Send Orders for Reprints to reprints@benthamscience.ae

168 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, 2, 168-180

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products from Coconut

Aduja Naika, M.C. Madhusudhanb, K.S.M.S. Raghavaraoa,* and Dilip Subbac,*

aDepartment of Food Engineering, CSIR-Central Food Technological Re-search Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, 570 020–India; bDOS in Biotechnology, Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysore, 570006, India; cDepartment of Food Technology, Central campus of Technology, Tribhuvan University, Dharan, Nepal

Abstract: Coconut, a tropical fruit, is a well-known source of drink, food and oil as well. Numerous unprocessed, semiprocessed and processed coconut products have entered the global markets in small and big quantities. In the coconut industry, down-stream processing plays vital role as the different products obtained are a result of dif-

ferent unit operations such as extraction, concentration and drying. Products like copra, coconut oil and desiccated coco-nut have a growing demand along with stringent quality specifications when exported to non-producing countries. These demands can be met only by large scale production using advanced technologies in drying and/or expelling under hygi-enic conditions and improvised packaging. Value added products such as nata-de-coco, coconut vinegar, toddy, etc. are being produced using microorganisms for bioconversion using coconut as a raw material. Aqueous processing and enzy-matic treatment can favor the extraction of coconut oil in environmentally safe and economical manner, also yielding an edible protein product. Diversification of coconut derived products and value addition could only help the coconut grow-ers in getting remunerative returns for the produce. This article aims to review coconut processing and related issues with special emphasis on bioprocessing and bioprocess engineering which have revolutionised the scale at which value added coconut products can be manufactured.

Keywords: Coconut, value added products, coconut oil, bioprocessing, copra.�

1. INTRODUCTION

The story of the coconut and its presence around the globe is one in which evolution, immigration, trade, other cultural practices and the forces of nature all play a part [1]. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which botanically is a drupe or a nut. The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). The name Cocos probably derives from a Portuguese word meaning monkey because its nut, bearing three germinating pores, resembles a monkey face. Its specific name derives from Latin, meaning nut-bearing. In Sanskrit, it is called kalpa vriksha (a mythological tree supposed to grant desires) because of its versatile contribu-tion to mankind that can provide all the necessities of life. This species is known to have several uses as a source of food, drink, fiber, construction material, charcoal, and oil (used in cooking, pharmaceuticals, industrial applications and biofuels). Coconut is planted over 12 million hectares of land across 93 tropical countries [2]. The list of top five countries producing coconut are shown in (Table 1).

*Address correspondence to these authors at the Department of Food Tech-nology, Central campus of Technology, Tribhuvan University, Dharan, Nepal; Tel: 09841551518; E-mail: dilipsubba2009@yahoo.com and De-partment of Food Engineering, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, 570 020–India; Tel: +91 821 2512520; Fax: +91 821 2517233; E-mail: raghavarao@cftri.res.in

1.1. Plant and Fruit Description The coconut tree belongs to the family Arecaceae in the order Palmales. The genus, Cocos, is monospecific, with a pantropical distribution, predominantly in coastal areas be-tween latitude 20° N and S of the equator. The species varies greatly in tree height, fruit shape and size. All coconut culti-vars are classified distinctively in two groups: tall and dwarf types. The tall types are referred to as var, typica Nar. while dwarf types as var. nana (Griff.) Nar. The tall varieties are commonly cultivated in all the coconut growing regions of the world. Their fruits are ‘medium to large’ in size. The dwarf varieties are characterized by their short stature and smaller nuts of varying colors, e.g. green, yellow and orange. They are presumed to have originated from the taller palms either through mutation or by inbreeding. The cultivars are usually diploids and the chromosome number is 2n = 32 [3]. The coconut palm can grow upto 30 meters in height and live for 80 to 100 years. A coconut tree can produce up to 75 melon-sized fruits per year. Each fruit can weigh 1- 2 kg (depending on the variety) and is composed (w/w) of 35% husk, 12% shell, 22% kernel and 25% water.

1.2. Brief History Coconuts have been featured in the Hindu epic stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata [4]. Early Sanskrit writings from the 4th century B.C as well as Tamil literature dating from the 1st-4th century AD mention the coconut tree. The

2212-7127/15 $58.00+.00 © 2015 Bentham Science Publishers

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 169

fruit has a special mention in the Mahavamsa texts of Sri Lanka too, dating back to the 1st century B.C. The coconut was mentioned by an Egyptian monk named Cosmos Indico-pleusters in 545 A.D. when he visited India and Ceylon. Cosmos describes the coconut as ‘the great nut of India’ in his “Topographia Christiana”. The first detailed description of the palm in western literature was provided by the Italian explorer Ludovico di Varthe in his “Itinerio” of 1510 [5]. A native of the old world tropics, coconut’s domestica-tion history and its population genetic structure relate to hu-man dispersal patterns. Two geographical origins of coconut cultivation: islands of Southeast Asia and southern margins of the Indian subcontinent have been proposed [6]. More than 2000 years ago, people took the coconut with them across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar, from where it jour-neyed on to East Africa. In more recent times, Portuguese mariners, beginning with Vasco da Gama in 1498, took the coconut from India and East Africa to the tropical eastern Atlantic. From the Portuguese stronghold on the Cape Verde Islands (off the coast of Senegal in West Africa), coconuts were taken in two directions. Westwards, they were a source of food and drink on slave-trading ships bound for Cuba and other islands, with those fruits remaining on arrival being planted in the New World as a foundation food source. East-wards, they were dispersed from the Cape Verde Islands to the coast of West Africa, from Senegal all the way to An-gola. Within a few decades to its widespread dispersal in the islands of the Caribbean, on the Caribbean coast of Mexico and Central and South America, and along the coast of West Africa [1]. It thereby became, and it remains, the most wide-spread and widely used palm in the world.

1.3. Global Scenario

Coconut is grown in more than 93 countries around the world in an area of about 12.17 million hectares, producing more than 60 million tonnes of coconut annually [2]. It pro-vides food security and livelihood opportunities to more than 20 million people around globe. The coconut palm provides a substantial export income for many tropical countries, as well as food and drink for local consumption besides fuel and shelter. The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC) is an intergovernmental organization established in 1969 under the aegis of the United Nations Economic and Social Com-mission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP). The APCC

has 18 coconut producing member countries accounting for over 90% of world coconut production and exports of coco-nut products. The APCC member countries include: Feder-ated States of Micronesia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tonga, Vanu-atu, and Vietnam. Jamaica and Kenya are associate member countries of the APCC. This organization is the centre for regional coconut information network ensuring that informa-tion reaches all levels of the industry, producers, consumers, processors, policy makers and researchers, and also provides services through bulletins, journals, workshops and training programs [7]. Changes in life style and eating habits, worldwide distri-bution of food products, increasing awareness by consumers and attention by regulatory bodies drive the production and processing of coconut products. Coconut products provide health benefits over and beyond basic nutrients [8]. Coconut products have good potential in the food (including baby foods), pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industry as different parts of its fruit like coconut kernel and tender coconut water are shown to have numerous medicinal properties such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, antidermato-phytic, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, immu-nostimulant activity [9]. Coconut products such as coconut oil and coconut milk are gaining importance in the cosmetic industry and are now common ingredients in products such as hair oils, soaps, shampoos and lotions. The high Vitamin E content in coconut oil act as an antioxidant and has benefi-cial effects on hair and skin [10]. Many South Asian coun-tries like the Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam have been adding value to coconut products tremendously using the state-of-the-art technologies in the food processing industry.

2. COCONUT PRODUCTS

There is a saying, “He who plants a coconut tree, plants food and drink, vessels and clothing, a habitation for himself and a heritage for his children” [11]. A plethora of informa-tion is available about coconut products and processing [5, 12-17]. The coconut tree is of 100% utility. The roots can be used for extracting dye stuff besides medicinal purposes. The trunk yields handy and durable wood which can be used to make lumber, various pieces of furniture, paper pulp and art or show pieces. The leaves produce good quality of paper pulp and used for making brooms, hats, mats, fruit trays,

Table 1. Top five coconut producing countries in 2013.

Rank Country Coconut Production (Tonnes) Percentage of World’s Total Coconut Production* (%)

1 Indonesia 18,300,000 29.5

2 Philippines 15,353,200 24.8

3 India 11,930,000 19.3

4 Brazil 2,820,468 4.5

5 Sri Lanka 2,200,000 3.6

* World production of coconut in 2013 was 61,965,165 tonnes Source: Compiled from http://faostat.fao.org

170 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 Naik et al.

hand fans, midrib decors, lamp shades, bags and often used also as roof materials, creating fences and kindling fires. Coconut inflorescence, when cut, yields a liquid called Neera. Palm sugar or jaggery is produced by carefully evaporating this liquid in open pots. Neera ferments, usually spontaneously, to give palm wine or toddy which can be dis-tilled to yield liquor known as arrack [5]. The coconut (fruit) itself has numerous uses. The liquid endosperm in the young and fresh coconut makes a refresh-ing natural beverage. There has been increasing scientific evidence that supports the role of coconut water in health and medicinal applications. Coconut water is used as a growth supplement in plant tissue culture/micropropagation. The wide applications of coconut water can be justified by its unique chemical composition of minerals, vitamins, amino acids, phytohormones and sugars [18]. It was shown that this sterile liquid could even been used as a short-term intravenous hydration fluid [19]. The thin coconut solid en-dosperm (soft, jelly-like) of young coconut can be consumed as such or used in culinary especially desserts. The energy-rich kernel of mature coconut is an indispensable ingredient in most of the tropical cuisine. It is a good source of oil, fibre and protein, and acts as a natural laxative. Coconut meat can be processed to yield coconut milk, copra, oil and many other commercial products. The hard shell, or endocarp, is used as fuel, food packag-ing material (ice-cream cups) and ornaments. A fine grade of charcoal can be produced which can be used as fuel or for purposes such as ironing and smokeless fires in restaurants. Shells can be also for preparation of fine grade activated carbon. The fibrous husk contains an important fibre, com-mercially known as coir. Coir is widely used in making mats, ropes, nets and other artefacts. Coir dust, the fluffy particles obtained during separation of coir fibres from husk can be used as filler in soil to increase its moisture retention and as an insulating material owing to its low thermal conductivity [5].

3. COCONUT PROCESSING

Coconut products have experienced astonishing growth globally over the past several years. A wide range of coconut products are internationally traded. There are more than 50 unprocessed, semiprocessed or processed coconut products entering the international markets in small and big quantities. The major products exported from coconut producing coun-tries are copra and coconut oil. Other exports which have a significant volume are desiccated coconut, copra meal, coco-chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols, methyl ethers), shell charcoal and activated carbon, fibre products, coconut cream, coconut milk, coconut milk powder and nata de coco. Return on growth of the coconut products’ industry depends on how coconuts are processed and handled from the farm to packaged goods.

4. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSING FOR VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS FROM COCONUT

Biotechnology has played a vital role in different spheres of life. It is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life. It has made a significant impact in

health care (development of vaccines and other biologicals), agriculture (development of hybrid plants), etc. as well as in food processing sector. The advances in application of bio-technology in food processing mainly concerns with the ap-proaches such as strain improvement of microorganisms for the production of fermented foods (like curd and soy sauce) and use of enzymes for the manufacture of processed foods (like cheese and juices). It also has helped in improving the edibility, texture and storage of the food. Various amino ac-ids, food-flavouring agents, food additives and preservatives are derivatives obtained from processing of biomass of mi-crobial, plant or animal origin. A bioprocess involves bio-mass pretreatment, fermentation or biocatalysis and finally downstream processing [20] or isolation from natural source by physical / chemical methods before subjecting to down-stream processing. It finds its application in oilseed process-ing and refining, starch and protein processing, non-thermal food processing (eg. filtration), fermentation, extraction techniques, enzymatic conversions, and packaging. Downstream processing is an integral component of bio-processing that involves several separation steps that all con-tribute to obtain a product with desired quality/purity and also mild enough as to preserve it’s the biological activity. It consists of processing operations such as removal of insolu-bles, product isolation, purification and finishing. The typical operations involved in removal of solids are filtration, cen-trifugation, sedimentation, precipitation, flocculation, elec-tro-precipitation, and gravity settling. For product isolation and purification, unit operations such as adsorption, ultrafil-tration, precipitation and crystallization are employed. Prod-uct finishing describes the final processing steps which end with packaging of the product, in the form that is stable, eas-ily transportable and convenient (which involves dehydra-tion, sterilization, etc.). In the coconut industry, bioprocessing is inevitable as the different products obtained are a result of different unit op-erations such as drying, fermentation, extraction, etc. Bio-process engineering is a specialized branch of biotechnology which involves design and development of equipment and processes for the production of value added products. This technology has revolutionised the scale at which coconut products can be manufactured compared to traditional meth-ods especially for oil, desiccated coconut and copra produc-tion. Fermentation is known to conserve properties of food for long term storage, biotransformation and improvement in assimilation of nutrients. Products such as coconut toddy, vinegar, Nata-de-coco and virgin coconut oil (fermentation method) involves use of microorganisms for bioconversion using coconut as raw material. Coconut pro-biotics can also be prepared from coconut water or coconut milk using Kefiror Kombucha (symbiosis of lactic acid bacteria and yeast) as starter culture [21]. With increasing demand for non-dairy products and some noise on the World Wide Web about soy not being healthy, coconut yoghurt has also been launched in the market [22]. Enzymes are used in the food industry for achieving high product yields and avoiding energy intensive unit operations with severe operational conditions. Dominguez et al. (1994) [23] reported that most extraction processes (mechanical

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 171

pressing and solvent extraction) suffer from major draw-backs with regard to economic, environmental and safety aspects. The high temperatures and solvents used cause un-desirable side effects on the quality of the finished product and the protein obtained is often denatured, thus limiting its use for food and feed products [24]. These problems could be overcome by the aqueous processing of oil seeds. Simul-taneous aqueous processing and enzymatic treatment can favour the extraction of oil in environmentally safe and eco-nomical manner, also yielding an edible protein product. Lower operation temperature can be used, with consequent lower energy requirements.

In the case of coconut, aqueous enzymatic processing is a possible alternative technology for the extraction of oil and the protein. A number of workers have reported utilization of enzymes for extraction of coconut oil. McGlone et al.,(1986) [25] reported an extraction method of coconut oil based on the action of different enzymes like polygalacturo-nases, �-amylase and proteases on a diluted coconut paste. About 80% yields were obtained by this method with an added advantage of very low energy inputs. Barrios et al.(1990) [26] studied the effect of pectinase, �-amylase, prote-ases, cellulases and �- glucanases at different concentrations and temperatures on extraction of coconut oil. This study on a laboratory as well as pilot scale indicated higher yield of oil and considerably low capital investment but suffers from drawbacks such as high cost of enzymes, requirement of fresh water and treatment of wastewater prior to disposal. Rosenthal et al. (1996) [27] and Ricochon and Muniglia (2010) have comprehensively reviewed aqueous and enzyme based processes and discussed related issues for edible oil extraction. All studies indicate that different enzymes are required to degrade different components of the structural cell wall (mannan, galactomannan and cellulose) thus releas-ing oil from cells. Enzymes also decrease emulsion stability during coconut oil extraction, resulting in rapid oil separa-tion. Raghavendra and Raghavarao (2010) [28] reported the effect of different treatments like thermal, pH, chilling, en-zyme treatments and combination of enzyme treatment fol-

lowed by chilling, thawing for the destabilization of coconut milk emulsion to obtain virgin coconut oil. The highest yield of 94.5% was observed in the coconut milk sample treated with 0.1% v/v of protease at 37°C followed by chilling and thawing to ambient conditions. Proteins act as surfactants in coconut milk, which adsorb to the interface of the oil drop-lets. Surfactants create a repulsive barrier that decelerate aggregation and Ostwald ripening [29]. Proteases break down these proteins into smaller peptides, decreasing their emulsifying ability. This leads to higher degree of coales-cence, floculation and Ostwald ripening thus aids in rapid destabilization of the emulsion (Fig. 1).

5. PROCESSING OF EDIBLE COCONUT PRODUCTS

Using the state-of-the-art technologies in the food proc-essing industry, coconut products of good quality can be manufactured on a large scale. This section deals extensively with processing of commercially available edible coconut products.

5.1. Copra

Copra is the dried endosperm (nutritive tissue) of the coconut. More than 50 percent of the world’s coconut pro-duce is processed into copra. It can be broadly classified as edible or milling types. Edible grade of copra is consumed as a dry fruit while milling copra is used to expel oil. Edible copra constitutes a very small percentage of the total produc-tion but there could be better prospects for export market owing to the increasing demand for edible copra by people living in the colder climatic regions. Edible copra is of two different kinds namely, cup copra and ball copra. Cup copra is usually processed in the copra kiln using fully-matured coconuts as raw material in which coconuts are split-opened into two halves and loaded onto the copra bed after a pre-drying (solar) in a cemented open yard for six to seven hours. Although pre-drying of the coconut halves in an open yard contributes to the fuel saving, it increases the chances of microbial contamination in the end product. There are con-

Fig. (1). Effect of enzymatic treatment on coconut milk emulsion.

����������

�������� �

������������������ ��������� �

Aqueous Ph

Cream Phase

Degraded

Suspended Oil droplets

N i P i

��������� �� �

Protease Treatment Gravity Separation

Destabilized Coconut Milk

PhaseDegraded protein

Native Protein (stabilizer)

Coconut Milk (oil-in-water

stable emulsion)

172 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 Naik et al.

cerns with regard to the deposition of smoke and lack of uni-formity in the dehydration in the kiln drying process which eventually affect the quality of the edible copra in terms of discoloration, under drying, scorching or case-hardening. Ball copra, in essence, is a substance formed within a fully matured whole nut due to natural dehydration of coconut water. The fully mature (10-12 months), unhusked nuts are stored for many months during which the coconut water slowly gets absorbed and the kernel dries out. The dried ker-nel slowly detaches from the coconut shell leading the for-mation of ball copra. This stage can be well-recognized with a sound inside the cavity upon shaking. At this stage nut is dehusked and the shell carefully removed to separate the whole dry kernel. The ball copra has a soft texture and oily and sweet taste. With increasing use of technology, ball copra formation could be expedited through a method of kiln drying, where the time duration for ball copra formation could be reduced from seven months to about two months [30].

Coconut is one of the most widely used oil seed contain-ing about 35% fat and 50% moisture (wet basis). Moisture content of coconut is required to be reduced to less than 7% by drying to reduce the weight, prevent microbiological dete-rioration and increase oil content before expelling of oil. Traditional methods include solar drying, smoke drying and drying using kiln. Copra manufacture solely by solar drying is effective only in regions with long periods of sunny clear skies, high mid-day temperatures (30–35°C in the shade) and low humidity air (60–70% RH). Solar drying involves spreading of split coconuts on mats, cement floors, roof tops or even on soil along the roadsides so as to expose to solar intensity until the completion of drying. Exposure to direct sun light leads to heating of coconut pieces without regula-tion which destroys colour, vitamins and flavour giving rise to low quality produce. Solar drying also suffers from high product losses due to inadequate drying, fungal growth, en-croachment of insects, birds and rodents. Smoke drying or curing involves drying of coconuts over open fire where the resultant combustion gases come in contact with coconut meat. It is a very fast and efficient dehydrating method but as smoke comes in direct contact with the coconut, there is formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and increase in acid content, yielding poor quality of copra. Kiln drying involves drying using commercially produced dryers or Kilns. The main components of the kiln are drying chamber, roofing, grill, heat spreader, fire container and fuel tunnel. The kilns used to dry coconut kernels vary from country to country. The quality of the copra produced varies widely depending on the type and operational conditions of the kilns. Usually a combination of preliminary solar drying followed by kiln drying is used. Recently, a biomass fired drier that yields high quality copra was designed, fabricated and tested for drying coconut [31].

Although copra is not considered as a very high value product and application of sophisticated dryers may not be appropriate, efforts have been made to design and develop solar tunnel dryers [32] and forced convection solar dryer [33].

5.2. Coconut Oil

Coconut oil is an edible oil that has been consumed in tropical countries for thousands of years and currently finds various applications in food, medicine, and industry. It has a long shelf life and a melting point of about 76 °F (~24°C) [34]. A negative campaign against saturated fats in general, and the tropical oils in particular, led to abandoning coconut oil manufacture and consumption to a large extent in the past few decades. With recent peer-reviewed research (Table 2)as well as publishing coconut oil testimonials’ (showing how coconut oil has changed peoples’ lives), coconut oil has gained popularity and reputation as one of the healthiest oils with versatile health benefits. The nutritional value of coco-nut oil is presented in (Table 3). Industrial applications of coconut oil involve utilization as feedstock for biodiesel to be used as a diesel engine fuel [35], engine lubricant [36] and as transformer oil [37]. Different types of coconut oil (edible) are available, namely, virgin coconut oil from wet coconuts (unrefined grade); coconut oil from copra (refined/ unrefined grades); and coconut oil by solvent extraction method (refined, from coconut expeller cake). Coconut oil is obtained through ei-ther "dry" or "wet" processing. In dry processing, oil is ex-pelled from copra by pressing (using expellers) or by solvent extraction from spent cakes. Commercially, oil from copra is expelled using rotary ghanis, hydraulic presses or expellers. This "crude" coconut oil may not be suitable for direct con-sumption as it may contain contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) coconut oil is widely available and used for cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, in-dustrial, and pharmaceutical purposes. But it lacks the typi-cal coconut oil aroma and has a bland taste due to the refin-ing processes. RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point (upto 40°C). Wet processing involves extraction of coconut oil from fresh mature coconut rather than dried copra. When oil is extracted without employing heat, shear, chemicals or refining it is known as virgin coconut oil. Dif-ferent methods, quality of oil, advantages and limitations are described in (Table 4). Virgin coconut oil is claimed to have more health benefits compared to coconut oil expelled from copra [38].

5.3. Desiccated Coconut Powder

Desiccated coconut powder, also known as coconut pow-der, is the dry form of grated fresh coconut. It has become a mass consumption item due to it availability round the year, long shelf life, reduction in wastage, convenient to transport and freedom to the consumers to buy the required quantity. Desiccated coconut powder has a great export value and its main consumers are confectionary and biscuit industry. The manufacturing process is simple and well-established. Fully grown and matured coconuts of around one year are stored with husk for a few days to facilitate absorption of mature coconut water into the kernel. After de-husking, their shells are removed and the testa is scrapped off (known as paring), followed by washing and disintegration. The grating is then tray dried at about 70-80°C until moisture content reduces to ~3%. The dry powder is then passed through vibratory

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 173

Table 2. Health benefits of coconut oil.

Sl. No. Aspect Details Comments

1. Principal oil components Fatty acid composition: ~50% lauric acid, 70% me-dium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs).

92% saturated fatty acids [34].

Highest proportion of medium-chain compo-nents of any oil. High melting point; solid below 24°C. Most stable of all the cooking oils. Saturated fats have no double bonds at risk of oxidation therefore giving outstanding stability in stor-age and use.

2. Uptake path in human body MCFAs are directly absorbed from the intestine and sent straight to the liver to be rapidly metabolized for energy production and do not participate in the biosyn-thesis and transport of cholesterol [9].

All long-chain fats (saturated or not) are car-ried directly to lipid deposits, accumulating asbody fat.

3. Reduces cholesterol and triglyceride levels

Virgin coconut oil has antioxidant activities and does not adversely alter serum lipid levels. Sperm count, motility and serum testosterone levels are also reported to increase. These antioxidants offer protective effects on alcohol-induced oxidative stress in rats [64].

Consumption of virgin coconut oil reduces total cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, LDL, and VLDL cholesterol levels and in-creased HDL cholesterol in serum and tissues [65]. Erroneous perception that coconut oil raises cholesterol due to selective tests with flawed diets.

4. Slows the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.

Medium chain triglycerides from coconut oil given to Alzheimer’s patients led to significant increase in levels of the ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate (beta-OHB). Higher ketone values were associated with greater im-provement in paragraph recall with MCT treatment relative to placebo across all subjects [66], [67].

Major advantage: the saturated fat of coconut oil provides is its ability to provide the brain with an alternate source of energy in ketones.

5. Reduces obesity Dietary supplementation with coconut oil leads to in-crease in High Density Lipid (HDL) and lowers Low Density Lipid (LDL): HDL ratio [68].

Coconut oil does not cause dyslipidemia and seems to promote a reduction in abdominal obesity.

6. Antibiotic effect of me-dium-chain fatty acids on pathogens

Derivatives of lauric and capric oils suppress bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens of humans, including HIV [69].

Coconut oil is widely used in treating skin wounds. HIV suppression is promising, and study continues [70]

Table 3. Nutritional value (per 100 g) of coconut oil, desiccated coconut, coconut milk and coconut water.

Sl. No Nutrient Coconut Oil Desiccated Coconut Coconut Milk Coconut Water

1. Water (g) 0.00 3.00 67.62 94.99

2. Energy (kcal) 862 660 230 19

3. Protein (g) 0.00 6.88 2.29 0.72

4. Total lipid (fat) (g) 100.00 64.53 23.84 0.20

5. Carbohydrate, by difference (g) 0.00 23.65 5.54 3.71

6. Fiber, total dietary (g) 0.0 16.3 2.2 1.1

7. Sugars, total (g) 0.00 7.35 3.34 2.61

8. Calcium, Ca (mg) 0 26 16 24

9. Iron, Fe (mg) 0.04 3.32 1.64 0.29

10. Magnesium, Mg (mg) 0 90 37 25

174 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 Naik et al.

(Table 3) contd….

Sl. No Nutrient Coconut Oil Desiccated Coconut Coconut Milk Coconut Water

11. Phosphorus, P (mg) 0 206 100 20

12. Potassium, K (mg) 0 543 263 250

13. Sodium, Na (mg) 0 37 15 105

14. Zinc, Zn (mg) 0.00 2.01 0.67 0.10

15. Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid (mg) 0.0 1.5 2.8 2.4

16. Thiamin (mg) 0.000 0.060 0.026 0.030

17. Riboflavin (mg) 0.000 0.100 0.000 0.057

18. Niacin (mg) 0.000 0.603 0.760 0.080

19. Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.000 0.300 0.033 0.032

20. Folate, DFE (�g) 0 9 16 3

21. Vitamin B-12 (�g) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

22. Vitamin A, RAE (�g) 0 0 0 0

23. Vitamin A, IU (IU) 0 0 0 0

24. Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) (mg) 0.09 0.44 0.15 0.00

25. Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (�g) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

26. Vitamin D (IU) 0 0 0 0

27. Vitamin K (phylloquinone) (�g) 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.0

28. Fatty acids, total saturated (g) 86.500 57.218 21.140 0.176

29. Fatty acids, total monounsaturated (g) 5.800 2.745 1.014 0.008

30. Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated (g) 1.800 0.706 0.261 0.002

31. Cholesterol (mg) 0 0 0 0

32. Caffeine (mg) 0 0 0 0

Source: Compiled from Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26 (http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods).

Table 4. Comparative analysis of different processes for producing virgin coconut oil.

Sl. No. Type of Process Quality of Oil and Recovery Advantages and Limitations

Fresh-dry processes

1. High pressure expeller method

Wet milling route

Moisture Content (MC) of dried kernel for extraction should be at 3-4%

FFA (Free Fatty Acid): 0.05–0.08% MC: 0.07–0.1% Colour: water-clear Oil recovery: 60 kg per 100 kg of dried milled kernel; 31 kg per 100 kg of fresh milled coconut kernel with testa (based on 50% initial MC of fresh kernel) Highest extraction efficiency

Produces full-protein, medium- fat coconut flakes with testa as a co-product which can be further processed into coconut flour or sold as an aflatoxin-free animal feed ingredient. Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and above. Uses mechanical type of equipment to produce the oil. Applicable in a village scale plant operation (5,000+ nuts/day).

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 175

(Table 4) contd….

Sl. No. Type of Process Quality of Oil and Recovery Advantages and Limitations

Fresh-dry processes

2. High pressure expeller method

Desiccated coconut route

MC of dried kernel for extraction shouldbe at 3-4%

FFA: 0.05–0.08% MC: 0.0–0.1% Colour: water-clear Oil recovery: 58 kg per 100 kg of desiccated coconut ; 30 kg/100 kg of fresh pared, ground kernel (based on 50% initial MC of fresh kernel)

Produces full-protein, medium-fat coconut flour without testa as a co-product. Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and above. Uses mechanical type of equipment to produce the oil. More appropriate to be used in tandem with an existing desiccated coconut processing plant.

3. High pressure expeller method

Grated nut route

MC of dried kernel for extraction shouldbe at 3–4%

FFA: 0.05–0.08% MC: 0.07–0.1% Colour: water-white Oil recovery: 30 kg per 100 kg of freshgrated kernel (based on 50% initial MC of kernel)

Produces full-protein, medium-fat coconut flour without testa as a coproduct. Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and above. Uses mechanical type of equipment to produce the oil. Applicable in a village scale plant operation (5,000+ nuts/day).

4. Low pressure expelling method

MC of dried kernel for extraction shouldbe within the range of 10–12%.

FFA: 0.1–0.2% MC: 0.17% and below Colour: water-clear Oil recovery: 25 kg per 100 kg of freshgrated coconut kernel (based on 50% initial MC of kernel)

Uses manually operated equipment to produce the oil. Produces a semi-dry coconut residue that has to be furtherdried or processed to have market value. Shelf-life of oil can be very short if milled or grated co-conut kernel is not properly prepared prior to oil extrac-tion. Oil drying is recommended to ensure long shelf-life.

5. Centrifuge method

MC of dried kernel prior to micro-pulverisation at 5%

FFA: 0.05–0.08% MC: 0.1% and below Colour – water-clear Oil recovery - 60 kg per 100 kg of dried ground kernel without testa; 31 kg per 100 kg of fresh pared kernel (based on 50% MC of fresh kernel) Second highest oil extraction effi-ciency.

Produces low-fat, high-fibre coconut milk as a co-product. Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and above. Can also be used in tandem with desiccated coconut processing. High investment cost since it uses highly specialised equipment and is energy intensive. Very intense, fresh coconut aroma.

Fresh-wet processes

6. Modified kitchen method FFA: 0.1% MC: 0.14% and below if heating is done long enough to remove water in the coconut milk Colour - water-clear to pale yellow depending on the heating process Oil recovery - 16.5 kg per 100 kg of fresh grated coconut kernel (based on 50% initial MC of kernel)

Very low investment cost. Can be produced on a home scale operation using ordi-nary kitchen utensils. Produces a wet coconut residue that has to be further dried or processed to have market value. Produces a by-product (proteinaceous residue) which does not have commercial value at present. Oil drying is recommended to prolong shelf-life. Hardest to control in getting the correct colour and low MC.

7. Modified natural fermentation method FFA: 0. 1% MC: 0.12% and below Colour - water-clear Oil recovery - 34 litres per 100 litres of coconut milk (about 19 kg oil per 100 kg of fresh grated kernel) (Based on 50% initial MC of kernel)

Very low investment cost. Lowest labour and energy input. Can be produced quickly on a home scale operation usingordinary kitchen utensils or on small/medium scale opera-tion using semi-mechanised equipment. Disposal of fermented skim milk could be a big problem if done on a medium scale plant operation. Oil produced has a faint sour smell which can be removedby ageing. Produces premium and class B grades of VCO. Uses a lot of potable water.

176 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 Naik et al.

(Table 4) contd….

Sl. No. Type of Process Quality of Oil and Recovery Advantages and Limitations

Fresh-wet processes

8. Fresh-wet centrifuge method (2-phase centrifuge)

FFA: 0.04–0.08% MC: 0.1% and below Colour: water-clear Oil recovery: about 28 litres oil per 100 litres of coconut milk (about 17 kgoil per 100 kg fresh grated kernel) (Based on 50% initial MC of kernel) Reported oil recovery rate was com-puted from the information provided by a VCO producer using a 2-phase centrifuge. Oil recovery rate using a 3-phase centrifuge may be different.

Produces the best quality coconut oil with best sensory attributes if done in a two stage centrifuge process. Can only be applied in a medium scale operation as in-vestment cost is very high. Optimisation of the process is still required to improve oil recovery rate. Current oil recovery rates are much lower than the modi-fied fermentation process. Lowest extraction efficiency. Further processing of the coconut skim milk into health beverage and the sapal generated into coconut flour can improve profitability

9. Bawalan-Masa process

VCO from kernel fibre residue left after expelling coconut milk.

FFA - 0.05–0.08% MC - 0.07–0.12% Colour – water- clear Oil recovery - 17 kg per 100 kg of wet residue Coconut flour - 26.3 kg per 100 kg of wet residue

Further recovery of high value oil from residue makes coconut milk/VCO processing more profitable. Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and above. Produces low fat high fibre coconut flour as a by-product. Requires mechanical type of equipment to produce the oil. Production process has to be attached or integrated to an existing coconut milk processing plant or a high capacity VCO plant. Maximises the income from coconut kernel when used in tandem with coconut milk processing or the fresh-wet centrifuge process of VCO production.

10. CFTRI process

Enzyme assisted fresh-wet centrifuge method

FFA- 0.12 % MC- 0.21% Colour – water- clear Oil recovery – Upto 27 kg per 100 kg of fresh grated coconut kernel (based on 50% initial MC of kernel)

Vitamin E content in oil is high (6.2 mg/100ml). Very good sensory attributes with intense, fresh coconut aroma.

Source: Updated and revised table from Bawalan (2011) [71].

screen with different mesh sizes and packaged. Desiccated coconut powder is available in different grades – fine, me-dium and coarse, as well as fancy cuts including threads, strips, chips, slices and shreds [5]. On an average, processing of 100 coconuts gives around 12-13 kgs of desiccated coco-nut powder. The nutritional value of desiccated coconut is presented in (Table 3).

5.4. Coconut Milk

Coconut milk is a generic term for the aqueous emulsion expelled from wet solid coconut endosperm and it plays an important role in the cuisines of South East Asia as well as other parts of the world. It is a rich source of fat, carbohy-drates and minerals (Table 3). In home preparations, coconut milk is squeezed by hand from the freshly grated coconut (wrapped within a cheese cloth). This process is usually re-peated twice or thrice by adding water at room temperature, each time obtaining a more dilute milk. The liquid emulsions expelled from the wet coconut endosperm are classified commercially into (1) concentrated coconut cream; (2) coco-nut cream concentrate (undiluted coconut milk); (3) coconut cream; (4) coconut milk and (5) light coconut milk based on

minimum coconut fat and non-fat solids, and maximum wa-ter content [39]. The production of coconut milk begins with deshelling and paring of fully mature coconuts. It is recom-mended to wash the meat in water containing 100 ppm H2O2,followed by blanching at 80°C for 10 min to reduce the ini-tial microbial load and to inactivate lipase before disintegra-tion/grating using a hammer mill [40]. After disintegration, the coconut meat is pressed using a continuous screw press with or without addition of water to give coconut milk. This may be then filtered or centrifuged at low speed and ho-mogenised prior to packaging in cans and sterilized in retort [41]. Most coconut milk processed in this manner and sold commercially in cans will naturally separate into aqueous and cream phases during storage and transportation. The two phases can easily be mixed back together by stirring or shak-ing the can. This phase separation can be retarded by using emulsifiers and stabilizers such a polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate, guar gum, xanthan gum, gellan gum and so-dium carboxymethyl cellulose. Sodium benzoate is usually used as a preservative at a maximum concentration of 1 g/kg of coconut milk [42]. Coconut milk can be cooled to sludge, canned and frozen to retain its flavour and freshness for over a year when stored at -23°C [5].

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 177

5.5. Whole Coconut Milk Powder

Spray dried whole coconut milk powder is now available in convenient and ready to use packs with same freshness of a fresh coconut milk. This can be used on reconstitution with water in place of fresh coconut milk for food preparations / beverages in households and food industries. Its manufactur-ing process involves homogenizing coconut milk (produced by the process described in section 5.4) and addition of maltodextrin, sodium caseinate and other additives. This mixture is then spray dried into a fine powder using a spray drier. The product can be packaged in various sizes as per customer requirement. By decreasing water content and wa-ter activity, spray dried coconut milk powder ensures micro-biological stability, avoids the risk of chemical and biologi-cal degradations, reduces the storage and transport costs and finally obtain a product with specific properties like instan-taneous solubility. Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore with the financial assistance of the Coconut Development Board has developed the technology for spray dried coconut milk powder which was made available to entrepreneurs. Spray dried coconut milk powder is produced on a commercial scale in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malay-sia, Thailand and India. The major markets for coconut milk and coconut milk powder are European countries; like United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, France; USA, Mexico, Canada, UAE, Australia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia and South Africa [43].

5.6. Tender Coconut Water

The tender coconut water, technically the liquid en-dosperm present in young green coconut (7-8 months old), is the most nutritious wholesome beverage that the nature has provided to mankind. Tender coconut water is often sold by street vendors who cut the tender coconut open in front of customers in tropical countries. Coconut water can be now packaged in cans, tetra packs or plastic bottles (sometimes with coconut pulp or coconut jelly included) with or without carbonation. After the tender coconuts are harvested, they are thoroughly water washed, then sanitized by transferring to a 1% bleach solution for at least 15 minutes. The nuts are cut and the coconut water is immediately filtered through a coarse filter to remove solids and particulates. The water is then transferred to a sterile refrigerated tank and cooled to 4-6°C to avoid fermentation and enzymatic deterioration dur-ing further processing. A clarifying resin such as polyvinyl-polypyrrolidone (PVPP) is added to reduce the level of poly-phenols and tannins and to improve the stability of the final product. The resin is then removed by a coarse filtration, following which the coconut water is transferred to a pres-surized holding tank. Nitrogen gas is then used to push the coconut water through sterile microfilters into a sterile hold-ing tank. The sterile coconut water is then aseptically bottled [44]. The Coconut Development Board in collaboration with the Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL), Mysore has developed a technology for preservation and packing of ten-der coconut water in pouches and aluminium cans with re-tention of its flavour for a period of three months under am-bient conditions and six months under refrigerated condi-tions. In Thailand, young coconuts are trimmed, treated and packaged with opener, straw and spoon. These are commer-cially produced and marketed (even exported to countries

like Australia, Europe, Japan, USA, Taiwan, Hong Kong etc.). The shelf life of the processed young coconut is 45 days at 3-6°C or 3 weeks at 7–10°C [43]. Tender coconut water serves as a mineral drink with therapeutic properties that help in regaining the vitality of the human body. Coconut water has recently been popular among athletes, health freaks and urbanites in many devel-oped countries due to its high potassium and mineral content (Table 3). Soft drink giants like Coca Cola and PepsiCo have acquired top two brands of tender coconut water, Zico and O.N.E, respectively. United Kingdom, Netherlands, Canada, Mexico, UAE, Japan, Korea and Australia are the major im-porters of tender coconut water. Tender coconut water contains only 3-6% solids and the remaining is water. Removal of the water, while preserving the nutrients, aids in transporting the goodness of tender co-conut water across the world. This is achieved by either spray drying or freeze dying tender coconut water with or without additives. This coconut water powder is reconsti-tutable in water to make a hydrating drink or can be added in other recipes like smoothies and desserts.

5.7. Mature Coconut Water

As the coconut matures, the solid endosperm thickens while the amount of liquid endosperm reduces. At the age of 10-12 months, when the coconut is cracked open, this sweet liquid can be collected and consumed directly as it is sterile and contains sugars and vitamins. Mature coconut water is a major by-product of the copra and desiccated coconut indus-try, which often causes disposal problems. It is generally fed to pigs and cattle when fresh but usually goes to waste. It can be collected and used for different applications such as growth media for micro-organisms and plant tissue culture [45]. Mature coconut water is also used for the manufacture of Nata-de-coco and vinegar.

5.8. Coconut Dietary Fiber

Coconut dietary fiber is made from finely ground, dried and defatted coconut kernel. Coconut residue left after ex-traction of coconut milk finds various applications, one of them being dietary fiber and is now available as a dietary supplement. This byproduct serves as low cost raw material for a good source of dietary fiber which can be added to bak-ery products, recipes and other food products for good health [46]. Consumption of dietary fiber prevents risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases and colon cancer. Coconut dietary fiber contains high con-tent of insoluble fiber which when ingested helps to ease bowel movements. Studies show a marked increase in hydra-tion properties when the fat content of the coconut dietary fiber decreases from 10 to 2%. It has the highest water-holding, water retention and swelling capacities compared to any other dietary fiber [47]. It has also been reported that reduction in particle size up to 550 �m resulted in higher hydration properties [48].

5.9. Coconut Protein Powder

Upward trending world population and increasing costs for traditional food proteins provide many incentives for

178 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 Naik et al.

utilization of oilseed proteins directly in human diet [49]. Coconut and other oilseed plants are considered to be possi-ble sources of dietary proteins. Although the fresh coconut meat contains only 4% protein by weight, it is a potentially important source of protein because of the high production of coconut throughout the world. Coconuts provide a potential source of proteins with good nutritional value and have a relatively well-balanced amino acid profile [50]. Five protein fractions, namely, albumins (21%, globulins (40%), prola-mines (3.3%, glutelins-1 (14.4%) and glutelins-2 (4.8%) from defatted coconut flour were fractionated and then char-acterized by Kwon et al. (1996) [51]. The major coconut protein in the endosperm is the 11S globulin or cocosin which amounts to 86% of total globulin while 7S was only 14% with native molecular weights of 326 kDa and 156�kDa, respectively [52]. The excellent emulsifying behaviour of cocosin in the absence of salt has shown be the basis for de-veloping new processed foods [53]. Coconut has a great pos-sibility of being a source of dietary protein as consumption of coconut protein has shown to have anti-diabetic effect in experimental rats [54], immunomodulatory effect on mice which were immunosuppressed with cyclophosphamide [55], hypolipidemic and antiperoxidative effect in hypercholes-terolemic rats [56] and cardioprotective effect on alcohol and isoproterenol treated rats [57]. The major factor responsible for these effects is attributed to the high content of L-Arginine present in coconut protein. Coconut skim milk and insoluble protein (byproducts of wet processing of coconuts for production of virgin coconut oil) have been utilized to obtain a value-added product, namely, coconut protein pow-der [58]. Storage study and quality evaluation of this product has shown that this valued added, protein rich product can be used as a natural and multifunctional dietary food additive or supplement [59].

5.10. Other Products

A tremendous scope exists for use of coconut in a variety of food products. The development of cottage industries to produce such products is recommended to increase incomes of coconut growers. One such product is Nata de coco, which is a chewy, translucent, jelly-like foodstuff produced by the fermentation of coconut water. Originating in the Philippines, Nata de coco is most commonly sweetened as a candy or dessert. Nata-de-coco is produced from filtered coconut water to which glacial acetic acid and sugar are added in specific quantities. The mixture is boiled for ten minutes and cooled. A culture solution is added and allowed to ferment for about three weeks. The Acetobacter xylinum bacteria produce cel-lulosic jelly substance on the surface of this coconut water. This jelly, or Nata-de-coco, is harvested and washed to eliminate traces of acid and diced into cubes. These cubes are boiled in flavoured sugar solution and packaged in glass jars or retortable pouches, sterilized and sealed [60]. Nata de coco is regarded for its high dietary fibre, and its low fat and zero cholesterol content. Coconut vinegar is produced with matured coconut water by addition of sugar to increase its sugar concentration to 15%. The solution undergoes fermentation for about five days in the presence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast).

The clear liquid from the alcoholic fermentation is inocu-lated with 10% vinegar containing Acetobacter bacteria. The acetic acid fermentation takes about 1 month. The vinegar is then filtered, sterilised and bottled [61]. Value added products like mature coconut-water concen-trate (i.e. coconut honey), tender coconut beverage (i.e. co-conut lassi), coconut spread based on mature coconut water concentrate, dietary fiber, coconut souffle and coconut chut-ney have been developed at Central Food Technological Re-search Institute with the financial support of Coconut Devel-opment Board, India [62]. Numerous other traditional and new processed foods containing coconut are being prepared and tested for their acceptability, quality and potential for commercial manufacture. These include cakes containing 10-40% coconut flour, coconut candy, “tokua”, soya curd con-taining 50% coconut milk and 50% soya milk, soya tofu con-taining coconut cream, “coco spread”, containing coconut milk, brown sugar, citric acid and legume flour, “tahu”, a snack based on coconut and soya milk, etc. [63]. Thus it is rightly said "The coconut palm is alone suffi-cient to build, rig and freight a ship with bread, wine, water, oil, vinegar, sugar and other commodities".

6. CONCLUSION

Coconut is a versatile crop with several uses to mankind. It plays a major role in human diet as well as provides raw materials to various food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic in-dustries. The diversification of coconut derived products and value addition will help the coconut growers in getting re-munerative prices for their produce. Application of enzymes was found useful in producing several value added products from coconut. Fermentation technology can be also em-ployed for obtaining certain value added products from co-conut. Products like virgin coconut oil and coconut kernel fiber are emerging as functional food oil and dietary fiber, respectively. Coconut protein powder provides an extremely useful vegetarian source of edible protein. With the help of advanced downstream processing technologies, traditional as well as deversified food products from coconut with superior quality and in bulk quantities can be manufactured which will enable it to meet the ever changing consumer demands across the globe.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The author(s) confirm that this article content has no con-flict of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors wish to thank the Director, CSIR-CFTRI, for the constant encouragement and the infrastructural facilities at the institute. The authors, Aduja Naik and MC Madhusudhan acknowledge UGC, Government of India for the UGC-SRF and Dr. DS Kothari post doctoral fellowship, respectively.

REFERENCES [1] M. Foale, The coconut odyssey: the bounteous possibilities of the

tree of life. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricul-tural Research, 2003.

[2] A. Kurian and K.V.Peter, Commercial Crops Technology. New India Publishing, 2007.

Downstream Processing for Production of Value Added Products Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 179

[3] P. K. Ray, Breeding Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. Springer,2002.

[4] K. P. V. Menon and K. M. Pandalai, The coconut palm: a mono-graph. Indian Central Coconut Committee, 1958.

[5] B. E. Grimwood, A. F, J. C.G, and D. D.A.V, Coconut Palm Prod-ucts: Their Processing in Developing Countries. Food & Agricul-ture Org., 1975.

[6] B. F. Gunn, L. Baudouin, and K. M. Olsen, “Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in the Old World Trop-ics,” PLoS ONE, vol. 6, no. 6, p. e21143, Jun. 2011.

[7] C. Oropeza, Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology. SpringerScience & Business Media, 1999.

[8] D. M. Barrett, L. Somogyi, and H. S. Ramaswamy, Processing Fruits: Science and Technology, Second Edition. CRC Press, 2004.

[9] M. DebMandal and S. Mandal, “Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.: Are-caceae): In health promotion and disease prevention,” Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med., vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 241–247, Mar. 2011.

[10] H. Ingram, Health Benefits of Coconut Oil. Dobimick Publishing, 2014.

[11] Pooja, Economic Botany. Discovery Publishing House, 2010. [12] D. A. V. Dendy and B. E. Grimwood, Coconut Processing for the

Production of Coconut Oil and Coconut Protein Food and Feed Products. United Nations industrial development organization, 1972.

[13] S. M. Hazelman, Coconut Processing Technology: A Manual of Procedures. Coconut Extension Training Center, 1997.

[14] NIIR Board of Consultants and Engineers, The Complete Book on Coconut & Coconut Products (Cultivation and Processing). ASIA PACIFIC BUSINESS PRESS Inc., 2006.

[15] Philippine Coconut Authority, Coconut Processing Techonology: A Manual of Procedures. 1997.

[16] United Nations Industrial Development Organization and T. K. G. Ranasinghe, Coconut Processing Technology Information Docu-ments. Establishment of a Coconut Processing Technology Consul-tancy Service, Project UF/RAS/78/049. United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1980.

[17] J. G. Woodroof, Coconuts: production, processing, products. AVI Pub. Co., 1979.

[18] J. W. H. Yong, L. Ge, Y. F. Ng, and S. N. Tan, “The chemical composition and biological properties of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water,” Mol. Basel Switz., vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 5144–5164, 2009.

[19] D. Campbell-Falck, T. Thomas, T. M. Falck, N. Tutuo, and K. Clem, “The intravenous use of coconut water,” Am. J. Emerg. Med., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 108–111, Jan. 2000.

[20] S.-T. Yang, Bioprocessing for Value-Added Products from Renew-able Resources: New Technologies and Applications. Elsevier, 2011.

[21] H. Tietze, H. W. T., Dr Arthur Echano, Juta Stepanovs, and A. Echano, Coconut: Rediscovered as Medicinal Food. Harald Tietze Publishing P/, 2006.

[22] W. S., Akiko Aoyagi, History of Soymilk and Other Non-Dairy Milks (1226-2013): Including Infant Formulas, Calf Milk Replac-ers, Soy Creamers, Soy Shakes, Soy Smoothies, Almond Milk, Co-conut Milk, Peanut Milk, Rice Milk, Sesame Milk, etc. Soyinfo Center, 2013.

[23] H. Domínguez, M. J. Núñez, and J. M. Lema, “Enzymatic pre-treatment to enhance oil extraction from fruits and oilseeds: a re-view,” Food Chem., vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 271–286, 1994.

[24] L. A. Johnson and E. W. Lusas, “Comparison of alternative sol-vents for oils extraction,” J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 229–242, Feb. 1983.

[25] O. C. McGlone, A. L.-M. Canales, and J. V. Carter, “Coconut Oil Extraction by a New Enzymatic Process,” J. Food Sci., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 695–697, May 1986.

[26] V. A. Barrios, D. . Olmos, R. . Noyola, and C. A. Lopez-munguia, “Optimization of an enzymatic process for coconut oil extraction,” Oleagineux, vol. 45, pp. 35–42, 1990.

[27] A. Rosenthal, D. L. Pyle, and K. Niranjan, “Aqueous and enzy-matic processes for edible oil extraction,” Enzyme Microb. Tech-nol., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 402–420, Nov. 1996.

[28] S. N. Raghavendra and K. S. M. S. Raghavarao, “Effect of different treatments for the destabilization of coconut milk emulsion,” J. Food Eng., vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 341–347, Apr. 2010.

[29] U.-V. German, “An Algorithm for Emulsion Stability Simulations: Account of Flocculation, Coalescence, Surfactant Adsorption and

the Process of Ostwald Ripening,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 10, pp. 761–804, 2009.

[30] J. M. N. Marikkar, M. K. . Banu, and C. Yalegama, “Evaluation of the modified-ceylon copra kiln for accelerated production of ball copra,” Int. Food Res. J., vol. 16, pp. 175–181, 2009.

[31] S. Swain, “Performance Evaluation of Biomass Fired Dryer for Copra Drying: A Comparison with Traditional Drying in Subtropi-cal Climate,” J. Food Process. Technol., vol. 05, no. 01, 2013.

[32] S. Kulanthaisami, P. Subramanian, R. Mahendiran, P. Venkatacha-lam, and A. Sampathrajan, “Drying characteristics of coconut in so-lar tunnel dryer.,” Madras Agric. J., vol. 96, no. 1/6, pp. 265–269, 2009.

[33] M. Mohanraj and P. Chandrasekar, “Drying of copra in a forced convection solar drier,” Biosyst. Eng., vol. 99, no. 4, pp. 604–607, Apr. 2008.

[34] A. G. Gopala Krishna, G. Raj, A. S. Bhatnagar, P. . Prashanth Kumar, and C. Preeti, “Coconut Oil: Chemistry, Production and Its Applications - A Review,” Coconut Oil Chem. Prod. Its Appl. Rev. India Coconut J., vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 15–27, 2010.

[35] D. Kumar, G. Kumar, Poonam, and C. P. Singh, “Fast, easy etha-nolysis of coconut oil for biodiesel production assisted by ultra-sonication,” Ultrason. Sonochem., vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 555–559, Mar. 2010.

[36] N. H. Jayadas and K. P. Nair, “Coconut oil as base oil for industrial lubricants—evaluation and modification of thermal, oxidative and low temperature properties,” Tribol. Int., vol. 39, no. 9, pp. 873–878, Sep. 2006.

[37] D. C. Abeysundara, C. Weerakoon, J. R. Lucas, K. A. I. Gu-natunga, and K. C. Obadage, “Coconut oil as an alternative to transformer oil,” in ERU Symposium, 2001, pp. 1–11.

[38] K. G. Nevin and T. Rajamohan, “Virgin coconut oil supplemented diet increases the antioxidant status in rats,” Food Chem., vol. 99, no. 2, pp. 260–266, 2006.

[39] C. C. Seow and C. N. Gwee, “Coconut milk: chemistry and tech-nology,” Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 189–201, May 1997.

[40] C. Arumughan, C. Balachandran, and A. Sundaresan, “Develop-ment of a process for coconut cream on commercial scale,” J. Food Sci. Technol., vol. 30, pp. 408–412, 1993.

[41] N. Chiewchan, C. Phungamngoen, and S. Siriwattanayothin, “Ef-fect of homogenizing pressure and sterilizing condition on quality of canned high fat coconut milk,” J. Food Eng., vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 38–44, Mar. 2006.

[42] Codex Stan 240, “Codex standard for aqueous coconut products - coconut milk and coconut cream.” FAO/WHO, 2003.

[43] K. Muralidharan and A. Jayashree, “Value addition, product diver-sification and by-product utilization in coconut,” Indian Coconut J., pp. 4–10, 2011.

[44] R. S. Rolle, Good Practice for the Small-scale Production of Bot-tled Coconut Water. Food & Agriculture Org., 2007.

[45] A. Prades, M. Dornier, N. Diop, and J.-P. Pain, “Coconut water uses, composition and properties: a review,” Fruits, vol. 67, pp. 87–107, 2012.

[46] T. P. Trinidad, A. C. Mallillin, D. H. Valdez, A. S. Loyola, F. C. Askali-Mercado, J. C. Castillo, R. R. Encabo, D. B. Masa, A. S. Maglaya, and M. T. Chua, “Dietary fiber from coconut flour: A functional food,” Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 309–317, Dec. 2006.

[47] S. N. Raghavendra, N. K. Rastogi, K. S. M. S. Raghavarao, and R. N. Tharanathan, “Dietary fiber from coconut residue: effects of dif-ferent treatments and particle size on the hydration properties,” Eur. Food Res. Technol., vol. 218, no. 6, pp. 563–567, May 2004.

[48] S. N. Raghavendra, S. R. Ramachandra Swamy, N. K. Rastogi, K. S. M. S. Raghavarao, S. Kumar, and R. N. Tharanathan, “Grinding characteristics and hydration properties of coconut residue: A source of dietary fiber,” J. Food Eng., vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 281–286, Feb. 2006.

[49] C. M. Cater, K. F. Mattil, W. W. Meinke, M. V. Taranto, J. T. Lawhon, and B. B. Alford, “Cottonseed protein food products,” J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. A90–A93, Feb. 1977.

[50] K. S. Srinivasan, K. Indira, and M. R. Chandrasekar, “Amino acid composition and electrophoretic behaviour of coconut proteins,” Indian J Biochem, vol. 1, no. 25, pp. 146–150, 1964.

[51] K. s. Kwon, D. Bae, K. h. Park, and K. c. Rhee, “Aqueous Extrac-tion and Membrane Techniques Improve Coconut Protein Concen-

180 Current Biochemical Engineering, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 2 Naik et al.

trate Functionality,” J. Food Sci., vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 753–756, Jul. 1996.

[52] R. N. Garcia, R. V. Arocena, A. C. Laurena, and E. M. Tecson-Mendoza, “11S and 7S Globulins of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.):�Purification and Characterization†,” J. Agric. Food Chem., vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 1734–1739, Mar. 2005.

[53] M. R. Angelia, R. Garcia, K. M. Caldo, K. Prak, S. Utsumi, and E. M. Tecson-Mendoza, “Physicochemical and Functional Characteri-zation of Cocosin, the Coconut 11S Globulin,” Food Sci. Technol. Res., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 225–232, 2010.

[54] G. Salil, K. G. Nevin, and T. Rajamohan, “Arginine rich coconut kernel protein modulates diabetes in alloxan treated rats,” Chem. Biol. Interact., vol. 189, no. 1–2, pp. 107–111, Jan. 2011.

[55] A. Vigila and X. Baskaran, “Immunomodulatory Effect of Coconut Protein on Cyclophosphamide Induced Immune Suppressed Swiss Albino Mice,” Ethnobot. Leafl., vol. 12, pp. 1206–1212, 2008.

[56] G. Salil and T. Rajamohan, “Hypolipidemic and antiperoxidative effect of coconut protein in hypercholesterolemic rats,” Indian J. Exp. Biol., vol. 39, no. 10, pp. 1028–1034, Oct. 2001.

[57] S. Mini and T. Rajamohan, “Cardioprotective effect of coconut kernel protein in isoproterenol administered rats,” Indian J. Bio-chem. Biophys., vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 197–200, Jun. 2002.

[58] A. Naik, S. N. Raghavendra, and K. S. M. S. Raghavarao, “Produc-tion of Coconut Protein Powder from Coconut Wet Processing Waste and its Characterization,” Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., vol. 167, no. 5, pp. 1290–1302, Jul. 2012.

[59] A. Naik, M. Prakash, R. R, and K. Raghavarao, “Storage Study and Quality Evaluation of Coconut Protein Powder,” J. Food Sci., vol. 78, no. 11, pp. S1784–S1792, Nov. 2013.

[60] E. W. Lusas, D. R. Erickson, and W.-K. Nip, Food Uses of Whole Oil and Protein Seeds. The American Oil Chemists Society, 1989.

[61] K. Steinkraus, Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press, 1995.

[62] K. S. M. S. Raghavarao, N. K. Rastogi, and A. Hrishikesh, “Value added products from coconut,” Indian Coconut J., pp. 11–14, 2011.

[63] D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam, Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing. CRC Press, 1995.

[64] O. O. Dosumu, O. B. Akinola, and E. N. Akang, “Alcohol-induced testicular oxidative stress and cholesterol homeostasis in rats – The therapeutic potential of virgin coconut oil,” Middle East Fertil. Soc. J., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 122–128, Jun. 2012.

[65] K. G. Nevin and T. Rajamohan, “Beneficial effects of virgin coco-nut oil on lipid parameters and in vitro LDL oxidation,” Clin. Bio-chem., vol. 37, no. 9, pp. 830–835, Sep. 2004.

[66] F. Nafar and K. M. Mearow, “Coconut Oil Attenuates the Effects of Amyloid-� on Cortical Neurons in vitro,” J. Alzheimers Dis.,vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 233–237, Jan. 2014.

[67] M. A. Reger, S. T. Henderson, C. Hale, B. Cholerton, L. D. Baker, G. S. Watson, K. Hyde, D. Chapman, and S. Craft, “Effects of beta-hydroxybutyrate on cognition in memory-impaired adults,” Neurobiol. Aging, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 311–314, Mar. 2004.

[68] M. L. Assunção, H. S. Ferreira, A. F. dos Santos, C. R. C. Jr, and T. M. M. T. Florêncio, “Effects of Dietary Coconut Oil on the Biochemical and Anthropometric Profiles of Women Presenting Abdominal Obesity,” Lipids, vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 593–601, Jul. 2009.

[69] J. B. German and C. J. Dillard, “Saturated fats: what dietary intake?,” Am. J. Clin. Nutr., vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 550–559, Sep. 2004.

[70] C. S. Dayrit, “Coconut oil in health and disease: its and mono-laurin’s potential as cure for HIV/AIDS,” Indian Coconut J., vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 19–24, 2000.

[71] D. Bawalan, Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil, its Prod-ucts and By-products for Pacific Island Countries and Territories. New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 2011.

Received: October 28, 2014 Revised: January 09, 2015 Accepted: January 10, 2015