16. automation

정보경영공학부

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16. Automation WHY AUTOMATE

1. impossible or hazardous 2. difficult or unpleasant3. extend human capability (aid human)4. technically possible

STAGES AND LEVELS OF AUTOMATION 1. information acquisition, selection, and filtering – selective attention --automatic highlighting2. information integration – perception and working memory -- predictor displays3. action selection and choice – traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)4. control and action execution – autopilots, cruise control, automatic car windows 8 levels of automation to stages 3 and 4 (Sheridan, 2002)

PROBLEMS IN AUTOMATION Automation Reliability

reliable – it does what the human operator expects it to do not the reliability per se but the perceived reliability why automation may be perceived as unreliable

1. it may be unreliable2. there may be certain situations in which the automation is not designed to operate or

may not perform well3. the human operator may incorrectly set up the automation – dumb and dutiful4. due to poor mental model, it appears to be acting erroneously to the operator


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Trust: Calibration and Mistrust trust should be well calibrated – trust should be in direct proportion to its reliability

(mistrust) Human trust in automation is not entirely well calibrated (distrust/overtust) distrust is a type of mistrust where the person fails to trust the automation as much as is

appropriate – are not necessarily severe, but may lead to inefficiency Overtrust and Complacency

overtrust occurs when people trust the automation more than is warranted – severe negative consequences if the automation is less than fully reliable

The cause of complacency – human tendency to let experience guide our expectancies – perceived perfect reliability cease monitoring or far less frequently

Automation has three distinct implications for human intervention1. detection: the complacent operator will likely be slower to detect a real failure; the more

reliable, the rarer the signal events, and the poorer their detection2. situation awareness – better aware with active participation (generation effect) – out of the

loop, poor feedback of the automated process3. skill loss (deskilling) – the gradual loss of skills

1. less self-confident in performance more likely to continue to use automation2. degrade the operator’s ability to intervene approximately (fig 16.1)

Workload and Situation Awareness as automation level moves up the scale, both workload and SA tend to go down clumsy automation – automation makes easy tasks easier and hard tasks harder

Training and Certification


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Loss of Human Cooperation Job Satisfaction

FUNCTION ALLOCATION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND AUTOMATION Fitts’s List (Table 16.2)

HUMAN-CENTERED AUTOMATION1. keeping the human informed2. keeping the human trained3. keeping the operator in the loop4. selecting appropriate stages and levels when automation is imperfect (fig 16.2)5. making the automation flexible and adaptive6. maintaining a positive management philosophy

SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND AUTOMATION-BASED COMPLEX SYSTEM automation is not optional, but necessity -- production of continuous quantities (chemical

process control), production of discrete quantities (manufacturing control), robotics control how to support the supervisor in times of failures and fault management knowledge-

based behavior, predictor displays, ecological interface robotics control in manufacturing and in navigating UAV hortatory control – the systems being controlled retains a high degree of autonomy


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17. Transportation Human Factors

AUTOMOTIVE HUMAN FACTORS Task Analysis of the Vehicle Roadway System

Strategic, Tactical, and Control Aspects of Driving strategic tasks – deciding where to go, when to go and how to get there tactical tasks – choice of maneuvers and immediate goals in getting to a destination such

as speed selection, the decision to pass another vehicle, and the choice of lanes control tasks – moment-to-moment operation of the vehicle such as maintaining a desired

speed, keeping the desired distance from the car ahead, keeping the car in the laneControl Task two-dimensional tracking task of vehicle control

the lateral task of maintaining lane position – 2nd-order control task with preview and a predictor the best measure is the time to lane crossing (TLC)

longitudinal task as a first-order tracking task of speed keeping three channels of visual information to be tracked along the two axes

1. lateral tracking by the roadway curvature2. longitudinal tracking by the flow of motion along the roadway and the location or

distance of hazards and traffic control devices


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Multitask Demands primary control task -- lane keeping and roadway hazard monitoring dependent upon

primary vision attention lobe (PVAL) of information (fig 17.1 and 17.2) inattention, competing visual tasks

secondary motor activity – conflict with monitoring and processing and visual information in the PVAL

Cabin Environment create the simplest, most user-friendly design of the internal displays and controls Displays – high contrast, interpretable, easy to read Task environment within the vehicle – avoid unnecessary features and gizmos Controls – consistently located, adequately separated, compatibly linked to displays

VisibilityAnthropometry anthropometric factors of seating – reachability of different controls design for the mean is not appropriate -- controls accessible and interpretableIllumination adequate highway lightning, adequate reflectorsSignage1) minimize visual clutter from unnecessary signs2) locate signs consistently3) identify sign classes distinctly – color, shape4) allow signs to be read efficiently


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Resource Competition serious distraction of in-cab viewing – the number and duration of glances – feel safe less

than 0.8 sec/glance, 3 sec between glances auditory display, speech recognition, HUD

Hazards and CollisionsControl Loss slick or icy road conditions, narrow lanes and momentarily lapses in attention, rapid over-

correction (minor lane departure) – roadway departure because of fatigue directly related to the bandwidth of correction – vehicle speed Visible markings of lane edges, turtles, rumblestripsHazard Response poor visibility and inattention can cause a failure to detect hazards the time to react to unexpected objects (the perception-reaction time or brake reaction

time) – 1 to 2 sec (0.2 to 0.3 sec from accelerator to brake), mean of 1.5 secSpeeding quadruple threat to driver safety – (1) increases the likelihood of control loss; (2)

decreases the probability of detecting hazard in time; (3) increases the distance traveled before a successful avoidance maneuver; (4) increases the damage at impact (fig 17.3)

why do people speed? perceptual biases (underestimating true speed) – size biased distance judgments;

bias to overspeed (quieter engines, higher seating position above the ground, less visible ground texture), adaptation

cognitive biases (overestimating the ability to stop in time)


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Risky Behavior cognitive biases to overspeeding – overconfidence (underestimation of risk), expectancy (no

experience of a collision – little effect on the behavior of survivors) The Impaired Driver

Fatigue over 50% of the accidents leading to the death of a truck driver and over 10% of all fatal car

accidentsAlcohol the most effective interventions may be social normingAge Young drivers – Less skilled and knowledgeable, overconfidence Eldery – Information processing impairmentsImpairment Interactions

Driving Safety Improvements (Haddon’s Matrix, table 17.2)Driver Characteristics: Training and Selection higher accident rates were related with limited skills (for the very young driver) and limited

information processing abilities (for the elderly) graduated licensing for younger drivers, more frequent driving test the standard visual acuity test – very little relevance for driving dynamic visual acuityDriver Characteristics: Driver Adaptation and Risk Calibration risk homeostasis model – partially consistent motive for driving faster and force of habit any safety intervention must consider the tendency for people to adapt to the new situation


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Driver Characteristics: Regulatory Compliance effective enforcement of speed limits can make a difference – automatic speed management

system, automated systems for issuing ticketsDriver and Vehicle Characteristics: Fitness to Drive driver monitoring system -- monitoring the vehicle (e.g., steering behavior) and the driver

(e.g., blinking rate, EEG)Vehicle Characteristics: Sensing and Warnings high mounted brake lights, trilight systemRoadway Characteristics: Expectancy positive guidance, light cycle expectancy and standardization on sign location and interaction design reduce the consequence of an accident – seat belt, airbag, guardrail for SUVsDriver and Vehicle Characteristics: Use of Protective Devices

AUTOMATIVE AUTOMATION Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) – collision warning systems, automated navigation

systems, driver monitors – GPS system, traffic sensing devices, digital map database, wireless connection

1. user trust and complacency2. attention may be drawn more into the vehicle3. introduce a new type of productivity and safety tradeoff in driving


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PUBLIC GROUND TRANSPORTATION Maritime Human Factors

fatigue and crew reductions extremely sluggish in their handling qualities, benefiting from predictive displays

Aviation Human Factors The Tasks

primary multiaxis tracking task -- aviating maintaining situation awareness, navigating to three-dimensional points, following

procedures, communicating with controllers and other pilots, monitoring system status competition -- visual, perceptual, cognitive, and response-related resourcesTracking and Flight Control 6 degrees of freedom of motion

rotational axes -- pitch, roll (or bank), and yaw translational axes – lateral, vertical, and longitudinal

two primary goals aviating -- keeping the plane from stalling by maintaining adequate air flow over the

wings, which produces lift control of the airspeed and attitude (pitch and roll) navigate the aircraft to points in the 3-D airspace (4-D navigation with time)1. yoke controls the elevators and ailerons – pitch and bank (first-order dynamics)2. throttle controls airspeed3. rudder pedals help coordinate turning and heading changes


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three facets make the multielements tracking task much more difficult1. displays do not show a good, integrated, pictorial representation of the aircraft2. the dynamics of several aspects of flight control are higher order3. the axes often have cross-couplingsMaintaining Situation Awareness achieving SA through display design -- HUDFollowing Procedures to assist the pilot’s prospective memory – knowledge in the world in the checklist two kinds of errors in following checklists

1. top-down processing (coupled with time pressure) may lead to see the item in its appropriate state, even if it is not

2. distractions can lead the pilot to skip a step in the checklist redundant participation, automation

The Social Context breakdowns in pilot team performance junior vs. senior CRM (cockpit/crew resource

management) Supporting the Pilot

1. maintenance technicians and their inspection and trouble shooting skills2. aircraft automation – human-centered automation3. air traffic control


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18. Selection and Training PERSONNEL SELECTION

predicting future job performance; categorize accepted applicants into the job type interviews, work histories, background checks, tests, references, work samples signal detection theory hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection

Basics of Selection job analysis – selection, training, performance appraisal, setting salary levels tasks,

environments, related knowledge, skills, & abilities already have the task-specific knowledge and skills required or show evidence of basic

knowledge and abilities criterion-related validity – Fig. 18.1

Selection Tests and ProceduresMeasures of Cognitive Ability Cognitive ability tests valid predictors of job performance, more valid than any others complex jobs (general intelligence – working memory capacity); high complexity (verbal

and numerical ability); low complexity (motor coordination and manual dexterity) Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor Skills physical strength, physical endurance, manual dexterity, and/or psychomotor skillsPersonality Assessment clinical measures – mental illness or behavioral disorders – not appropriate personality dimensions – five basic personality factors/clusters


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Work Samples and Job Knowledge work sampling – expensive to assess video assessment – see a short scenario and respond in the situation job knowledge test – high transferable knowledge to the job, motivation factorStructured Interviews questions based on and related to knowledge and skills identified in the job analysis describe previous work behavior critical behavior interview – discuss recent occasions

when they felt they were performing at their best PERFORMANCE SUPPORT AND JOB AIDS

performance-support approach as needed basis, shifting a ‘learn-and-apply’ to ‘learning-while-applying’ cycle

performance support – the process of providing a set of information and learning activities in a context-specific fashion during task performance efficient because of less taxing on memory – Fig. 18.2

Job Aids and Instructions job aids - daily to-do list, recipe, note cards, computer templates, instructions for

assembling a product, procedural lists traditional instruction manual Wright’s quidelines -- caution against using prose, effective

use of pictures (redundancy gain), proximity-compatibility principle voice coupled with pictures when presenting instructionsEmbedded Computer Support on-line help system – adaptive automation interrupting the ongoing task when to use performance support, training, or both – table 18.1


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TRAINING Learning and Expertise

three different stages in the development of expertise (fig. 18.4, 18.5)1. knowledge about a job or a task characterized by declarative knowledge – not well

organized, fragile2. with familiarity and practice, procedural knowledge by rules and if-then statements3. automaticity

Methods for Enhancing Training the best training in the shortest time, to the longest retention, the least expensivePractice and Overlearning overlearning beyond error-free performance

improving in the speed of performance involving cognitive or motor aspects automaticity important in skills with high multitasking requirements

decrease the rate of forgetting and increase the ease of a taskEncouraging Deep, Active, and Meaningful Processing deep processing -- chunking in the formation of meaningful associations with material

already in WM to learn the new material1. generation effect2. active problem solving and group participation3. better retained when understanding why rather than what – embedded in the context of the

procedural task to be learned


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Offering Feedback corrective feedback, motivational feedback immediately after the skill is performedConsider Individual Differences redundancy of graphics and words is most helpfulPay Attention to Attention learning is information processing, and information processing is generally resources limited cognitive load theoryTraining in Parts part-task training is not always superior to whole-task training how the task is broken down segmentation – several components occurring in sequence without overlapping fractionation – component tasks performed simultaneously or concurrentlySimplifying, Guiding and Adaptive Training simplification – reducing load and errors of performance guiding – “training wheels” approach – disabling or freezing keys simplified version of a skill will not transfer to the complex version learners can become overly dependent on the guidance or scaffoldingMedia Matters? modest benefits of computer-based instruction – these gains are not large the particular

aspect of the computer media not the computer itself


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Transfer of Training and Simulation how well the learning in one environment enhance performance in a new environment positive/negative transfer %transfer = (control time – transfer time)/(control time)*100 = savings/(control time)*100 transfer effectiveness ratio = savings/(training time) realism or fidelity of the simulator – more realism does not necessarily produce more positive

transfer On the Job Training and Embedded training

much less effective than other training methods – very effective if using Instructional System Design with strong guidance to the trainer

embedded training is most appropriate for jobs that rely at least partially on computers TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN

A Training Program Design Model ISD (Instructional System Design) models – similar to human factors design models front-end analysis phase design and development phase implementation final system

evaluation phase developing job aids, instructional manuals, performance-support systems in addition to more

traditional training programs


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Phase 1: Front-End Analysis organizational analysis

information-collection activity to identify any factors regarding the need for and success for a training program – future company change such as job redesign or acquisition or new technology, management attitude toward job duties

document analysis, interviews, questionnaires, job tests, observation task analysis

identify the knowledge, skills, and behavior for successful task performance trainee analysis identifies:

1) prerequisite knowledge and skills to begin the training program2) demographics such as age, physical capabilities, primary language, and background3) attitudes toward training methods

training needs analysis -- to determine the most appropriate performance improvement approach among task redesign, performance support, develop a training program

Phase 2: Design and Development design concepts (cost/benefit analysis) project plan prototype for formative evaluation and

usability testing full-scale development final usability testPhase 3: Program Evaluation what criteria to measure, when to measure the criteria, who (which trainee) to use in

measuring the criteria, what context to use pretest-posttest experimental design, control group design


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19. Social Factors

GROUPS AND TEAMS trend in organizational design

flattening structures, decentralized decision making, use of groups and teams Characteristics of Groups and Teams

organize every function into ten- to thirty-person, largely self-managing teams team characteristics the key to group performance – communication crew – a group of persons or team that manages some of technology usually in transportation

Group Performance better at tasks than the average but not better than the best work productivity – less than the sum of the individuals

Team Performance selection of an appropriate combination of members four categories problems interfering with team performance taskwork skills teamwork skills – cooperation, coordination, communication, adaptibility, giving/accepting

suggestions or criticism, showing team spirit


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factors to team performance no common mental model no time and cognitive resources to communicate plans and strategies no cognitive resources available to ask others for information

Team Training acquisition of team work skills

1. development and use of shared mental models2. strategies for effective communication, adaptation to stress, maintenance of situational

awareness, group decision making, coordinated task performance job cross-training Team Instructional Prescriptions (TIP)

COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK Decision Making Using Groupware

group communication support system – teleconferencing, e-mail group decision support system Effects of Decision Support Systems

increase group members’ depth of analysis, group communication and efforts to achieve clarification, member participation, the consensus building of group

decrease the domination by a few people


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Effects of Communication Support System increase the level of participation and effort expended by group members increase the depth of analysis decrease domination of the group by a few members increase decision times decrease overall cooperation and consensus building

Computer-Supported Team Performance group-view displays

1. provide a status overview2. direct personnel to additional information3. support collaboration among crew members4. support coordination of crew activities

Difficulties in Remote Collaboration1. increased difficulty in collaboration – knowing who is doing what2. increased difficulty in communication3. increased difficulty in maintaining situation awareness because of a decrease in

communication


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MACROERGONOMICS AND INDUSTRIAL INTERVENTION traditional ergonomics intervention in industry – micoergonomics macroergonomics

top-down sociotechnical systems approach to the design of organizations, work systems, jobs, and related human-machine, user-system, and human-environment interfaces

participatory ergonomics1. employees know a great deal about their job and job environment2. employee and management ownership enhances program implementation3. end-user participation causes flexible problem solving

ergonomic interventions -- organizational barriers promoting employee self-protective behavior

1. use of individual or group incentives2. use of disciplinary actions3. fear messages4. behavior modeling of others5. employee surveys


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1. Info. Acquisition, selection, & filtering (ex. spellchecker)

2. Info. Integration (ex. Predictor display

3. Action selection and choice (Ex. TACS)

3. Control and action execution (Ex. Cruise control)


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Figure 17.1Representation of the driver’s information-processing tasks. The top of the figure depicts the tracking or vehicle control tasks involved with lane keeping and hazard avoidance. The bottom of the figure presents the various sources of competition for resource away from vehicle tracking. These may be thought of as secondary tasks.


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Figure 17.2Representation of the PVAL from the forward view, top view, and side view.


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Figure 17.3The components of the hazard response time, which is the time required to stop before contacting a hazard, the influences on these components, and the need to maintain a positive safety margin between the time required and the time available. Time available will be inversely proportional to speed.


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Figure 17.4Fatality rate as a function of age and gender. (source: Evans, L., 1988. Older driver involvement in fatal and severe traffic crashes. Journal of Gerontology: Social Science, 43(5), 186-193)


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Figure 18.1 Hypothetical relationship between selection test and eventual job performance. The criterion related validity of the test can be expressed as the correlation between the test score (x axis) and the measure of job performance (y axis).


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Figure 18.2Continuum of computer interface training methods.


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Figure 18.3Advantage of partially redundant combination of pictures and words. Imagine the difficulty of trying to convey this information entirely with words. (Source: Wright, P., 1977. Presenting technical information: A survey of research finding. Instructional Science, 6, 93-134).


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16. automation

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