15526 29 index [quantum.bu.edu]quantum.bu.edu/courses/ch101-fall-2018/text/15526_29_index.pdf ·...

abiogenic methane, 95absolute zero of temperature, 417absorption spectrum A plot of the

percentage of radiation transmitted bya substance over a range of incidentradiation energies (or wavelengths),51, 74–77, 105, 158, 555

abundances of elements, 977acceptor level, 1081acetals Functional groups with the

structure RHC(OR�)2, or compoundswhose molecules have that functionalgroup, 853, 930, 961

acetylene, 790achiral Molecules or objects that are

superimposable on their mirror imagesand therefore not chiral, 330–333, 348

acid A species that is a proton donor orelectron–pair acceptor, or a substancethat is the source of the species, 193,194f, 204, 953, 954

caracteristics, 528–532strong, 194weak, 194

acid anhydrides Functional group withtwo acyl groups bonded to the sameO atom, RC( O)OC( O)R�, orcompounds whose molecules havethat functional group, 921, 960

acid–base adduct, 197, 541character, 539distribution, 554–559equilibria, 523–524, 545–553, 583indicator, 573pH, 554–557properties, 559–575reactions, 193–193–196speciation, 557–558, 581–582titrations, 573–578

acid–base neutralization Reaction due totransfer of protons, with formation ofwater, 195, 204

acidic condition, 656acidic solution An aqueous solution in which

[H3O�] � [OH�]. At 25 °C, pH � 7,533, 583

acidificationocean, 591–595, 614soils and water, 975

acid ionization constant (Ka) Theequilibrium constant for ionization of aweak acid in aqueous solution, 523–527,535–536, 538t, 583

acidity, 552acidosis, 582acids

and bases, 193–200, 528in an aqueous solution, 193–194

actinides, 1035

activation energy (Ea) The minimumcombined kinetic energy that a pair ofcolliding particles must have in excessof the average for their collision toresult in reaction, 741–744, 808

of reaction, 742active site, 764activity (A) (nuclear chemistry) Number of

disintegrations observed per unit time,measured in becquerel (Bq), 1159

activity (a) The effective concentration ofa solute species, 473, 498, 592

activity–based equilibrium constants, 498acylation, 834acyl chlorides, 948–951acyl halides Functional group with acyl

group bonded to a halogen atom,RC( O)X, or compounds whosemolecules have that functional group,921, 948, 960

addition of alcohols, 933–934Grignard reagents, 934–936

addition reactions Reactions betweenmolecules of two substances to formmolecules of a new substance with noatoms “left over,” 782, 840

of H2 to alkenes: hydration, 813of H2 to alkenes: hydrogenation, 802, 805, 816of H2O to alkynes: hydration, 819of HX to alkynes: hydrohalogenation, 818of X2 to alkenes: halogenation, 814polymers from ethylene derivatives, 804tto unsymmetrical alkenes and carbocation

stability, 809adenosine-5-diphosphate (ADP), 244,

621, 764adenosine-5-triphosphate (ATP), 244, 621, 764adhesion, 1182adrenaline, 527aerogels, 1087aerosols Fine droplets of liquid or dust

suspended in a gas, such as theatmosphere, 99–100f, 119, 478

age-related macular degeneration (AMD), 3–6agglutinate, 1114albedo The fraction of sunlight incident on

the earth that is reflected, 100, 415alcohol Functional group with the structure

R–OH, or compounds whose moleculeshave that functional group, 77, 856–866

addition, 933–936models, 930naming, 856–860reactivity, 851spectroscopic evidence, 860–866reactivity, 881–893structure, 881–893

aldehydes Functional group with thestructure RC( O)H, with a carbonyl

group bonded to one hydrogen atom,or compounds whose molecules havethat functional group, 886, 911–915

naming, 917–918reactivity, 916–917, 924–938structure, 916–917, 924–938

aldohexose, 1099aldopentose, 1099aldoses, 1099alkali metals, 987–991, 995alkaline earth elements, 991–995alkalosis, 582alkanes Substances whose molecules

contain skeleton frameworks with C Csingle bonds, 110–114, 119–120

conformations, 317–322, 348cyclic, 115nomenclature of, 113

alkene The C C double bond functionalgroup, or compounds whose moleculeshave that functional group, 77,773–776, 788–796

spectroscopy, 793–796reactivity, 796–815structure, 796–815

alkenes, stereoisomers of, 323alkyl halides, 856–866

naming, 856–860reactivity, 851, 866–881spectroscopic evidence, 860–866structure, 866–881

alkylation, 834, 897, 899alkynes, 114,773–773, 788–796

electronic structure, 816spectroscopy, 793–796reactivity, 816–820structure, 816–820

alkylating agents Substances whosemolecules are able to transfer an alkylgroup to a molecule of anothersubstance, 897

alkyl group A functional group or sidechain, that, like alkanes, consists onlyof single-bonded carbon atoms andhydrogen atoms. An example is amethyl group, 114

allotropes Different forms in which anelement can exist, 445

alloying, 659alloys Mixtures of a metal with one or

more other elements that retainmetallic characteristics, 1078–1079

alpha (A) radiation Radioactive decayinvolving loss of an alpha particle (4He2� ions) which is readily absorbed, 1148

alternative delocalized electron representationsof a benzene molecule, 823

aluminum, 995–1001aluminosilicates, 1004

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I N D E X / G L O S S A R YPage references with “f” indicate figures; those with “t” indicate tables. Glossary terms are printed in blue.

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IG-2 Index/Glossary

amides Functional group with thestructure RC( O)NR2, or compoundswhose molecules have that functionalgroup, 895, 921, 949, 957, 958, 960

amines, 856–866, 936, 958addition, 936–937naming, 856–860reactivity, 851, 893–899spectroscopic evidence, 860–866structure, 893–899

amino acid Compounds whose moleculeshave both carboxylic acid and aminefunctional groups, 559–563, 1115–1125

acid–base properties, 559–563proteins, found in, 561t

amino sugars, 1113ammonia synthesis apparatus, 489

nitrogen in the air, 487amount fraction, 424, 466amount of substance (n) A fundamental

quantity in the SI system, of which theunit of measurement is a mole, 35, 43

amounts table, 138amphibole, 1004amphiprotic, 531amphoteric (or amphiprotic) Species that

can behave as acids or bases, dependingon their environment, 531, 583

hydroxides, 199amylopectin, 1112amylose, 109–110, 1112angular momentum quantum number, 277anion A particle with negative charge

because it has more electrons thanprotons, 56, 59–60, 82, 980

anode The electrode at which oxidationoccurs, 630, 660

anomeric centre The hemiacetal carbonatom in molecules of a pyranose orfuranose sugar, 1106

anomers, 1106antibonding molecular orbital A molecular

orbital in which the distribution ofdensity of electrons that “occupy” itresults in an effect of repulsionbetween atoms and weakening of thebond between them, 400

anticancer drug, cisplatin, 1031–1035anticodon, 1134anti conformer, 317antigenic determinants, 1114antisense strand. See template strandantisymmetric Stretching, 76fanthropomorphism, 629apoenzyme, 1123aqua regia, 1010aquated ions Solute ions surrounded by

water molecules, 179aquation The process of surrounding

molecules or ions in aqueoussolution by water molecules, 158, 179,198, 982

of cations, 982of Metal Ions, 198

aqueous solutions Solutions with water asthe solvent, 178, 204, 523–527,539–541, 545–555, 651–652

acidity, 982

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Ionization of molecular solutes, 185–186aragonite, 592argon in air, 1022Armstrong, Lance, 17–20aromatic compounds Compounds with

cyclical conjugated moleculessignificantly more stable than a modelcompound whose molecules have alocalized electronic structure, 773–776,788–796, 820, 840

reactivity, 820–839spectroscopy, 820–839structure, 820–839

aromatic heterocycles and ions, 826

aromaticity, 822–825Arrhenius equation A mathematical

expression that relates reaction rate tothe activation energy, collisionfrequency, molecular orientation, andtemperature, 744–745–747, 765

arsenic inorganic, 159organic, 159speciation, 157–159water, 1013

arsenobetaine, 159artificial leaves, 619–624arylamines, 894aspergillus niger, 720atmosphere, 100, 102, 414–415

caracteristics, 528–532CO2, 109f, 774fEarth, 413greenhouse gases in, 96–106lifetime, 104fMars, 413

atom economy The principle that, as far aspossible, all of the atoms in the startingmaterials should be in the desiredproducts, 126–128, 132, 147–149

atom efficiency The percentage of atomsof each element in the reactants thatend up in the desired product,126–128, 147–149, 150

atomic composition, 30atomic mass, 31–33atomic mass units (u) One–twelfth of the

mass of a 12C atom, 31–33atomic nuclei, 1153–1158atomic number (Z) The number of protons

in the nucleus of every atom of anelement, 29

atomic orbital, 276, 386–388, 403–404atomic properties, 259atomic radii, 262fatomic radius, 1039atomic spectroscopy, 256atomic structure, 28–29atomic weight The average relative atomic

mass of a representative sample ofatoms of an element, weighted by therelative abundances of its isotopes,33–35, 43, 63

conventional atomic weights, 41standard atomic weights, 40

atoms Tiny particles characteristic of eachelement, 25–25, 28–29, 35, 43, 58, 125

excited, 268–269, 272localised regions, 388–396modelling, 253–254, 295–297nuclear charge, 289–291

atom size, 261–263, 292atom structure process, 296faufbau principle Imaginary building of

atoms of successive elements byassigning each successive electron tothe orbital that results in thelowest–energy atom, 285, 297

average rate of reaction, 723Avogadro, Amadeo, 417Avogadro constant (NA) The number of

specified particles in 1 mol of asubstance, 35, 43

hypothesis, 417

bacterial oxidation of minerals, 975baking soda, 990balanced chemical equation A chemical

equation in which the total charge onthe species that react is equal to thaton the species that are formed, andatoms are conserved, 131–134, 149

Balmer, Johann, 269balmer series, 271band of stability in nuclei, 1154–1155band theory A theory of bonding in

metals, 1077barium sulfate slurries in intestinal X–rays, 600barometer A device used to measure

atmospheric pressure, 416Bartlett, Neil, 1023base A species that is a proton acceptor or

electron–pair donor, or a substancethat is the source of the species., 194f,195, 204

caracteristics, 528–532strong, 195weak, 195

base ionization constant (Kb) Theequilibrium constant for ionization of aweak base in water, 536, 538t, 583, 894

bases in aqueous solution, 195basic oxygen furnace, 1043basic solution An aqueous solution in which

[OH�] � [H3O�]. At 25 °C, pH � 7,533, 583

basicity, 894Bassler, Bonnie Lynn, 914–915batteries Portable voltaic cells, 634–635bauxite, 998Bayer process, 998Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 1147beetle, pine, 773–774Bent, Henry, 358benzene, 791, 822

bonding, 788model of bonding in molecules, 396, 407molecule, bonding, 371stability, 821

beryllium compounds, 993–994beta (B) radiation Electrons (b particles)

emitted during radioactive decay ofsome elements, 1148

bidentate, 334, 1046bimolecular, 752


binding energy per mol of nucleons, 1157bioactive compounds, 9bioassays (biological assay) Experiments to

study the effects of a substance onliving matter, 8

bioavailability A measure of the extent towhich a species is available to anorganism—for example, from anadministered drug or from the soil,159, 488, 523, 558, 854

biochemical, 581–582bio-leaching, 1044bio-extraction, 1044biofilms Collections of micro-organisms in

which cells cling to each other on asurface, 914

biofuels Fuel derived from plants or algae,110, 119

biogas Gas formed by the breakdown oforganic matter in low-oxygenenvironments, 95, 110

biogenic methane, 95biomass, 110biomaterials, 1089–1090biomimetics The use of natural biological

systems to assist in the design of newmaterials or reactions, 303, 348

biomimicry (biomimetics) The use ofnatural biological systems to assist inthe design of new materials orreactions, 303, 348

biopolymers, 108–110black carbon, 100blast furnace, 1042Bohr model of electrons in atoms, 270Bohr, Niels, 270boiling point Temperature at which

the vapour pressure of a liquid isthe same as the pressure of theatmosphere on the liquid surface,163, 203, 259

normal boiling point, 163Bonaparte, Napoleon, 256Boltzmann, Ludwig, 674Boltzmann’s constant, 674–675bond angle, 307bond energy (D) Enthalpy change for

breaking a particular bond in themolecules of 1 mol of substance, withthe reactants and products in the gasphase, 241–243, 246

bonding in coordination complexes, 1062–1069in metals, 1076–1079in molecules, 357in semiconductors, 1080–1082

bonding molecular orbital A molecularorbital in which the distribution ofdensity of electrons that “occupy” itresults in an effect of pulling atomstogether, 357–407

bond length, 307–308tbond order A measure of the strength of

bonding between two atoms in amolecule or ion, dependent on thenumber of electrons in the bond, andthe types of orbital they “occupy”,371–408

bond polarity A measure of the chargeseparation across a polar bond,165–167, 168f, 169f

bond rotation, 322–323boranes, 999borax, 999boron, 995–1001

neutron capture therapy (BNCT), 1171production, 1088

Bosh, Carl, 489Boyle, Robert, 417Boyle’s law, 417brittleness, 55Broglie, Louis Victor de, 274bromination, 829bromine, 1018Brønsted-Lowry model In proton–transfer

reactions, a base takes H� ions from anacid, 527–532

Brouwer, Darren, 446Buckminsterfullerene, 839buffer capacity A measure of the ability of

a buffer solution to minimize pHchange on addition of acids or bases,571–572, 584

buffer solution A solution that minimizesthe change of pH when some strongacid or base is added, because it containsrelatively large amounts of both a weakacid and its conjugate base, 564–573, 583

burning, 27butane, 110

13C NMR. See also nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) spectroscopy, 313

alkenes and alkynes, 794c-terminal, 1118caffeine, 12–13Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules, 800calcification, 593calcite, 1076calcium, 992, 994

carbonate, 592calculating pH change of buffer solutions, 570calculation of enthalpy change of a reaction

Values, 239–240calmodulin (CaM), 1096calorimeter, 231f–232calorimetry Experimental measurement of

the enthalpy change accompanying achemical reaction, 231–232, 245

Cameron lakes, 457–458carbocation, 759, 809carbohydrates Polyhydroxylated aldehydes

and ketones, commonly called sugars,243, 852, 933–934, 1097–1115

carbon-13/ carbon-12 isotope ratio in forensicanalysis 19, 30

Mars atmosphere, 117carbon-13 NMR. See 13C NMRcarbon-14 dating techniques, 1162carbon-14/carbon-12 ration on CO2, 1146Carbonate buffers in biochemical systems, 581carbonate speciation

in aqueous solution, 592in surface ocean water, 593

carbonated soft drinks, 462carbon atoms, 309–310

carbon compounds, 89–122, 776–787capture, 107fossil, 102fspecific, 92–93storing, recycling, 106–110structure and reactivity, 776unsaturated, 114

carbon dioxide, 107, 442, 418, 457atmosphere, 96, 103–110, 591clathrate cages, 91feedstock and solvent, 107phase diagram, 443supercritical, 445

carbon framework of molecules, 309–317carbon sequestration Geoengineering

technique to trap carbon dioxide orother forms of carbon, 108

carbon steel, 1043carbonic anhydrase, 763carbonyl compounds, 78t, 916–924, 958

naming, 917–922reactivity, 916–917spectroscopy, 922–924structure, 916–917

carbonyl functional groups (C O) The mostimportant and widely occurring class offunctional groups in both organic andbiological chemistry, 76, 916, 961

carboxylic acid, 5carboxylic acid derivatives Compounds

whose molecules have a functionalgroup formally derived from acarboxylic acid group, with thestructure RC( O)X, where a group Xreplaces the OH of a carboxylic acidgroup, 911–915, 961


carboxylic acid Functional group havingthe structure RC( O)OH, or compoundswhose molecules have that functionalgroup, 911–915, 961

carvone, 304, 330cast iron, 1043catalysts Species that accelerate chemical

reactions and are regenerated afterperforming their function, 114, 719,726, 747–748, 750, 768

catalytic steam-re-formation, 986cathode The electrode at which reduction

occurs, 630, 660cation A particle with positive charge

because it has more protons thanelectrons, 56, 58, 59, 82

charged density, 978–984cell electromotive force. See cell emfcell emf (Ecell) The applied potential

required to stop electron flow in avoltaic cell, 635–645, 660

cellobiose, 1110cellulose, 109–110, 1111

starch, 1097, 1111cements, 1087central dogma, 1139ceramics Solid inorganic compounds that

combine metal and non–metal atoms,1084–1089

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Index/Glossary IG-3


CFCs (chlorfluorocarbons)in atmosphere, 104

chain reaction, 1166chair conformer, 325characteristic reaction, 801, 816, 867–869,

888–889, 896–897charge, monatomic ions of elements, 264–265charge density The charge/radius ratio of

ions, a factor that influences thepolarization of electrons on adjacentspecies, 978–979, 1024

covalent–ionic bond character, 979charge-to-radius ratio (charge density) The

charge/radius ratio of ions, a factor thatinfluences the polarization of electronson adjacent species, 979, 1024

of cations. See charge densityCharles, Jacques, 417, 984Charles’s law, 417chelate effect Complex ions with

polydentate ligands are more stablethan complexes that have the samenumber and type of donor atoms inmonodentate ligands, 1054–1055

chelating ligands Ligands that form morethan one coordinate covalent bondwith the central metal ion in acomplex, 1047

chelates Complex ions with polydentateligands, 329–330, 1047

chemical accounting, 131–134chemical analysis, 144–146chemical biology The application of

chemical knowledge and techniques tostudy and manipulate biologicalsystems, 911

chemical change (See chemical reactions)A process in which one or more newspecies form as a result of redistributionof atoms, ions, or electrons, 27–28, 131,218–219, 218–219

basic, 125–155specific, 129–131, 649–650

chemical communication, 911–915, 960chemical compounds Pure substances

whose molecules or ions are composedof atoms of different elements in fixedproportions, 25–26, 43

chemical energy, 221fchemical equation A symbolic

representation of a chemical reaction,27, 131–134

chemical equilibrium, 134, 487–491, 667–670chemical formula A representation of the

composition of a compound, 26, 43chemical kinetics, 134chemical message, 775chemical potential A relative measure of

how far a reaction mixture is fromchemical equilibrium, 134–135, 149

chemical properties The characteristicbehaviour of a substance in reactionswith other substances, 27–28, 43

chemical reaction (chemical change) Aprocess in which one or more newspecies form as a result ofredistribution of atoms, ions, orelectrons, 27–28

basic, 125–155, 149, 213–250categories, 188–200energy, 218freaction rate, 721–725, 727, 740–750specific, 130–131, 149, 188–200

chemical reactivity, 1, 1145–1147chemical shift (D) Specifies the position of

peaks in an NMR spectrum of acompound, and gives informationabout the electronic environment ofthe atoms, 310–311, 314, 348

NMR, 309chemical species Any particles (atoms, ions,

molecules) that have characteristicchemical behaviour, 58, 82, 130, 149, 158

chemical thermodynamics, 671chemistries of nitrogen and phosphorus, 1007chemistry

drugs, sports, 17–20ethics, 19

chemotherapy The use in medicine ofsubstances that are selectively toxic tomalignant cells or to a disease-causingvirus or bacterium, 3–5

chiral Adjective describing a molecule orobject that is “handed,” or notsuperimposable on its mirror image,305, 330–333, 343, 348

environments, 345–347chirality The property of molecules or ions

that are chiral, 117, 330–334, 1059chitin, 1113chlorination, aromatic compounds, 832chlorine compounds, 1017, 1020–1021chloroethane molecule, 69f, 70fchlorofluorocarbons, 104chlorophyll II, 621cholesterol, 325chromatography The science of separation

of compounds in mixtures, 2Ciamician, Giacomo, 622cis–trans isomerism Isomerism due to the

existence of different molecules with the same number of atoms of each type,and the same connectivity, but differentspatial arrangement of the atomsbecause of the inability to interconvertwithout breaking of bonds, 322–324,326, 783, 797–799, 1032–1034,1058–1061

cisplatin, 324, 1031–1035citrate synthase, 1124–1125citric acid cycle, 1124classifying

functional groups by level, 779reactions by change in level of functional

groups, 781reactions by type of overall transformation,

782substances, 186

clathrate Substance in which guestmolecules are inside a cage of hostmolecules, 90, 91–92, 119

clays, 1087climate change, 97–107, 720clouds, 100clostridium perfringens, 1129Cockcroft, J.D., 1164

coding strand, 1133codon, 1134co-enzyme, 1123co-factor, 1123cold pack, 461collagen, 1090colliding molecules, 744–745colligative properties, 468–478

solutions of electrolytes, 472collisional de-excitation, 103collision theory of reaction rates A way of

rationalizing observations about ratesof reactions based on a model thatassumes that molecules, atoms, or ionsof reactants are in rapid and randommotion, frequently colliding with eachother, 740–750, 768

colloidal dispersions An intermediate statebetween a solution and a suspension,478–481, 482

colloids (colloidal dispersions) Anintermediate state between a solutionand a suspension, 478, 480–481

combustion, 27common ion effect The presence of

common ions reduces the extent ofionization of a weak acid or thesolubility of a slightly soluble salt,548–549, 586, 600–601, 616

common oxidizing and reduction agents, 192tcomplexation Reaction in which a bond is

formed by sharing of a non-bondingpair of electrons on one of thereactants, 196–200, 204, 541, 557–558,591, 610–614, 1051–1056

complexes, 610, 1033, 1045–1048, 1051–1056complex ion Ion that is a product of a

complexation reaction, 159, 196, 204,1046

speciation, 1052–1054complexity leading, 599–600compounds, 25–26concentrated, 200concentration, 200–203

aqueous solutions, 200cell emf, 643–644definitions, 545ions, 608–609species, 554–559

concerted reactions, 784condensation Change of phase of a

material from vapour to liquid, 958condensed formulas Formulas showing

particular groupings of atoms inmolecules, 71

condensed structure, 113–114conduction band, 1080configuration (stereochemistry)

Three–dimensional spatial orientationof atoms and bonds in a molecule,306–307, 337–340, 348

conformations Different arrangements ofatoms in molecules that result fromrotation around a single bond,317–322, 327

conformers Relatively stable (energyminima) conformations of molecules ofa substance, 317–321, 348

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IG-4 Index/Glossary


composition, 67–71conjugate acid–base pair Two species

whose compositions differ by an H�

ion, 530–531, 537–538, 583connectivity The sequence by which atoms

are joined to each other in molecules,64, 71–81, 362

conservation of energy, 221–222constitutional isomers (structural isomers)

Two substances with the same formulabut different connectivity of the atoms,71, 112f, 310, 323, 348

in complexes, 1057controlling pH, 564–573conventional atomic weight, 41conversion

acyl chlorides, 948–951amids, 957ethers, 889, 953, 954solid to liquid, 439–440solid to vapour, 441

coordinate covalent bond, 1046coordination

chemistry, 1046complex, 329–330, 1045, 1046, 1056,

1057–1069complex, bonding, 1153complex formation constant, 1051complex, isomerism, 1056complex, pH-dependence of speciation, 1053complex stability, 1050complex, structure and shape, 1056compounds, 610, 1044–1050geometry, 1046number, 1046

coordination geometry The distribution inspace of ligands around the metalatom or ion in a complex, 1046, 1048

coordination number The number of donoratoms to which a metal ion is bonded ina complex, 1046, 1048, 1050, 1056, 1060

core electrons The “inner” electronswhose configuration corresponds withthat of the previous noble gas in theperiodic table, 287

copper extraction from ores, 1043–1044corrosion The deterioration of metals as

the result of oxidation in the presenceof air and water, 654

inhibitors, 659iron, 654–659, 660

corundum, 1001Coulson, Charles A., 359covalent bond A force of attraction

between adjacent atoms in moleculesand in covalent network substances,64, 66–67, 82, 359–360

formation, 66f, 385f covalent-ionic bond character, and charge

density, 979–980covalent molecular, 981

hydrides, 985covalent networks solids, 50, 54covalent network substance Hard, high-

melting substance modelled as a three-dimensional network of atoms, eachatom covalently bound to a number ofothers, 53–54, 82

covalent radius Half the experimentallydetermined distance between thenuclei of atoms of the sameelement bonded to each other ina molecule, 261

cracking, 114Crick, Francis, 1129critical point The unique conditions of

pressure and temperature at which theinterface between liquid and vapourdisappears, forming one phase,443–445, 448

critical pressure (pc) The pressure at thecritical point of a substance, 444

critical temperature (Tc) The temperatureat the critical point of a substance,444

pressures for common compounds,444t, 1088

ssuperconductors, 1088Crookes, William, 488crystal-field theory A model to account

for the colours and magneticproperties of transition metalcomplexes, 1038, 1062–1069

coordination complexes, 1065–1067crystalline solids, 439–441Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 1015Curie, Pierre, 1015Curiosity Rover, 116Curl, Robert, 838cyanide, 554

and seed germination, 11cyclic alkanes, 115, 322cyclic molecules, 325–329cyclobutane, 325cyclodestrins, 851–855cyclohexane, molecular structure of, 325–329

axial and equatorial bonds, 326ring-flip, 327

cycloalkanes, cis-trans stereoisomers of, 322cyclopentane, molecular structure of, 325cyclopropane, 325

DNA, 1033, 1126, 1128–1131, 1132–1140double helix, 1129replication, 1132

d-orbital energy splitting, 1063–1065d-to-d transition, 1065Dalton’s law of partial pressures The total

pressure of a mixture of gases is thesum of the partial pressures of each,423–424, 447

Dalton, unit of atomic mass, 32Davy, Humphry, Sir, 988Davisson, C.J., 274d-block elements Elements that differ in

the number of electrons in d orbitals,1035–1041

definitions, 36degenerate orbitals, 285–286dehydration of alcohols, 890delocalized electrons (in metals) Electrons

not constrained to a bond betweentwo atoms, 62, 370–376

density (R) Mass of a sample divided by itsvolume, 1040

density of gases, 422–423

deoxy sugars, 1113deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 1126,

1128–1131, 1132–1140dependence of reaction rates on temperature,

741–743deprotonated species, 555detergents Surfactants used for cleaning,

481, 482determining the order of a reaction

method of initial rates, 729–732, 735–737deuterium, 30dextrorotatory, 335diagonal relationship, 990diamagnetic Substances slightly repelled

by a magnet and that have nounpaired electrons, 280

diastereomers A pair of stereoisomericmolecules that are not mirror imagesof each other, 340–344, 349

diborane, 999different conformers, 317differential aeration, 657diffraction patterns, 274fdiffusion The mixing of molecules of two

or more gases due to their rapidmolecular motions, 429–431, 447

dilute, 200dimer, 1001diodes, 1081–1083dipole-induced dipole, 434tdipole Molecule that experiences a force

aligning it with an electrostatic field,165, 166f, 169t

dipole-dipole force Attractions betweencharges of opposite sign ondifferent polar molecules, 167–171,204, 434t

dipole moment Quantitative measure1083of the tendency of a molecule tobe oriented in an electric field, due toits polarity, 101, 165, 168f, 204

diprotic acid, 530disaccharide, 1099, 1110–1111dispersion, 174dispersion forces Intermolecular forces of

attraction in non-polar substances, alsooperating in polar substances, 90, 174,175f, 204, 434t

disproportionation reaction, 1021dissociation Separation of an ionic

compound into its ions as it dissolves,179–180, 204

dissolving, 178 molecular substances, 182–184solutions in water, 182

distillation, 110, 111fdistribution of molecular energies, 437Dolphin, David, 1–6donor level, 1081dopant, 1080double bond Covalent bond pictured as

formed by sharing of four electronsbetween the bonded atoms, 66, 82,361, 391–392

double helix, 1129downs cell, 988drugs, chemistry, in sports, 17–20ductility of metals, 63

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Index/Glossary IG-5


dynamic chemical equilibrium A conditionin which reactions go in oppositedirections at the same rate, so thatamounts and properties remainconstant, 136–137, 149, 493, 487–488

dynamic equilibrium, 163, 459

E1 reaction mechanism Unimolecularmechanism for elimination reaction toform alkenes, 879, 899

E2 reaction mechanism Bimolecularmechanism for elimination reaction toform alkenes, 879, 899

Earth atmosphere, 100radiation balance, 97–103

eclipsed conformations, 319E.coli, 1032E-factor Ratio of the mass of waste

materials to the mass a desiredproduct, 147–148, 150

effective concentration, 473effective nuclear charge (Z*) The nuclear

charge experienced by any one valenceelectron, which is less than the actualnuclear charge because of shielding,289–291, 297, 979

effusion The movement of gas through atiny opening in a container intoanother container in which thepressure is very low, 429–431, 447

effusion of gases, 429–431Einstein, Albert, 273, 685, 1156elastomer, 1006electrical conductivity, 55, 179felectrical force of attraction, 54electricity, 630–634electrochemical

cell conventions, 630, 634–636electrochemistry A field of study about

the interaction between electricity andchemistry, 619, 630, 660

electrolysis A non-spontaneous processbrought about by application of anelectrical potential, 630, 649–654, 660

of aqueous sodium chloride solution, 990of molten NaCI, 988of water hydrogen from, 215

electrolysis cell An arrangement in whichthe application of an electrical potentialforces a non-spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction to occur, 630

electrolytes Compounds whose aqueoussolutions conduct electricity becauseof the presence of ions, 180, 186,472–473

strong, 179, 186non, 179, 187weak, 179, 186

electrolytic cell, 630refining copper, 1044

electron affinity (Eea) The enthalpy changeaccompanying removal of 1 mol ofelectrons from 1 mol of negative ionsof atoms of an element, 267–268,294–295

elements, 267

electron capture Nuclear process in whichan inner shell electron is captured, 1152

electron cloud, 174electron competition for electrons, 635–637electron configuration The distribution of

electrons among the possible orbitals,284–288t, 289, 297, 401–402, 1037

periodicity, 286–287transition elements, 1037

electron-deficient, 999electron delocalization model A way of

modelling of molecules or ions such thatelectrons are distributed over a numberof bonds, rather than localized betweentwo atoms, 371–372, 396–397, 408

electron density A measure of theprobability of finding the electron atany point in the electron cloud of anatom, ion, or molecule, 281, 297, 388

electron pair transfer, 541–542electromagnetic radiation, 52electromagnetic spectrum, 76felectronegativities of elements, 266electronegativity (X) The ability of an

atom to attract bonding electrons in amolecule, 166, 204, 266

electronic structures, 816–820, 822–823,866–867, 881–883, 893–899, 917–918,939–946

electron impact ionization massspectrometry (EI) A variation of massspectrometry, 67

electrons Subatomic particles that havenegative electrical, charges, 28–29, 43,58, 253–257

ions, 268–275orbitals 285–287, 297

electrons in atoms, experimental evidence,268–275

quantum mechanical model, 276wave-particle duality, 273

electron spin A property of electrons thatresults in them generating a smallmagnetic field, 279–281, 297

electron transfer, 190–191, 619–665electrophile, 803electrophilic aromatic substitution

Substitution reaction where anelectrophile replaces an H atom on anaromatic ring, 828–839, 840

electrophoresis, 1116,electroplating, 649, 653electrostatic potential map, 170, 542, 789elemental substances The observable form

in which elements exist under specifiedconditions, 24, 259, 295, 1014–1015,1017

elementary steps Single molecular eventssuch as the formation or rupture of achemical bond or the displacement ofatoms as a result of a molecularcollision

reaction mechanisms, 751–754, 768elements Characterized by atoms having the

same atomic number, 24–25, 29–33, 43atom size, 261atomic weights of, 33–35boiling points, 259

electron affinity, 267, 294electronegativities, 266, 294identified by atomic ion size, 265, 294melting points, 259, 440tmetallic and non-metallic, 260monatomic ions, charge, 264number 29periodic table, 38–40periodic variation of properties of the

elements, rationalization, 257–268properties, 257–268reactivity as oxidizing agents and reducing

agents, 261elimination reactions Reactant molecules

split into two or more molecules ofproducts, 782, 840, 878–879

emulsions Colloidal dispersions of oneliquid in another liquid, 478

enantiomeric pair, 1059enantiomers Pairs of stereoisomers whose

molecules are non–identical mirrorimages, 330–331, 336–337, 340–344,349, 349

enantiose-lective synthesis, 346endogenous substances Substances

naturally produced in an organismthrough the transformation of othersubstances in diet, 18, 43

endothermic Process in which the productshave more energy than the reactants,218–219f, 229f, 245

energy The capacity to do work, 2–6,213–251

artificial, 616–619, 622–623changes, 807–808conservation, 221–222density of fuels, 214flow, 222–226food, 243–245forms, 219–226interconversion, 219–221, 244fkinetic, 221light, 2–6measurement, 222–223potential, 221redistribution, 218–219solar, 620–622states, 3storage, 219, 220f, 221transfer, 221–224,225ttransformation, 219–226

enol, 819Enright, Gary, 446enthalpy (H) A property of a system whose

change during a constant pressureprocess is equal to the amount of heattransferred between the system andthe surroundings, 226–229f, 234f, 245

enthalpy change (�H) The amount of heattransferred between system andsurroundings during a process thatoccurs at constant pressure if no workother than that due to expansionoccurs, 161, 225, 226–227–229

enthalpy change of aquation (�aqH)Enthalpy change due to aquation ofions, 461, 982

NEL

IG-6 Index/Glossary


enthalpy change of fusion, 440fenthalpy change of reaction (�rH) The

difference between the sum of theenthalpies of the products and the sumof the enthalpies of the reactants,228–243, 245, 671–672

enthalpy change of solution, 461–462, 482enthalpy change of sublimation (�subH)

The enthalpy change of a substancewhen it changes phase from solid tovapour, 441

enthalpy change of vaporization, 161–162entropy (S) A measure of the lack of order

resulting from dispersal of energy andmatter, 182, 672–681, 709

entropy change of reaction (�rS) Thedifference between the sum of theentropies of the product species andthe sum of the reactant species of areaction, 679–685

enzymes Naturally occurring substancesthat catalyze particular reactions, 719,747, 761–765, 1122–1125

epinephrine, 527epitestosterone, 18–20equation See chemical equationequilibrium, 487, 671–672

concentrations, 505–506, 511–512, 546–547equilibrium constant (K) Value of the

reaction quotient (Q) when a reactionmixture comes to equilibrium, 496, 498,503–505, 510, 514, 516, 532, 648–649,698–703

activity based, 498dependence on reaction equation, 507

equilibrium reaction, 495fequilibrium vapour pressure Pressure of

vapour above a liquid in a sealed vesselat which liquid and vapour are inequilibrium, 162–164, 177, 203, 704–706

equivalence point, 573escherichia coli, 1031essential amino acids, 1117esters Functional group having the

structure R C( O)OR�, or compoundswhose molecules have that functionalgroup, 77f, 921, 952, 960

conversion, 889, 953, 954hydrolysis, 953

ethene, 790ethylene, 790ethyne, 790ethane, 110evaporation. See vaporizationevidence for aromaticity

1H NMR Spectroscopy, 824evidence for aromaticity: 13C NMR

Spectroscopy, 825Exact Masses of Isotopes of Several

Elements, 68texcited state Any electron configuration

such that an atom has more energythan the ground state, 268, 284, 297

of oxygen, 3–6of gases, 12

exogenous substances Substancesadministered to an organism fromoutside the organism, 18, 43

exothermic A process occurring in a systemthat releases energy as heat to thesurroundings, 218–219f, 229f, 244f, 245

extraction Isolation of a compound or agroup of compounds from a mixture,using physical and chemical methods

techniques, 9extremophiles, 975extrinsic semiconductors, 1080E, Z system of nomenclature A set of

sequence rules for specifying the cis–trans geometry of a molecules’double bonds, 800, 840

fac–mer isomerism A form of isomerism inoctahedral complexes with the formulaMX3Y3, 1058

Faraday, Michael, 820f–block elements Elements whose

ground–state atoms have partiallyfilled f orbitals, 1035

feedback cyclesnegative, 100positive, 100

Fermi, Enrico, 1165Fermi level Chemical potential of electrons

in a solid (metal, semiconductor, orinsulator), 1077

fibroin, 1121fibrous proteins, 1120fingerprint region, 77fire, 89first ionization energy (IE1) The minimum

energy required to eject an electronfrom an atom in its ground stateelements, 263

first law of thermodynamics The totalenergy of the universe is constant, 221

first-order reactions. 728, 732–739, 758,874–876

Fisher, Emil, 1100Fisher projections, 1100–1102fixation, 125, 488, 489fixation of nitrogen, 125, 515fixed nitrogen, 125, 488, 489fixing of carbon atoms from CO2 gas, 620, 624flatulence, 719Flematti, Gavin, 1, 6–12flotation, 1043fluorescence, 1017fluorine, 1017, 1019–1020fluorspar, 1017foam, 478food

energy, 243–245irradiation, 1173production, 125

form of K, 497–498form of Q, 497–498formal charge The charge an atom in a

molecule or ion if the bondingelectrons were shared equally by theatoms that are directly bound to eachother, 374

formation constant (B) (stability constant)The overall equilibrium constant forformation of a complex ion from anaquated metal ion and the ligands,1051–1052

formation constant (Kf) The equilibriumconstant for any step in the formationof a complex ion, 611, 616

formulas of covalent network solids, 54formulas of ionic compounds, 59–60fossil fuels, 106fractional crystallization, 470fragment ions Ions formed in mass

spectrometry by the breaking of bondsin the molecular ion, 73, 82

Franklin, Rosalind, 305Frash, Herman, 1014free energy (G) (Gibbs free energy)

Defined as G � H � TS, 692free energy change of reaction (�rG) The

difference between the sum of ni G ofthe products and the sum of ni G ofthe reactants, where ni is the numberof moles of each species in a balancedequation; a measure of the amount ofuseful work that can be obtained froma reaction, 686–687, 696–697, 710

free radicals Atoms, ions, or moleculeswith one or more unpaired electrons,370f, 784

free radical chain reaction, 803, 840freezing point depression, 470–474frequency (v) The number of wave peaks

that pass by a fixed point per unittime, 75–76f

Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction, 834fuel cell, 216fuels, energy density, 214fullerenes, 836–839functional group isomers Constitutional

isomers (different connectivity) withdifferent functional groups, 311, 348

functional groups Commonly occurringgroups of atoms with particularconnectivity patterns, in molecularcompounds, 75–77, 78t–81t, 82,776–783, 805, 820, 840

Level 1, with 1 bond between a C atom andmore electronegative heteroatoms, 780t

Level 2, with 2 bonds between a C atom andmore electronegative heteroatoms, 780t

Level 3, with 3 bonds between a C atom andmore electronegative heteroatoms, 780t

Level 4, with 4 bonds between a C atom andmore electronegative heteroatoms, 781

levels of, 779furanose, 1105fusion, molar enthalpy change, 226

galvanic cell, 630galvanizing, 653gamma (G) radiation Emission of high

energy electromagnetic radiation, 1148

Gamow, George, 254gangue, 1041gas, 20

amount, 417–418density, 422–423effusion, 429–431ideal equation, 417–423, 428–429, 447kinetic energies of gas molecules, 426mixtures, 423–425

“˚

NEL

Index/Glossary IG-7


gas (continued )molecular speeds, 426noble, 1022–1024pressure, 416–417properties, 416–417real, 431–433relationships among n, V, p and Tsolubility, 457, 591–618similarities and differences, 418–419temperature, 417–418gases, 413–433volume, 417–418geological CO2, 107f

gas-chromatography A technique forseparation of compounds in a mixtureby differences in their abilities to beremoved from a solid phase into apassing gas stream, 18

gas constant (R) The proportionalityconstant in the ideal gas equation,96f, 419

gas-phase reaction mixture, changing volume,512–513

gauche conformer, 317gavione, 6–12gecko, 303Geiger-Müller counter, 1159, 1160fGeim, Andre, 836gel, 478, 479Germer, L.H., 274Gibbs free energy (G) (free energy) Defined

as G � H � TS, 500, 686–697, 710Gibbs, Willard J., 686Gillepsie, Ron, 376glass, 1085–1087global warming potential Measure of the

ability of a “greenhouse gas” to causechanges to the earth’s climate, relativeto the same mass of CO2(g), over adefined period of time, 103–105, 119

globular proteins, 1120glucose, 109–110glycoside, 1108–1110glycogen, 109, 1112glycoproteins, 1113glycosidases, 1112Graf Zeppelin, 984Graham, Thomas, 429, 479Graham’s law, 430graphene, 836–839gravimetric analysis, 145Green Chemistry Institute, 128green solutions, 445greenhouse gases, 97–107, 418, 720

carbon dioxide, 773Grignard reagents Organomagnesium

halides, 879–881, 900, 934–936, 955, 960groups, 780groups of the periodic table,

group 1, 987–991group 2, 991–995group 13, 995–1001group 14, 1002–1006group 15, 1006–1014group 16, 1014–1017group 17, 1017–1021group 18, 1021–1024main group, 976–978

ground state, 3ground-state configuration The

distribution of electrons among thepossible orbitals that results in themost stable atom or molecule, 284, 297

1H (NMR), 313spectroscopy of alkenes and alkynes, 795

Haber-Bosch Process, 125–126, 488, 489f,515–516

Haber, Fritz, 488Hahn, Otto, 1166half-cell, 631half-cell reduction potential (Ehalf–cell) A

quantitative measure of the ability of ahalf-cell to attract electrons comparedwith that of the standard hydrogenelectrode, 631, 636–638

half-equations, 192half-life (t1/2) The time required for the

concentration of a reactant to decreaseto one-half its initial value, 5, 737–738,768, 1158–1159

Hall, Charles Martin, 998halocarbons, 104halogen, 79t, 1017–1022halogenation, 805, 818–819hard acids and bases, 1034hard-hard, 1034hard-soft acid-base (HSAB) theory, 1034hardness, 55heat (q) Energy flowing from one object

to another, 222–223, 245heat and work accompanying chemical

reactions, 225heat capacity of water, 177heavy water, 984Heisenberg, Werner, 255a-helix, 1120hemiacetal Functional group having the

structure RHC(OH)OR�, 853, 925formation, 1104–1106

hemiketal Functional group having thestructure R2C(OH)OR, 925, 930

hemoglobin, 1048–1050Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 565Henry’s law The solubility of a gas in a

liquid is directly proportional to thepartial pressure of the gas in contactwith the solution, 462–464, 482

heredity, nucleic acids, 1131Heroult, Paul, 998Hess’s law If a reaction can be written as

the sum of two or more steps, itsenthalpy change of reaction is the sumof the enthalpy changes of reaction ofthe steps, 233–237, 245

heteroatoms Atoms other than carbonatoms in molecules of an organiccompound, 779, 826

heterocyclic compounds Cyclic compoundswith atoms of two or more elements intheir rings; usually C and heteroatomssuch as O, N, P, or S, 826, 840

heterogeneous catalysis When the catalystis in a different phase (solid, liquid,gas, solution) from that of thereactants, 749–750

heterogeneous mixture A mixture in whichmatter is not uniformly dispersed, 22, 43

hexokinase, 764hexoses, 1123heterolytic, 784heteronuclear diatomic molecules

Molecules containing two atoms ofdifferent elements, 406

heterotrophs, 92highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO)

The highest-energy molecular orbitalthat is “occupied” by electrons, 407, 408

high electron density, 388–395high melting point, 55high-resolution mass spectrometry An

instrumental technique in which theaccurately measured mass/charge ratioof ions of molecules is used to determinea molecular formula, 67–71, 82

high-resolution mass spectrum, 306high-spin configuration Configuration of a

complex with weak-field ligands,having the maximum number ofunpaired electrons, 1067

Hindenburg, 215, 984HOCI(aq) as bactericide, 555Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot, 1041–1042Hoffmann, Roald, 685Hofstadter, Douglas, 1096holoenzyme, 1123homogeneous catalysis A catalytic process

in which all reactants and the catalystare in the same phase (solid, liquid,gas, solution), 747–748

homogeneous mixture A mixture withuniform composition throughout, withcomponents not visible, 22, 43

homogenic, 784homolytic, 784homonuclear diatomic molecules

Molecules composed of only two atomsof the same element, 399, 404–406

host–guest complex A structuralarrangement between a large moleculeor cluster of molecules that has asuitable shape and a site to bindthrough non-covalent interactions toanother molecule, 81, 90, 853–855

Hückel’s 4n + 2 rule for aromaticity, 822Hückel’s rule Rule to predict the

aromaticity of cyclic, conjugatedcompounds by counting the number ofelectrons, 822–825, 840

human activity, 94–95Hund’s rule, 386, 399hybridization, 386–387, 797hybrid orbitals Orbitals in a molecule or

polyatomic ion that are imagined toform by redistribution of the densitiesof the electrons in the atomic orbitalsof the bonding atoms, 386, 408

hydrated ions. See aquated ionshydrated protons, 187–188fhydration. See also aquation, 813, 819hydrocarbons Substance whose molecules

have only carbon and hydrogen atoms,78t, 93, 115t, 119, 172f

classification of, 115

NEL

IG-8 Index/Glossary


saturated, 114–116unsaturated, 114–116

hydrochloric acid, 1020hydrogen, 213–218

compounds, 364–365, 1008–1010economy, 216–217electrode, 633energy, 216from electrolysis of water, 215gas, 418group, 987making, 985–987properties, 984–985reactions, 984–985sources, 215storage, 216

hydrogenation, 802hydrogen bonding A particularly strong

form of intermolecular dipole-dipoleinteractions between H atoms on onemolecule and O, N, or F atoms onnearby molecules, 171–174, 176, 183,185, 204, 434t, 1129f

hydrogen chloride, 1020hydrohalogenation, 805, 814, 818hydrolases, 1123hydrolysis of esters, 953hydrometallurgy Metallurgy that uses

aqueous solution chemistry, 1041,1043–1044

hydronium ion A transient speciesrepresented simply as H3O�, 187, 204,533–534

hydrophilic Physical property of beingattracted to water, usually throughhydrogen bonding, 853

hydrophilic colloids Colloids with strongattractions between the particle surfacesand water molecules, 480–480, 482

hydroplasticity, 1087hydrophobic colloids Colloids in which

only weak attractive forces existbetween the water and the surfaces ofthe colloidal particles, 480, 482

hydroxyl radical in atmosphere, 96hypergolic fuel, 1028hypertonicity, 477hypochlorous acid, 1021hypotonic, 477

ideal gas equation A mathematical equationthat allows approximate calculation ofany one of n, p, V, or T if the other threeare known, 419–421, 428–429, 447

ice, 89, 100ideal solutions Solutions that obey Raoult’s

law, 468, 482ignition rate, 730–731imagination, 357imine functional group Functional group

with the structure RN CR2, orsubstances whose molecules have thisfunctional group, 936, 960

immiscible, 183induced dipole, 434tinductively coupled plasma (ICP)

spectrometer An instrument used toanalyze for elements, based on their

emission of radiation of characteristicwavelengths when excited, 415–416

inert Unreactive under specified conditions;in transition metal chemistry, complexesthat undergo very slow substitution ofligand species, 669, 1055

inert electrodes, 633infrared absorptions, 82infrared absorption spectrum Absorption

spectrum that results when the incidentlight is in the infrared region, 75

infrared radiationabsorption by greenhouse gases, 101

infrared (IR) spectroscopy, 74–81, 777,793–795, 826

alkenes and alkynes, 793aromatic compounds, 826

infrared spectrum, 306infrared “windows,” 103–105initiation, 803, 1166in-plane, bending, 76finstantaneous dipole Atom or molecule

with momentary unsymmetricaldistribution of its electron cloud, 174

instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forcesAttractions between instantaneousdipoles and momentarily induceddipoles in neighbouring molecules,174, 204

integrated rate equation An alternativeform of a rate equation that showsthe (changing) concentration of areactant at a specified time, 732–739,768

first-order reactions, 732second-order reactions, 733, 736f

instantaneous rate of reaction, 723insultators, 1078intensive property, 200Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,

104, 414interhalogens, 1029intermediate, 760intermetallic compounds, 1079intermolecular forces Forces of attraction

between molecules, 64, 82, 165–175,177f, 203, 433–437

internal energy (U) The sum of the kineticenergy and potential energy of thecollection of atoms, ions, andmolecules in the system, 224–225, 245

internal circuit, 631International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry (IUPAC), 36, 40–43interstitial, 1079intramolecular forces Bonds between

atoms within molecules (rather thanbetween molecules), 64, 82, 165

intramolecular level An aspect of themolecular level of operation inchemistry where we consider thedistribution of electrons withinmolecules, 358, 408, 1105

intrinsic semiconductors, 1080inversion of configuration, 757invertases, 1111invert sugars, 1111iodine, 1018

ion concentration, 607–608ion-dipole force Attraction between either

a cation or an anion and the oppositelycharged end of a polar molecule, 178,179, 204, 434t

ionic, 980ionic compound Generally solid compound

that conducts electricity only whenmolten, and which is modelled as alattice of anions and cations, 54,60–61, 81

solubilities, 180ionic-covalent character of bonds, 980–981ionic hydrides, 985ionic lattice A regular three-dimensional

array of ions that comprises an ioniccompound, 82

ionic radius An estimate of the radius ofan ion in its crystalline compounds, 265

ionic salts, 595–605solutions in water, 178–182

ionic substance, 50, 54–61ionization Formation of ions from a

molecular substance when it dissolvesin water, as a result of bond breaking,186, 292, 529f

ionization constant for water (Kw) Theequilibrium constant for self–ionizationof water, 532, 538t, 583

ionization energies, 263–264ionization isomerism Isomers of complexes

due to interchange of a coordinatedligand and an uncoordinatedcounterion, 1057

Ionization of Molecular Solutes, 185ion pairs, 592ions Charged particles in which the

number of protons is different fromthe number of electrons, 56–59

mobility in water, 983monatomic, 58–59polyatomic, 59solution, mobility, 983

ion-selective electrodes Electrodes used to measure ion concentrations insolution, based on the Nernstequation, 645–646

ion size of elements, 265, 294iron corrosion, 654–659, 660iron extraction from ores, 1042–1043irradiation, food, 1173isodensity surface A contour surface of

equal electron density, 282, 297isoelectric pH The pH at which more of an

amino acid is in the form of zwitterionsthan at any other pH, 560–561, 583

isoelectronic ions, 265isoelectric point (pI) The pH at which an

amino acid is balanced betweenanionic and cationic forms and existsprimarily as the neutral, dipolar,zwitterion, 1116

isoelectronic species Molecules and ionswith the same number of valenceelectrons and the same number andconnectivity of atoms, but have atomsof different elements, 367

isomerases, 1123

“

NEL

Index/Glossary IG-9


isomerism, see cis–trans-, constitutional,linkage, and stereo isomerism

isomers Substances whose molecules havethe same numbers of atoms of differentelements, but differ in the way theatoms are arranged, 112, 119, 310, 348

cis- and trans-, see cis–trans isomersisosurface, 282isotonic, 477isotope ratio mass spectroscopy (IRMS) A

technique to determine the ratio ofdifferent isotopes of a particularelement in molecules of a substance,19, 30, 43, 97

isotopes Atoms of an element withdifferent numbers of neutrons, 19,29–33, 40, 43

abundance, 30, 40dilution, 1172measurement of 32table, 40–43

isotopologues Molecules that are identicalexcept that the atoms of one or moreelements are different isotopes, 68,82, 306

Keeler, James, 779Kelvin temperature scale A scale of

temperature measurement in which 0K is �273.15 °C, 417

a–keratin, 1120ketals Functional group having the

structure R2C(OR�)2, 853, 930ketone Functional group having the

structure R2C O, or any substancewhose molecules have that functionalgroup, 77, 886, 911–915


ketoses, 1099kinetically

inert, 669stable, 669

kinetic energies of gas molecules, 426kinetic energy Energy due to motion of

the particles (atoms, ion, molecules) ofa system, 219–220, 245

kinetic-molecular model of matter A modelthat assumes that all matter is composedof particles with energy, and which canbe used to explain and predict physicalproperties, 20, 43, 431, 436–437

kinetic-molecular theory A model thatassumes that all matter is composed ofparticles with energy, which can beused to explain and predict physicalproperties, 419, 425–429, 436, 447

Kohlrausch, Friedrich, 532Kroto, Harry, 838

labelled concentration, 202labile Complexes that undergo rapid

substitution of ligand species, 1055lability, 1055lakes, Cameroon, 457–458language issues, 277Landis, Floyd, 17–20

lanthanide contraction, 1039lanthanides, 1035lattice enthalpy (lattice energy) The

energy evolved when ions in the gasphase come together to form 1 mol ofa solid crystal, 461, 983–984

law of chemical periodicity The propertiesof the elements vary periodically withtheir atomic numbers, 40, 257, 298

law of conservation of atoms Duringchemical reactions atoms are neithercreated nor destroyed, 129, 149

law of conservation of energy (first law ofthermodynamics) The total energy ofthe universe is constant, 221

law of conservation of mass The totalmass of substances that react is thesame as the total mass of substancesformed, 129, 149

law of conservation of matter Matter isneither created nor destroyed. Duringa chemical reaction, the numbers ofatoms of each element in thesubstances that react are the same asthe numbers of atoms of thoseelements in the products, 129

law of equilibrium For a given reaction ata specified temperature, all equilibriummixtures have the same value of thereaction quotient (Q), 496, 596

leaving group, 757Le Chatelier’s principle A change in any of

the factors that influence the conditionof equilibrium brings about a changein the relative amounts of reactantsand products in the direction thatcounteracts (often not completely) theapplied change, 464, 488

LED (light-emitting diodes), 1081–1083Lee, Huen, 91levels

functional group classification, 779–781of operation: observable, molecular,

symbolic, 23–24levorotatory, 335Lewis acid A species that accepts a lone

pair of electrons from another speciesin a complexation reaction, 197, 204,541, 786

Lewis Acid-Base reractions, 196–198Lewis base A species that provides a lone

pair of electrons to another species in acomplexation reaction, 197, 204, 541,610, 613–614, 786, 1046

Lewis, Gilbert Newton, 359Lewis model of acids and bases, 541–544Lewis structure A way of representing the

distribution of valence electrons inmolecules, 360–370, 408

Liebig, Justus von, 488ligand, 542, 1045–1048

monodentate, 1046polydentate, 1046

ligand-field splitting (�o) The differencebetween the energy of the electrons inthe “split” d orbitals of transitionmetal complexes, according to crystal-field theory, 1064

ligases, 1123light, reflection on earth, 100limiting reactant In a reaction mixture

with specified amounts of reactants,the reactant that is entirely“consumed,” and which limits theamounts of products formed, 140f,141f–143, 149–150

limiting reagent, 140line emission spectrum Radiation emitted

by excited atoms, and which consists ofonly particular wavelengths, 268–269,297

line spectra of atomic substances, 255–256linkage isomerism Isomers of complexes

due to bonding of a ligand to themetal through different types of donoratoms, 1057

lipoproteins, 5liquids, 20, 436

kinetic molecular model, 436–437temperature dependence of vapour pressures,

438liquid state, 433–439lithium chemistry, non-typical, 990–991living organisms, 877–878London forces. See dispersion forceslone pairs, 361lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

(LUMO) The lowest-energy molecularorbital that is not “occupied” byelectrons, 407, 408

low-spin configuration Configuration of acomplex with strong-field ligands,having the minimum number ofunpaired electrons, 1067

lyases, 1123

macromolecules, 114magnesium, 992, 993magnetic momentum quantum number, 277magnitude of K and extent of reaction,

501–502main group elements Elements in Groups

1, 2, or 13–18 of the periodic table, 38,259, 975–1030

structure overview, 977–978malleability of metals, 63fmaltose, 1110manufacture of nitric acid, 141Markovnikov’s rule In addition reactions

of HX to unsymmetrical alkenes, theproton adds preferentially to the Catom that will lead to the most stablecarbocation intermediate, 811, 840

Markovnikov, Vladimir, 809Mars atmosphere, 116–117, 413mass defect, 1156mass number (A) The sum of the numbers

of protons and neutrons in atoms of anisotope, 29–30

mass percent The mass of one componentof a mixture divided by the total mass,multiplied by 100%, 466, 482

mass spectrometer, 306mass spectrometry A technique for

measuring relative mass of the atoms

“

NEL

IG-10 Index/Glossary


or molecules comprising a sample of amaterial, 18, 43, 67–71, 73–74

mass spectrum, 69–72matches, 1103materials science Study and synthesis of

structural substances, includingceramics, metals, polymers, andcomposites, 1075–1076

matter Anything that occupies space andhas mass, 20–23

classification of, 20–23states (or phases), 20, 413–454, 672–674

Maxam-Gilbert method, 1137Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves, 426Maxwell, James Clerk, 427Maxwell’s equation, 427Meitner, Lise, 1166melodies, molecules, 1095–1097Mendeleev, Dmitri, 39melting

conversion, 439–440point, 259, 1040

mental model, 357Menten, Maud Leonore, 761–762Messenger RNA, 1133meso stereoisomers, 342–343metabolic acidosis, 582metabolic alkalosis, 582metabolism, 243metallic, 50, 260metallic bonding The mutual attraction

between cations in a metallic lattice andthe delocalized “sea” of electrons, 62

metallic elements, 39metallic hydrides, 985metallic radius Half the experimentally

determined distance between nuclei ofadjacent atoms in a metallic crystal, 262

metallic substances, 63metallic versus non-metallic character of

elements, 260metalloids Elements with properties

intermediate between those metalsand non-metals, 39semi-metals, 38, 39

metallurgy The process of separatingdesired metals from other substancesin orestransition elements, 1041–1044

metals Mostly malleable solids that aregood conductors, modelled as a latticeof positive ions in a “sea” of electrons,61–63, 82, 329–330, 557

bonding, 1076–1079cations, 609–610reducing ability, 983–984

methane, 93–9, 116–118, 720abiogenic, 95biogenic, 95bonding, 360sources, 105–106methane clathrate hydrate, 90, 92fmodels of bonding in molecules, 406molecules, 90fmethanogens, 95mixtures, 22–23

methanogens, 720methanol production, 127

methanotrophs 95mica, 1004micelles, 480Michaelis, Leonor, 762microfabrication, 1084mimicking nature, 619–624miscible, 183mobility, 983modelling (molecular level) Use of

observations of properties of substancesas evidence to draw inferences abouttheir nature at the molecular level, 53

atoms, 253–254, 295–297, 357bonding, 357–359, 407

models (molecular level) Theories aboutthe nature of substances at themolecular level, and the relationship toproperties of the substances, 53–54,61–63, 64, 81

models for the electronic structure of benzenemolecules, 822

molal concentration, 466freezing point depression constant, 471

molality (m) The amount of solute (inmoles) per kg of solvent, 466, 482

molar concentration (c) The amount ofsolute (in moles) per litre of solution,200, 204, 466

molar enthalpy change of fusion (�fusH)The change of enthalpy of 1 mol of asolid substance during its conversion toa liquid at its melting point, 162t, 226,245, 439–441, 448

molar enthalpy change of solution (�solH)Enthalpy change accompanyingdissolution of 1 mol of solute in a large volume of the solvent, 461–462,482

molar enthalpy change of vaporization(�vapH) The enthalpy change when1 mol of a liquid is converted to itsgaseous state at its boiling point,227, 245

molar mass (M) The mass (in grams) of1 mol of a substance, 36–38, 43, 60–61,63, 69, 471–472, 477–478

mole (mol) The unit of the quantityamount of substance, 35, 43

molar volumes, 419molecular formula Formula that shows the

number of atoms of each element ineach molecule, 64, 70–71

molecular ion Ion formed by ejection ofone electron from a molecule duringelectron impact ionization massspectrometry, 67, 82

molecular modelling (Odyssey), 4, 18, 20, 22,28, 53, 55, 62, 65, 76, 90, 113, 114, 160,162, 169, 170, 171, 174

molecular polarity, 167–169f, 170–171molecular speed, 426–428molecular structure, 173, 303–306, 364–367

shapes, 306–307tools, 306–307

molecular level Visualized structure orbehaviour of the atoms, ions, or mol-ecules of which materials are composed,

used to explain observed behaviour ofsubstances, 23, 43, 90, 102–103

molecular orbital (MO) theory A way ofmodelling the bonding in a moleculeby imagining that the electrons occupyorbitals that are delocalized over theentire molecule, 397–408, 1076

molecular recognition Selective non-covalent interaction between onemolecule and others, or a part ofothers, 303–305, 348, 957, 961

molecular substances Substances believed tobe composed of molecules, 50, 63–65, 82,174–175

solutions in water, 182molecular weight Sum of the atomic

weight of atoms in a molecule, 9, 69molecules, 50, 52, 69, 71f, 73

configuration, 337–340covalent bonding, 359cyclic, 325–329melodies, 1095–1097replacement, 91fspatial arrangement of atoms, 376

molecularity The number of reactantparticles that participate in anelementary step, 752–754, 765

mole fraction (x) The amount (in moles) ofa specified component divided by thetotal amount of all components in amixture, 424, 466, 482

monatomic ions, 58, 264–265, 293monodentate ligands Ligands that coordi-

nate to a metal via one donor atom, 1046monomers Building blocks for making

polymers, 114, 119, 802–803monoprotic acids Acids that have only one

H� ion that can be removed from eachmolecule, 530, 583

monosaccharides, 1099, 1100–1102, 1104–1108Moseley, H.G.J. 40Mulliken, Robert S., 383mutarotation The spontaneous change in

optical rotation observed when a pureanomer of a sugar is dissolved in waterand equilibrates to an equilibriummixture of anomers, 1106

myoglobin, 1121

NMR spectra, 777NMR spectroscopy, 313–317, 446

13C, 313, 317, 3231H, 313

n-terminal, 1118n-type semiconductor, 1081naming, 790–791nanotechnology The design, creation, and

control of matter on approximately thenanometre (10�9 m) scale to createstructures, systems, and devices withnovel properties, 837–838, 840, 1091

nanotubes, 836–839natural gas, 93natural percent abundance The percentage

of different isotopes of an element innaturally occurring materials, 31

natural products chemistry The study ofcompounds produced by livingorganisms, 8

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Index/Glossary IG-11


nature of electrons in atoms, 254–255negative feedback, 100neon signs, 12Nernst equation A mathematical

expression for the dependence of cellemf on concentrations of reactants andproducts, 643–645, 660

Nernst, Walter, 489, 643net reaction Change of concentrations of

species resulting from unequal rates ofopposite reactions, 494, 516

neurotransmitters, 527neutral solution An aqueous solution in

which [H3O�] � [OH�]. At 25 °C, pH � 7.0, 533

neutralization: reaction of acids with bases, 195neutralizing capacity, 552neutrons Subatomic particles that are

neutral, 28–29, 43activation analysis, 1173in nuclei, 1154

Newman projections, 318new materials, 81nitration, aromatic compounds, 832nitric acid, 1101nitriles Functional group having the

structure RC N, or compounds whosemolecules have this functional group,920

nitrogen, 79t, 125–126, 1007–1010atoms, 126fcycle, 977fixation, 125making ammonia, 487

nitrous oxidein atmosphere, 96, 103–106

noble gas atoms, 58gases,1022–1024

Nocera, Daniel, 215, 619, 653nodal surface, 283nodes, 276non-bonding electrons, 172non-bonding pair A pair of electrons

localized on an atom in a moleculethat are not involved in bonding toanother atom, 196, 361

non-carbon centres, 333–334non-covalent interactions, 303–304non-electrolytes Substances that do not

ionize when dissolved in water, 187, 204non-metallic elements, 39, 259non-polar molecules, 167, 184non-polar substance Substance whose

molecules have zero dipole moment,167, 174f, 175f, 204

non-renewable energy sources, 213normal boiling point (standard boiling

point) The temperature at which theequilibrium vapour pressure of thesubstance is 1.00 atm, 442

northern lights, 12Novoselov, Konstantin, 836nuclear binding energy (Eb) Energy required

to separate the nucleus of an atom intoprotons and neutrons, 1155–1158

nuclear charge, 289–291nuclear chemistry, 1145–1177

nuclear decay, rates, 1158–1164nuclear fission Reaction in which a large

nucleus splits into two or smallernuclei, 1166–1167

nuclear fusion Reaction in which severalsmaller nuclei react to form a largernucleus, 1167–1168

nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)spectroscopy, 8, 306

nuclear medicine, 1170–1172nuclear reactions Reactions involving

one or more atomic nuclei, resulting in transformation of isotopes intoother isotopes, 1149–1153, 1164–1165

nuclear spins, 313fnucleic acids Biopolymers, either DNA or

RNA, made of nucleotides joinedtogether, 1126–1140

nucleons Nuclear particles, either neutronsor protons, 1157

nucleophile, 757nucleophilic addition, 924–930, 944nucleophilic substitution reactions

Reactions involving the substitution ofone nucleophilic species in moleculesor ions of a substance for anotheratom, group of atoms, or an ion,757–761, 768, 944–946

nucleoside, 1126nucleotides, 1126–1140Nyholm, Ronald, Sir, 376Nyos Lake, 457

observable level of chemistry Behavioursof substances that can be observeddirectly by human senses, or byinstruments, 23, 43

ocean acidification, 591–596, 614ocean selector, 106octet rule A tendency of molecules and

polyatomic ions to have structures in which eight electrons are in thevalence shell of each atom, 361–369,408

Olah, George, 127oligomer A polymeric substance whose

molecules consist of only a fewmonomer units, 852, 899

oligosaccharides, 719operation, 23–24optical

activity, 330, 335–337, 1059fibres, 1086

optically active Substance that rotates theplane of plane-polarized light passingthrough it, 335, 348

orbital The non-uniform distribution ofthe electron matter in a standingwaveform around the nucleus of anatom, 277, 282–283, 285–287

hybridization, 386overlap, 384–386shape of orbitals, 281–282

order of a reaction With respect to eachreactant, the exponent of itsconcentration term in the rateequation, 728, 732–735, 737–739,757–758, 885–887, 889

organic acids, 542–543bases, 542–543chemistry, 885food labels, 13

organic compounds Compounds composedof molecules with carbon-atom-basedframeworks, 63, 92, 668, 779–788

organometallic compounds Compoundwith molecules having bonds betweenmetal atoms and carbon atoms,879–880, 900

orthosilicates, 1004osmosis The movement of solvent

molecules through a semipermeablemembrane from a solution of lowersolute concentration to one ofhigher solute concentration,475–478, 482

osmotic pressure The “back pressure” thatmust be applied to –prevent osmosis,475–478, 482

Ötzi the iceman, 30, 1162out-of-plane, bending, 76foverall atom efficiency (OAE) The mass of

a desired product as a percentage ofthe total mass of products, 147, 150

overall reaction order The sum of theexponents on all concentration termsin the rate equation, 728, 768

overlap of atomic orbitals A basicassumption of the valence bond modelof bonding in molecules, 385

overvoltage The extra potential needed tomake electrolysis occur, above thatpredicted from the table of standardreduction potentials, 652, 660

oxidation The removal of electrons by onespecies from another in thecompetition for electrons occurring inan oxidation-reduction reaction. Inorganic chemistry, the term is used todescribe a decrease of electron densityby a carbon atom, 815, 885

alcohols, 891alkenes to carbonyl-containing products, 814

oxidation-reduction reactions Reactionsthat are the result of transfer ofelectrons from one species to anotherin a competition for electrons,190–196, 204, 620, 624–630

oxidation state A measure of the degree ofoxidation of an element in a compoundcompared with the uncombinedelement, 190, 204, 624–627, 660

oxides and hydroxides of metals, acid-base

caracter, 981and oxoacids of nitrogen, 1008

oxidizing, 261, 642–643oxidizing agent Reactant species that

removes electrons from a species that isoxidized, 191, 192t, 624

oxidoreductases, 1123oxoacids Acids whose molecules contain

oxygen atoms, usually with at least oneOH group, 366–367

oxoacids of chlorine, 1020

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oxonium ion Derivative of H3O�, whereone or more H atoms are replaced byR groups, 888, 930–931

oxygen, 2–6, 79tmolecules, energy states of 3–6

ozone, 1014 hole, 415molecule, models of bonding, 396

p-n rectifying junction, 1082p-type semiconductor, 1082paired electrons, 278pairing energy, 1068paramagnetic Substance whose atoms,

ions, or molecules have unpairedelectrons and that are attracted to amagnetic field, 280, 297

particles, 21partial bond, 371partial pressure The pressure a gas in a

mixture would exert if it were the onlygas in the container, at the sametemperature, 423–424, 447

parts-per-million (ppm) The mass of acomponent of a mixture; may beexpressed in grams, per 1000 kg oftotal, or as mmols per mol (of a gas),467,482

Pasteur’s, 336–337Pauli exclusion principle, 284, 399Pauling, Linus, 371, 383p-block elements Elements in Groups

13–18, whose atoms have valenceelectrons in p orbitals, 287

peptides Small amino acid polymer(usually comprised of fewer than 50monomers)

amphiphiles, 305, 1115–1125percent abundance, 40percentage ionization, 546–549percent yield The yield of a reaction

product expressed as a percentage ofthe theoretical yield, 143, 150

perfluoropropane, in atmosphere, 104period table of elements, 38–40periodic table of the isotopes, 42periodic trends, 1039–1040periodic variation, 257–268, 292–295periodicity Periodic occurrence of elements,

based on atomic numbers, whoseproperties are similar, 39, 258f, 287–289

periodicity of electron configurations, 286–287peroxides of metals, 989petroleum, 110, 111fpH In dilute solutions, pH � �log10[H3O�],

532–535, 545–546, 583change, 570–571controlling, 564–573dependance, 602, 647–648meters, 645–646speciation, 178–180, 187, 523–526,

553–563, 581–582, 591–594, 613–614phase, 20

change, 437–439, 671–672diagrams, 442–445

phenyl, 791pheromones Compound used to exchange

information between individuals

within a species to affect sexual orsocial behaviour, 775, 840

phosphate buffers in biochemical systems, 581phosphorus, 1010–1013photochemical smog Brown smog

produced by photochemical reactionsin still air masses containing nitrogenoxides and volatile organic compoundsexposed to the sun, 667–670, 706–709

photodynamic therapy (PDT) The use oflight in medical treatment, 3–6

photoelectric effect,273, 274, 275fphotoelectron spectroscopy (PES) A

technique, based on ejection ofelectrons by irradiation with high-energy photons, for estimating theenergies of electrons in the variousorbitals in molecules, 397–398

photonics, 1086photons, 274photosensitizers Substances whose

molecules can be electronically excitedby absorption of particularwavelengths of light, and transfer theirextra energy by collisions to moleculesof other substances, 4

photosynthesis, 620–621photosystem I (PSI), 621photosystem II (PSII), 621physical properties Behaviour of a

substance that does not involvechemical reaction, 28, 43, 52, 896

pi bond Covalent bond imagined to beformed by sideways overlap ofp orbitals, 386, 408

piezoelectricity The induction of anelectrical current by mechanicaldistortion of material or vice versa, 1088

pig iron, 1042–1043a-pinene, 775Planck’s constant, 254, 274planar, 810plane of symmetry in moleculesb, 332plane-polarized light, 335plasmas, 20, 415, 1168plastic sulfur, 1014pOH In dilute solutions, pOH �

�log10[OH�], 534polar and non-polar parts of solute molecules,

184polar bond A bond joining atoms whose

electronegativities are different, sothat the bonding electrons areunequally shared, 166, 204

polar covalent bond, 166, 359polar molecule, 167, 184polarimeter, 330polarimetry, 306, 335–33polarizability Ease of distortion of the

electron cloud of an atom, ion, ormolecule

electron clouds, 174–175, 979, 1024polarization Distortion of the electron

cloud of an atom or a molecule, 204electron clouds, 174–175, 979, 1024

polarizer, 335polarizing power The degree to which a

cation can induce polarization of the

electron clouds of neighbouringspecies, 979, 1024

polar reactions Reactions in which themechanism shows electrons moving inpairs when bonds are formed orbroken, 784–785

polar substance Substance whosemolecules have a dipole moment, 167,174f, 204

polonium, 1107polyamides Polymer made of amide

monomers, joined by peptide bonds,958–959

polyatomic ions, 59polyatomic molecules, models of bonding,

406–407polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Compound with fused aromatic rings,836–839, 840

polydentate ligands Ligands thatcoordinate to a metal via more thanone donor atom, 1046

polydimethylsiloxane, 1005polyesters Polymer whose monomers are

joined by ester linkages, 958polyethylene, 115polymers Substances with large molecules

composed of repeating units ofmonomers, 114–116, 119, 804t, 958,1005–1006, 1021

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Method foramplifying small amounts of DNA, 1138

polymerization of alkenes, 802–803polymorphs Different solid or liquid forms

in which a compound can exist,445–447, 448

polyprotic acids Acids that have moleculeswith two or more protons that can beremoved by bases, 530, 551–552,558–559, 578–579, 583

polysaccharides Carbohydrate polymersmade of simple sugar monomers heldtogether by glycoside linkages, 1099,1111–1113

porphyrins, 4positive hole, 1077positron emission Emission of a nuclear

particle having the same mass as anelectron but a positive charge, 1152

potassium, 988–991production, 988

potential energy That component of theenergy of a system due to the relativeposition, composition, or arrangementof particles, 219–220, 245, 742

powder, white, 49–52precipitate, 188precipitation of ionic salts, 595–604precipitation reactions Reactions in

solutions which a precipitate is formedfrom cations and anions, 188–190, 204,605–610

primary batteries, 635pollutants, 667, 706standard, 574

pressure (p) Force on a surface per unitarea, 416–417, 462–465, 706

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principal quantum number, 276product–favoured, 501production and properties of oxygen and sulfur,

1014products New substances formed during

chemical reaction, 27, 43, 499adding, 511–512removing, 511–512

promoter sites, 1133propagation, 803, 1166propane, 110propene, 790propylene, 790properties, physical, 52protective oxide layer on aluminium, 997proteins Large biological polymers

comprised of 50 or more amino acidresidues, 1095, 1115–1125

amino acid biosynthesis, 1134–1136crystal structures, 308–309structures, 561t–562t

protium, 30proton NMR. See 1H (NMR)protons Subatomic particles that have a

positive charge, 28–29, 43ratio in nuclei, 1154

purification by recrystallization, 465purines, 1126pyranose, 1105pyrimidines, 1126pyrometallurgy Metallurgy that involves

high temperatures, 1041, 1042–1043pyroxenes, 1004

quanta, 255–256quantum

dots, 1091mechanical model, 276–283mechanics, 276

quantitative aspects of equilibrium constants, 501–507relationships, 229–230

quantization of energy of electrons in atoms,269

quantized (energy of electrons) Electronsin atoms can have only particularamounts of energy, 255, 269, 297

quantum number A parameter in theequation for a standing wave, any“allowed” value of which gives rise to asolution for the equation, 276, 279t, 297

quartz, 1002quorum sensing Chemical communication

between organisms that allows themto detect and respond to the density oftheir surrounding population, 912, 961

R configuration of chiral centres, 338fRNA, 1126, 1133–1140Raoult, François M., 468racemate A 50:50 (equimolar) mixture of a

pair of enantiomeric molecules, and sois not optically active, 337, 349, 758

radiationalpha (a) radiation, 1148beta (b) radiation, 1148gamma (g) radiation, 1148

Earth, 97, 98f–103health and safety, 1168–1170therapy, 1171

radiative forcing Change in the balancebetween incoming and outgoingradiation of our climate system due tosubstances in the atmosphere, 101, 105f

radical, 803radioactive

decay, 1149–1155isotopes, 1172series, 1150

radioactivity, 1147–1148radiocarbon dating, 1162–1164radioisotopes used in medical diagnostic

procedures, 1170radon, 1150Raoult’s law The vapour pressure of the

solvent is proportional to the molefraction of solvent in a solution, 468, 482

rate constant (k) The proportionalityconstant in a rate equation, 729, 768

rate-determining step The slowest step of areaction mechanism, which limits therate of the overall reaction, 754–757, 768

rate equation A mathematical relationshipthat expresses experimentally observeddependence of reaction rate on reactantconcentrations, 727–728, 730–731, 768

rate-limiting step, 754rate law, 727rate of a chemical reaction The change in

concentration of a substance per unitof time, 725–744, 765

rates of nuclear decay, 1158–1164rationalizing the periodic variation of

properties, 292–295Rayleigh, Lord, 1022reactions

changes, 781–785functional groups, 802–815, 816–820

reaction species, 499reactants Substances that react to form

other substances, 28, 43adding, 511–512amounts, 138t–143, 499concentration, 727–731, 740–741removing, 511–12

reaction energy diagram A representationof the changing energy of a tiny systemcomprising the particles taking part in asingle collision event as reaction occurs,742–743, 747–748, 765, 807

reaction equations, 507–511reaction intermediates Relatively high

energy species formed in one step of areaction and consumed in a later step,808

reaction kinetics The study of the rates ofchemical reactions, 494, 605, 721

reaction mechanism Sequence ofbond–making and bond-breaking stepsthat occurs during the conversion ofmolecules of reactants to molecules ofproducts, 748, 750–757, 765, 783, 784,789, 807–808, 926–930, 944–946

reaction mixtures, 492–494, 499, 511–512reaction order, see order of reaction

reaction quotient (Q) A defined function ofconcentrations of reactant and productspecies whose value at equilibrium isthe equilibrium constant, 494–501, 516

reaction rate. See rate of chemical reactionreactions of acetylide anions to form c c

bonds, 817reactions of alkynes producing level 1

functional groups, 818reactions, classification of by change of

functional group level, 781–783reactive nitrogen, 125, 488reactive sites, 542–543reactivity

oxidizing agents and reducing agents, 261understanding, 773–787, 805–840, 851–855

real gases, 431rearrangement reactions Molecules of a

reactant reorganize bonds and atomsto yield molecules of an isomericproduct, 783, 799, 840

red phosphorus, 1007redox reactions, 624reduced, 624reducing agent Reactant species from

which electrons are taken by a speciesthat is reduced, 191, 192t, 624

reducing sugars Sugars that reduce Ag� inthe Tollens test or Cu2� in the Fehling’sreagent, 1109–1110

reduction The taking of electrons by onespecies from another in thecompetition for electrons occurring inan oxidation-reduction reaction. Inorganic chemistry, the term is used todescribe a gain of electron density by acarbon atom, 190, 204, 885–886

carboxylic acids, 887esters, 887potential, 191, 629

refraction of light in glasses, 1086frefractive index, 1085refractories, 1087regioselective A label for reactions in which

bond-making or bond-breaking ispreferred at one molecular site or inone particular direction over others, 809

regloselective, 809relationship between Q and K, 499, 593relative abundances, 68frelative atomic mass (Ar) The mass of an

atom of an isotope on a scale in whichthe mass of a 12C atom is taken to be12 exactly, 31–33, 43

relative concentrations of the protonatedspecies, 555

relative molecular mass (Mr) Mass of anisotopologue on a scale in which the 12Cisotope has a value of 12 exactly, 68–69

relative stability, 136renewable energy sources, 110replication, 1131–1132resonance If the valence electrons in a

molecule or ion can be distributed inmore than one sensible way, thenthe actual electron distribution isintermediate between these ways, 309,370–376, 408

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respiration, 218respiratory acidosis, 582respiratory alkalosis, 582restriction endonucleases, 1137reverse osmosis, 474, 477reverse transcriptases, 1139reversible

process, 675reactions, 492–493f

reversibility The ability of a reaction toproceed in either direction, dependingon the conditions, 492

ribonucleic acid (RNA), 1126, 1133–1140ribosomes, 1134ribosomal RNA, 1133ribozymes, 1140ring-flip, 327fRipmeester, John, 91, 446root-mean-square speed, 427Rosenberg, Barnett, 1031–1032rotation, 317–324, 335–336Rutherford, Ernest, 40, 1148, 1149, 1164Rydberg equation, 269Rydberg, Johannes, 269

S configuration of chiral centres, 338fsacrificial anodes, 658salt

acidity of aqueous solutions, 982bridge, 631, 1122molten, 650

Sanger dideoxy method, 1137sasol process, 750saturation horizon, 594saturated, 788

fatty acids, 379saturated hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons

whose molecules contain only singleC C bonds, 111

saturated solution A solution in whichsolute and dissolved species are inequilibrium, 137, 457, 459, 482, 593,595–597, 616

Sawhorse representations, 318s-block elements Elements of Group 1 or 2,

in which the valence electrons of atomsoccupy only s orbitals, 287

scandium chemistry, 1040–1041scanning electron microscopy (SEM),1089Schindler, David, 97Schrödinger equation A generalized

mathematical equation forthree–dimensional standing “electronwaves” around an atom’s nucleus, 276,2970

Schrödinger, Erwin, 295screening (shielding) The effect of

repulsions from other electrons,reducing the charge that the valenceelectrons “feel” at the nucleus, 289

scuba diving, 463secondary

batteries, 635pollutants, 706

second law of thermodynamics Anyspontaneous process is accompanied byan increase in the entropy of theuniverse, 672, 681–685, 709

second-order reactions, 728, 733–734, 735,737, 757, 870–872

seeds germination, 6–12selective precipitation Separation of one

ion in solution from another bydifferences in the solubilities of theirsalts, 609–610, 616

selenium, 1014self-assembly Ability of molecules to

arrange themselves in an ordered wayas a result of selective molecularrecognition, 305, 1091

self-ionization of water A proton-transferreaction between water molecules toform H3O�(aq) ions and OH (aq) ions,187–188, 204, 532–533

semiconductors Materials in which thevalence band is separated from theconduction band by a smaller energygap (band gap) than for insulators.Conductivity is normally between thatof insulators and metals, 623,1079–1084

semi-conservative replication, 1132semi-metals. See metalloidssense strand. See coding strandsequestration of carbon dioxide, 108sequence configuration, 337–340shared electrons, 66fshell Comprising orbitals of an atom that

have been derived by use of the samevalue of n in the Schrödinger equation,277, 297

shielding (screening) The effect ofrepulsions from other electrons,reducing the charge that the valenceelectrons “feel” at the nucleus,289–291, 297

sievert (Sv), 1168sigma (S) bond A covalent bond with

cylindrical symmetry, including thoseimagined to be formed from s atomicorbitals on each of the bonded atoms,385, 408

silanols, 1005silica, 1002silica gel, 1003silicon production, 1002–1006single bond Covalent bond pictured as

formed by sharing of two electronsbetween the bonded atoms, 66, 82,317–322, 360, 391–392

singlet oxygen, 3–6skeletal structures, 321–322Sklodovska, Marie, 1150slaked lime, 994slaking, 994slightly soluble, 595snowflakes, 65fSN1 mechanism, 869–870, 874–877SN1 reaction, 758–761SN2 mechanism, 869–874

nucleophilic substitution reactions, 757–758,760–761

Smalley, Richard, 213, 838Smil, Vaclav, 488smoke, and seed germination, 6–12soap, 481

soda ash, 990Soddy, Frederick, 1149sodium, 988–991

chloride, electrolysis of aqueous solutions,1018f

chloride, electrolysis of molten, 988production, 988

soft acids and bases, 1034soft-soft, 1034sol, 478, 479solar energy, 620–622solids, 20, 436

kinetic molecular model, 436–437solid sol, 478solid state, 433–436, 439–441solubilities of Ionic compounds, 180–181fsolubility The concentration of a substance

in a saturated solution, at a specifiedtemperature, 178, 459, 462–465, 482,595–605

complexation, 610–613equilibria, 610–613gases, 457predictions, 599–600product (Ksp), 593, 596salts, 593, 600–604

solubility product (Ksp) The equilibriumconstant in a saturated solution of aslightly soluble salt, 596–599, 616

soluble molecules, 184–185solute concentration, 202solutes Dissolved substances in solutions,

178, 202–203solutions Homogeneous mixtures,22, 200,

201f–203, 459–460solutions

acidity, 552–553behaviour, 457–482homogenous mixtures, 22measure, 552–553reagent, 606–607

solvary process, 990solvent The medium in which other

substances are dissolved to form asolution, 178–182, 200, 445

solvation, 179southern lights, 12space science, 1173spatial arrangement, 376–383speciation, 488, 490, 554–559

acid-base, 553–563, 581–582, 591–594arsenic, 157complexes, 613–614pharmaceutical drugs, 523ions, 1052–1054plot, 525, 555

species, See chemical speciesspecific heat capacity (c) The amount

of heat required to raise thetemperature of 1 g of a substance by1 K, 160t–161, 204

specific rotation, 335–336spectator ions Ions in solution that do not

participate in a reaction, 189spectrochemical series A rank order of

ability of ligands to split the d orbitalenergies in complexes, 1064

spectroscopic evidence, 793–796, 860–866

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spectroscopy A method of finding out aboutthe structure of molecules that dependson their interaction with electromagneticradiation, 2, 74–81, 777–778

carbonyl compounds, 922infrared, 74functional groups, 777

speeds of gas molecules, 426spherically symmetrical, 281spin, 279spin-spin splitting Multiple absorptions for

an NMR signal caused by interaction withnuclear spins of neighbouring atoms, 863

spontaneity criterion, 671–672reaction, 687–689, 693–696

spontaneous, 671 change, 719–720direction of change, 671–672

spontaneous direction of reactionDirection of net reaction that takes areaction mixture toward chemicalequilibrium, 134–136, 149, 500–501, 516

predicting, 642–643terminology, 135f–136f, 137, 681–684

spontaneous reaction, 629sports, chemistry of drugs, 17–20stabilities of ionic compounds, 180stability, 135,

constant, 1051stable, 135, 149, 500staggered conformers, 319stainless steel, 1043standard ambient temperature and

pressure (SATP) At a temperature of25 °C and pressure of 1 bar, 420

standard boiling point The temperature atwhich the equilibrium vapour pressureof the substance is 1.00 bar, 442

standard cell emf (E°cell) The cell emfwhen all reactants and products are intheir standard states, 636, 640–641,648–649, 660

solute concentration, 466–468, 545–546standard enthalpy change of reaction (�rH°)

Enthalpy change of reaction when allthe reactants and products are in theirstandard states, at the temperature ofthe reaction mixture, 233, 245

standard entropy change of reaction (�rS°)Entropy change when all the reactantsand products are in their standardstates, 679–681, 710

standard free energy change of reaction(�rG°) The free energy change ofreaction when all of the reactants andproducts are present in their standardstates, 689–690, 691–693, 942

standard half–cell reduction potentials(E°half–cell) Half–cell reduction potentialswhen all reactants and products are intheir standard states, 638, 639t, 660

standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) Ahalf–cell with H2(g) at 1 bar pressure isbubbled through a solution having[H�] � 1 mol L�1, arbitrarily assignedzero reduction potential, 636, 660

standardization, 574

standard molar enthalpy change offormation (�fH°) Enthalpy changeaccompanying the reaction in which1 mol of a substance in its standardstate is formed from its componentelemental substances in their standardstates, 237, 238t–240, 246

standard molar enthalpy change ofvaporization, 234

standard molar entropy (S°) The entropyof 1 mol of a substance in its standardstate, 676–677, 709

standard molar free energy change offormation (�fG°) The free energychange when 1 mol of a substance inits standard state is formed from itscomponent elements in their standardstates, 690–691, 710

standard states Defined conditions ofsubstances, at specified temperatures,232–233

standing wave, 276f–279Stannard, Russell, 254Starch, 1112state Solid, liquid, gas, or plasma, 3state function A property whose magnitude

depends only on the amount of thesubstance and the conditions, regardlessof its history, 20, 224, 245

steam-methane reforming, 215steam reforming 94steel, 1043stereocentre An atom in a molecule around

which the spatial arrangement of otheratoms gives rise to stereoisomerism,331–332, 342, 344–345, 348

stereochemistry The branch of chemistryconcerned with the three-dimensionalstructures of molecules, 303–304,330–334, 348

carbohydrates, 1102stereoisomeric alkene molecules, 323stereoisomerism coordination complexes,

1058–1061stereoisomers Molecules that have the

same numbers of each type of atom,with the same connectivity, but thatdiffer in the three-dimensional spatialarrangement of the atoms, 310,323–324, 342–347, 348

stereoisomers, cis-trans, 322steric strain, 798stoichiometric factor Ratio of amounts of

reactants or products, deduced from thebalanced chemical equation, 139, 144

stoichiometry Calculation of relativeamounts and masses of reactants thatreact, and of products that are formed,in chemical reactions, 132, 138–140,144–147, 149

storage batteries, 635straight-chain carbon compounds, 112Strassman, Fritz, 1166strong acids Acids that are strong

electrolytes, 194, 204, 528, 529f,535–537, 575–576

strong bases Bases that are strongelectrolytes, 195, 204, 530

strong electrolytes Substances thatdissociate completely into ions whendissolving in water, 180, 204

strong-field ligands Ligands that interactstrongly with the d orbitals of a metalion, causing large ligand-field splitting,1064

strontium-90, 1159structural formulas Representations

that indicate the connective sequenceof all of the atoms of a substance, 67f,71– 73

structural isomers (constitutional isomers)Two substances with the same formulabut different connectivity of theatoms, 71

structure and reactivity of carbon compounds,776

structure, understanding, 773–787, 851–855sublimation, 441sub-shell Each set of orbitals derived by

use of the same value of l in theSchrödinger equation, 277,

substance A single, pure form of matter,22, 27–28, 35–38, 49–58

properties, 52–58substituent, 113substitution reactions One atom or group

in a molecule is replaced by anotheratom or group, 757–761, 783, 820, 840,869–878

substrate, 757, 1122sucrose, 1111sugars, 851, 1099, 1102–1104sulfate analysis, 146fsulfonation, 833–834sulfur

allotropes, 1014chemistry, 975–976compounds, 1016–1017dioxide, 1016hexafluoride, 418

sulfuric acid, 1016superconductors, 1088supercritical fluid A substance at pressure

and temperature higher than those atits critical point, 107, 444–445, 448

superoxides of metals, 989supersaturated solution Solutions in which

the concentration of solute is higherthan that of a saturated solution, 459,482, 593

supramolecular assemblies, 81, 90complex, 90

surface-active agents, 481surface density, 281–282fsurface tension Amount of energy

required to increase unit surface area,164, 177, 203

surfactants Substances that affect theproperties of surfaces, and thereforeaffect the interaction between twophases, 480–481

surrounding thermodynamics, 223–224swapping, 91symbolic level Use of language,

symbolism, or mathematicalexpressions to represent substances

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and their chemical and physicalproperties, 23, 43

symbols, 63stretching, 76fsyn stereochemistry, 802syngas Mixture of H2(g) and CO(g) used to

make other compounds, 94, 127, 750synthesis

carbon compounds, 776ammonia from nitrogen, 515

synthesis gas (syngas) Mixture of H2(g)and CO(g) used to make othercompounds, 750, 777–778, 884–885,948, 952, 986

synthetic chemistry Creating, through adesigned series of reactions,compounds from simpler or moreavailable ones, 10

system thermodynamics, 223–224

THG (tetrahdrogestrinone), 18table of isotopes, 40–43taste, 851tellurium, 1014temperature (T) A measure of how hot

something is, which is related to theaverage kinetic energy of its atoms,molecules, or ions, 99f, 101f, 102,222–223, 245, 462–465, 701–706,741–743

template strand, 1133termination, 803, 1166termolecular, 752Tershkikh, Victor, 446testosterone, 325

use and detection in sport, 17–20Thenardite, 145ftheoretical yield The maximum mass of a

product that can be obtained fromspecified amounts of starting materials,143–144, 150

thermal equilibrium, 223inversion, 706–707f

thermochemistry, 218thermodynamically spontaneous, 669

unstable, 669thermodynamics, 135, 218, 221–222, 684–685thermophiles, 976third law of thermodynamics There is no

disorder in a perfect crystal at 0 K, so ithas zero entropy, 675–676

Thompson, Lonnie, 1145–1146three-centre bond, 1000titration A method of quantitative

analysis that depends on finding thevolume of a solution that contains theamount of one of reagent that reactsexactly with a known amount ofanother, 573–578, 584

toluene, 791top ten chemicals, 977total internal reflection, 1086town gas, 986trans, see cis-trans isomerstranscription, 1131, 1133–1134transfer RNA, 1133transferases, 1123

transistors, 1081–1083transition elements Members of Groups

3–12 of the periodic table, 38, 1031–1074electron configurations, 1037trends, 1039

transition state An unstable arrangementof atoms in which the energy of atoms, molecules, or ions in a singlecollision is at a maximum, 259, 742,760, 765, 808

translation, 1131, 1134–1136transmutation, 1164transuranium elements, 1165triple bond, 395triple point A unique pressure and

temperature for each substance, at which liquid, solid, and vapourphases may co-exist in equilibrium, 442, 443

triplet oxygen, 3–6tritium, 30trivial, 790troposphere, 101tunable laser spectrometer, 117Tyndall effect, 479

understanding reactions by visualizingmechanisms, 783

unimolecular, 752unit resolution Mass spectrometry whose

level of accuracy is sufficient todistinguish between particles with m/zvalues that differ by 1, 67

units of unsaturation, 115universal constants of nature, 36universe thermodynamics, 223–224unpaired electrons, 278unsaturated, 788

compounds, 788fatty acids, 379hydrocarbons, 114

unsaturation, units of, 115uranium

-238 radioactive decay series, 1150isotopes, 1150

van der Waals forces. See dispersion forcesvalence band, 1080valence bond (VB) model A way of

modelling covalent bonding in whichelectrons are considered to belong tothe atoms from which the molecule isformed, although the bondingelectrons are shared, 383–397, 408

valence electrons The highest–energyelectrons in an atom, ion, or moleculethat are presumed to govern thechemical behaviour of the species, 287,291–292, 360, 369–370

valence shell electron-pair repulsion(VSEPR) model A model for predictingthe orientation of bonds around anatom in a molecule or ion by assumingthat localized regions of electronmatter (bonds and non-bonding pairs)attain the orientation of minimumrepulsion, 377, 408

Ka values, 536t

Van Camp, Loretta, 1031–1032van der Waals equation A modified

version of the ideal gas equation,to better model pressure-volume-temperature relationships at low Tand high p, 432, 448

van’t Hoff factor, 474, 703vaporization Process by which a liquid

substance changes to the gaseousstate, 161f–165, 177, 204, 437

molar enthalpy, 227vapour pressure Pressure of vapour above

a liquid in a sealed vessel at whichliquid and vapour are in equilibrium,437–438, 448, 468–470

curves, 438fliquids, temperature dependence, 438

verbenol, 775verbenone, 775vision, 5visualization, 542–543, 783–784visualizing energy changes in the reaction

mechanism, 807VisudyneTM, 3–6vitamins, 1123volatile organic compounds, 668volatility, 163voltaic cell An arrangement that directs

the transfer of electrons in aspontaneous oxidation-reductionreaction from one compartment,through a conductor, to anothercompartment, 630–635, 643–648, 660,699–700

volume changing, gas-phase reaction mixture,512–513

Walker, Virginia, 91Walton, E.T.S, 1164water

arsenic, 1013boiling point, 163–164change of density, 160chemical reaction, 188–200chemistry, 157–212crystallization of solid salts, 981density change with temperature,

160, 175dissolving molecular substance, 182electrostatic, 170f pH gas, 986general, 157–212glass, 1003hard, 994ion mobility, 983ionic salts, 178–179ionization, 532molecule, 170– 171, 176f,phase, 442phase diagram, 442properties, 160–165, 176–177pH scale, 532solvent, 178–187

Watson-Crick model, 1129–1131Watson, James, 1129wave

function, 276mechanics, 276

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wavenumber ( ) The reciprocal of thewavelength of radiation expressedin cm�1, 75

wave-particle duality The idea that electrons have properties of both particles and waves, 273–275, 297

weak acids Acids that are weakelectrolytes, 194, 204, 529–530,535–537, 545–555, 576–577, 889

weak bases Bases that are weakelectrolytes, 195, 204, 530, 545–555,580–581, 889

weak electrolytes Substances of whichonly some of the molecules ionize ondissolving in water, 204

weak-field ligands Ligands that interactsonly weakly with the d orbitals of themetal ion, causing small ligand-fieldsplitting, 1064

weak polyprotic acids, 530white phosphorus, 1007White powder, 49–52Wolfenden, Richard, 761Wolfgang, Pauli, 284Wothers, Peter, 779

X-ray crystallography, 306, 307–309

Zaitsev’s rule Rule stating that E2elimination reactions normally yieldmajor products with more highlysubstituted alkene molecules, 879

zeolites, 1005zero-order reactions, 734f–735zinc chemistry, 1040–1042zone refining, 1002zwitterion, 559, 1115–1116

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