime The maritime enterprise and enterprise and higher civilisation of higher civilisation of the Malay races the Malay races have enabled them have enabled them to overrun a portion to overrun a portion of the adjacent of the adjacent region, in which region, in which they have entirely they have entirely supplanted the supplanted the indigenous indigenous inhabitants” inhabitants” Wallace, 1869. Wallace, 1869. The The Malay Archipelago.Malay Archipelago.

Every major discovery in Every major discovery in human evolution has been human evolution has been

stoutly resistedstoutly resisted

Every major new fossil has Every major new fossil has been disparagedbeen disparaged

Neandertaldiscovered by Johannes Fuhlrott in 1856

All these characters are compatible with the Neanderthal skeleton having belonged to some poor idiot or hermit…

C. Carter Blake, 1861 This flexure [of the thighbone] is not normal, and is observable, like the inward

flexure of the tuberosities of the ischial bones, in those who have been riders from their youth up.

[It was a Mongolian Cossack of Chernichev’s army chasing the retreating French in 1814] A. F. Mayer, 1864

The individual in question had in his childhood suffered from a mild degree of rickets, and then returned to health and activity, interrupted by considerable damage to the skull, from which he fortunately recovered but which resulted in later Arthritis deformans along with the changes due to old age.

Rudolph Virchow, 1872

Huxley’s response: It could be and it was suggested that the Neanderthal skeleton was that of

a strayed idiot; that the characters of the skull were the result of early synostosis or of late gout; and, in fact, any stick was good enough to beat the dog withal. Huxley, T. H. 1890. The Aryan question and prehistoric man. The Nineteenth Century,

November, 1890. Reprinted in Man's Place in Nature and other Anthropological Essays,

Pithecanthropus discovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891 (the first Homo erectus from Java)

The fossil cranium described by Dubois is unquestionably to be regarded as human.

Daniel Cunningham, 1895

A giant gibbon… According to all the rules of classification, this creature was an animal, to wit, an ape.

Rudolph Virchow, 1895

Australopithecus africanusdiscovered by Raymond Dart in 1924

… on the evidence now produced one is inclined to place Australopithecus in the same group or sub-family as the chimpanzee and gorilla.

Sir Arthur Keith, 1925 I see nothing… definitely nearer to the human

condition than the corresponding parts of the skull of a modern chimpanzee.

Sir Arthur Smith Woodward, 1925 Australopithecus… appears to be only a

dwarfed gorilla. Ernst Schwarz, 1934

… and, by then, the religious fringe had become aware of palaeoanthropology…• Dart is

• sitting on the brink of the eternal abyss of flame

• Dart will

• roast in the general fires of Hell• Dart’s punishment will be

• being unblessed with a family which looks like this hideous monster with the hideous name

Homo floresiensisHomo floresiensisDiscovered by Thomas Sutikna, Discovered by Thomas Sutikna, Mike Morwood and their Mike Morwood and their colleagues in 2004colleagues in 2004

LB1 is drawn from an earlier pygmy LB1 is drawn from an earlier pygmy Homo sapiensHomo sapiens population but individually shows signs of a population but individually shows signs of a developmental abnormality, including microcephalydevelopmental abnormality, including microcephaly

– Teuku Jacob et al., 2006Teuku Jacob et al., 2006 LB1 could well be a microcephalic LB1 could well be a microcephalic Homo sapiensHomo sapiens

– Robert D. Martin et al, 2006Robert D. Martin et al, 2006 The remains represent a variant ofThe remains represent a variant of H. sapiens H. sapiens

possessing a combined growth hormone – insulin-like possessing a combined growth hormone – insulin-like growth factor I axis modification and mutation of the growth factor I axis modification and mutation of the MCPH gene familyMCPH gene family

– Gary D. Richards, 2006Gary D. Richards, 2006 We hypothesize that these individuals are We hypothesize that these individuals are

myxoedematous endemic (ME) cretins, part of an myxoedematous endemic (ME) cretins, part of an inland population of (mostly unaffected) Homo inland population of (mostly unaffected) Homo sapiens sapiens

– Peter Obendorf et al., 2008Peter Obendorf et al., 2008

And of course the Creationists

• It seems much simpler and more consistent to accept that these were descendants of Adam, part of the It seems much simpler and more consistent to accept that these were descendants of Adam, part of the post-Babel dispersion.post-Babel dispersion.

Carl Wieland, Soggy dwarf boneshttp://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2004/1028dwarf.asp

• ……creationists understand that there are some differences between modern man and the ancient creationists understand that there are some differences between modern man and the ancient skeleton, and that this is just another example of God's creativity in designing people.skeleton, and that this is just another example of God's creativity in designing people.

Ken Ham (interviewed by Mary Rettig), Creationism May Explain Skeletal Remains Better Than Darwinism

http://headlines.agapepress.org/archive/11/52004d.asp

• This should cause Christians to assert without embarrassment that the little people of Flores were This should cause Christians to assert without embarrassment that the little people of Flores were human beings, descendants of Adam, bearing the image of God. They were smaller than us, but we human beings, descendants of Adam, bearing the image of God. They were smaller than us, but we have encountered pygmy groups before. We can also argue on the basis of biblical revelation that they have encountered pygmy groups before. We can also argue on the basis of biblical revelation that they probably lived much more recently than the archeologists tell us.probably lived much more recently than the archeologists tell us.

FIRST-PERSON: Dragon-slaying Hobbits and biblical truth (Russell D. Moore, Baptist Press, Nov 11, 2004)

http://www.bpnews.net/bpnews.asp?ID=19528

• This is just another example of the hurriedness of evolutionists to accept a fossil that would prove This is just another example of the hurriedness of evolutionists to accept a fossil that would prove evolution without checking out the facts completely. You see this in the already debunked Piltdown evolution without checking out the facts completely. You see this in the already debunked Piltdown Man, Nebraska Man, Lucy, and others.Man, Nebraska Man, Lucy, and others.

Pro Rege Papers: A Journal Exploring Biblical Thought Concerning Various Subjectshttp://www.prorege.org/papers01/category/creation-vs-evolution/

Tom Huxley, where are you now that we need you?