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PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG)MOD PENDIDIKAN JARAK JAUH

IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN

MODUL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY (ELTM) TSL3103

BAHASA INGGERIS MAJOR

INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA ARAS 1, ENTERPRISE BUILDING 3, BLOK 2200, PERSIARAN APEC, CYBER 6, 63000 CYBERJAYA Berkuat kuasa pada Ju

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Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis dari segi intelek, rohani,emosi, dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha iniadalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab, dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat, dan negara.

Falsafah Pendidikan Guru Guru yang berpekerti mulia, berpandangan progresif dansaintifik, bersedia menjunjung aspirasi negara serta menyanjung warisan kebudaya

an negara, menjamin perkembangan individu, dan memelihara suatu masyarakat yangbersatu padu, demokratik, progresif, dan berdisiplin.

Cetakan Jun 2011 Kementerian Pelajaran MalaysiaHak cipta terpelihara. Kecuali untuk tujuan pendidikan yang tidak ada kepentingan komersial, tidak dibenarkan sesiapa mengeluarkan atau mengulang mana-mana bahagian artikel, ilustrasi dan kandungan buku ini dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dan dengan apa-apa cara pun, sama ada secara elektronik, fotokopi, mekanik, rakaman atau cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Rektor Institut Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.

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MODUL INI DIEDARKAN UNTUK KEGUNAAN PELAJAR-PELAJAR YANG BERDAFTAR DENGAN BAHAGIAN PENDIDIKAN GURU, KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA BAGI MENGIKUTI PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG) SEKOLAH RENDAH IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN.MODUL INI HANYA DIGUNAKAN SEBAGAI BAHAN PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN BAGI PROGRAM-PROGRAM TERSEBUT.

Cetakan Jun 2011 Institut Pendidikan Guru Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

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3.1 Learning Outcomes 3.2 Framework of Topics 3.3 Krashen's Monitor Model 3.3.1 Input Hypothesis 3.3.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis 3.3.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 3.3.4 Monitor Hypothesis 3.3.5 Natural Order Hypothesis

Topic 4

Second Language Learning Theories (I) - Universal Grammar

39

4.0 Synopsis 4.1 Learning Outcomes 4.2 Framework of Topics 4.2.1 Why a Universal

Grammar? 4.2.2 What does a Universal Grammar consist of? 4.2.3 Universal Grammar and first language acquisition 4.2.4 Universal Grammar and second language acquisition 4.2.5 Implications for teaching

Topic 5

Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT Methods 58

5.0 Synopsis 5.1 Learning Outcomes 5.2 Framework of Topics 5.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method 5.2.2 Direct Method vii

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5.2.3 Audio Lingual Method 5.2.4 Silent Way 5.2.5 Suggestopedia 5.2.6 CommunityLanguage Learning 5.2.7 Total Physical Response

Topic 6

ELT Methods - Communicative Approach

82

6.0 Synopsis 6.1 6.2 Learning Outcomes Framework of Topics 6.2.1 Concept of Communicative Approach 6.2.2 Principles of Communicative Approach 6.2.3 Techniques o

f Communicative Approach 6.2.4 Strengths and Limitations of Communicative Approach 6.2.5 Role of teacher, learners and resources

Topic 7

ELT Methods - Lexical and Eclectic Approaches, and Task-based Learning 91

7.0 Synopsis 7.1 Learning Outcomes

7.2 Framework of Topics 7.2.1 Lexical Approach 7.2.2 Eclectic approach 7.2.3 Task-Based Learning (TBL)

Topic 8

Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum 8.0 Synopsis 8.1Learning Outcomes 8.2 Framework of Topics viii

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8.2.1 Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum 8.2.2 The 2011 PRIMARY ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM or better known as the Kurikulum StandardSekolah Rendah (KSSR) 8.2.3 Scheme of Work Weekly, Semester 8.2.4 Sample lessonstructure

Topic 9

Second Language Learning in the Classroom (I)

114

9.0 Synopsis 9.1 Learning Outcomes 9.2 Framework of Topics 9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning 9.2.2 The PPP Approach

Topic 10 Second Language Learning in the Classroom (II) 10.0 Synopsis 10.1 Learning Outcomes 10.2 Framework of Topics 10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and Production

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10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the Primary School Classroom

BIBLIOGRAPHY Module Writer Module Icons

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LEARNER'S GUIDE

This module has been prepared to assist you in organizing your own learning so that you may learn more effectively. You may be returning to study after many years from formal education or you may possibly be unfamiliar with a self-directedlearning mode. This module gives you an opportunity to manage your own learningand to manage the way in which you use your resources and time. Self-directed learning requires that you make decisions about your own learning. You must recognize your own pattern and style of learning. It might be useful if you were to set your own personal study goals and standard of achievement. In this way you will be able to proceed through the course quite easily. Asking for help when you n

eed it, ought to be viewed as creating new opportunities for learning rather than as a sign of weakness. The module is written in Sessions. A Session usually covers a certain number of topics. How long you take to go through a Session or atopic clearly depends on your own learning style and your personal study goals.There are tasks set within a Session to help you recall what you have learnt orto make you think about what you have read. Some of these tasks will have answers and or suggested answers. For tasks that do not provide answers you might findit helpful to discuss them with someone like a colleague. Or to make notes of your answers and take them along to the next Tutorial Session. Tasks that have been set for Tutorial discussion or to be handed in during Tutorial Sessions willneed to be completed before the tutorial takes place. Assignments that have to be handed in must be handed in according to schedule. This will be a means for you (and your Tutor) to know how much progress you have made in your course. You s

hould bear in mind that the process of learning that you go through is as important as any assignment you hand in or any task that you have completed. So, instead of racing through the tasks and the reading, do take time to reflect on them.You will find that icons have been used to capture your attention so that at aglance you will know what you have to do. Appendix A gives you an explanation ofwhat the icons mean. Another important component of this course is the projectfor School-based Assignment for the Major course only. This component recognizesthe fact that teaching in the classroom is an important aspect of learning to become a teacher. Hence, the assignments that you do for this component will formpart of the overall assessment of your performance. It is therefore important that you approach this assignment and all other coursework assignment with the right attitude. The School-based Assignment will be given in a separate document.

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There is an end of course examination that you will be required to do. The dateand time will be made known to you when you sign up for the course. The writtenexamination is expected to take place in an examination venue to be identified.Here are some useful hints for you to get you going. 1. Find a quiet study corner so that you may set down your books and yourself to study. Do the same when you visit a library. 2. Set a time every day to begin and to end your study. Onceyou have committed a set time, keep to it! When you have finished your module, continue to read prescribed books or internet materials. 3. Spend as much time asyou possibly can on each task without compromising your study goal 4. Revise and review what you read. Take time to recollect what you have read. 5. Consult sources other than what have been given to you. Do not accept information at face

value. 6. Start a filing system so that you know where you have kept that insightful article! 7. Find a friend who could help you study.

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INTRODUCTION Welcome to English! Teaching English is fun. What you need is to beskilful in using the language. Program Pensiswazahan Guru (PPG) Mod PendidikanJarak Jauh (PPJ) English Language (Major) for Primary Schools, is one of the major subjects offered by the Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia (IPGM). It is offered to English language teachers who want to upgrade and enhance themselves in teaching English as a subject. There are seven modules offered for English Language (Major) for Primary Schools. This Module TSL3103 English Language Teaching Methodology (ELTM) is a 3 credit hour module that will cover 45 hours. It has six main topics: Language acquisition and learning key concepts and issues, Theoriesof Language Learning, Second Language Learning Theories (I) Krashen's Monitor Model, Second Language Learning Theories (iI) Universal Grammar, Overview: Approache

s, Methods, and Techniques - ELT Methods, Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum, and Second Language Learning in the Classroom. These topics are spread across ten sessions. In Session 1, you will learn the difference between language acquisition and learning, and understand better the key conceptsand issues related to language acquisition and learning. In Session 2, you willexplore the different theories of language learning, namely Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanism. Session 3 will look into the SecondLanguage Learning Theories (I) focussing on Krashen's Monitor Model. In Session 4,you will explore further the Second Language Learning Theories (II). The focusthis time is on Universal Grammar. Session 5 defines the terms Approach, Method,and Technique. It also provides an overview of the different the English Language Teaching Methods. In Session 6, you will explore in greater detail the Communicative Approach in English Language Teaching Methods. and focus on the Session

7 will focus on the lexical approach, eclectic approach and task-based learning.In Session 8, you will study the Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum.

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Sessions 9 and 10 will focus on second language learning in the classroom You will explore issues, discuss alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production , and teaching implications in the primary ELT classroom. By going through allthe sessions diligently and doing the tasks given, you will be able to enhanceyour knowledge in English and become more confident in using it. You will also know your own strategies in teaching English. Before you begin working on the content of these sessions, be sure to have a dictionary with you because you will need to refer to it every now and then. Happy working! We are sure that you are looking forward to begin this module with excitement. It is interesting to refresh your memory and obtain new ideas and knowledge. There are no prescribed coursebooks and the sessions are designed to be selfcontained. However, we do recomme

nd that you should have access to certain references and dictionary. It would beuseful if you have an ESOL Learners' Dictionary and a Modern Teacher's Reference Grammar of English. You should read the input notes carefully. You should also doall the tutorial tasks and then discuss with your tutors during face-to-face interaction. Remember by reading you will gain more knowledge. And Knowledge is Honour!

Good Luck and Happy Working!

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ALLOCATION OF TOPICS Code & Name of Course: TSL3103 English Language Teaching Methodology (ELTM) There are six topics in this module and they are divided into ten sessions. The table below shows the allocation of topics through modular learning or/and faceto-face-interaction. Session Topic Language acquisition and learning key concepts and issues Theories of Language Learning Sub-Topic Nature of language Language learning process Language Learner Acquisition versus learningehaviourism Cognitivism Social Constructivism Humanism Second Language LearninTheories (I) Krashen's Monitor Model 4 Second Language Learning Theories (II) Universal Grammar Acquisition-Learning hypothesis Monitor hypothesis Natural orderypothesis Input hypothesis Affective filter hypothesis Implications for teachiWhy a Universal Grammar What does a Universal Grammar consist of? Universal G

mmar and first language acquisitionUniversal Grammar and second language acquisition Implications for teaching Int. hrs. 3 6 3 3 Total no. of hrs.

1

2

3

6

3

3

3

6

3

3

6

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5

Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT Methods

Concepts: Approach, Method, Technique Principles Techniques Strengths/LimitaRole of teacher, learners, and resources Implications for Syllabus Design Plaing activities for each approach/method i. Grammar-Translation Method ii. DirectMethod iii. Audio-Lingual Method iv. Silent Way v. Suggestopedia vi. CommunityLanguage Learning vii. Total Physical Response Communicative Approach proach Eclectic Approach Task-based Learning Principles Techniques Strengths/Limitation Role of teacher, learners, and resources Scheme of work weekly, semester

Issues

Presentation, Practice, and Production

Alternatives to Presentation, Pctice, and Production Teaching implications in the primary ELT classroom TOTAL

3

6 3

6 7

ELT Methods ELT Methods

3 3

3 3

8

Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum Second Language Learning in the Classroom

3

3

9

3 3

3 3

10

45 hrs

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

TOPIC 1

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language,language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: define the ure of language describe the language learning process in early childhood list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning differentiate between language acquisition and language learning

1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

Language Acquisition and Learning Key Concepts and Issues

Nature of Language

Language Learning Process

Language Learner

Acquisition versus Learning

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CONTENT SESSION ONE (3 Hours) 1.2.1 Language Acquisition and Learning Key Concepts and Issues It is important for you to develop an awareness of the propertiesof language and an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teachingstyle, your approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledgeof the nature of language and the language learning process would enable you toteach your learners to learn a second language more effectively.

1.2.1 Nature of Language

Exercise 1:

What is your definition of language?

Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language. Share your definition with another friend or in a small group. Compare differences and similarities.

What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language. Yourdefinition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a syste

m of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using expressions through body language.

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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings bythe use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having understoodmeanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English Language, 654),and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a way that they may communicateideas or feelings. There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language. Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current approaches to language learning. They are: The structural viewof language The structural view of language is that language is a system of str

ucturally related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are usually described as: phonological units (phonemes) grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences) grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements) lexical items (function words and structure words) The target oflanguage learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of elements of this system. The communicative view of language The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. Thesemantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than thegrammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories ofmeaning.

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The interactional view of language The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals. The target of language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people.

Tutorial Task: Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is

never still. It has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language? What is your image of language? Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image nguage. Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you see. Share your image with a friend. Note features of your images which you havein common. Note significant differences between your images.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

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1.2.2 Language Learning Process Children go through a number of different stagesas language develops, from the earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce complex, multi-word sentences.

Babbling first stage of language development known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.

Single Words second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language development around the age of 10 to 13 months children will begin to produce their first real words only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important to realize that they are able to understand considerably more infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able to produce it

Two Words third stage begins around the age of 18 months children begin to use two word sentences sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs E.g. Where daddy? "Puppy big!"

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Multi-word Sentences around the age of two children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject and predicate E.g. a child might say "Mommyis nice" or "Want more candy As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of 10,000 words or more.

Developmental Sequences Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in children's cognitive understandings Examples Grammatical Morphemes Negations ons

Grammatical Morphemes Roger Brown's longitudinal study (1973) Present progressive ng Plurals s Irregular past forms possessive 's Copula Articles the and a Regular past ed Third person singular simple present s Auxiliary be

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Acquisition of Grammatical morphemes e.g., wug test i. Here is a wug. Now there e two of them. There are two ______. Yesterday, he_______. Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the formation of plural and simple past in English. By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before, they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs such as `book/books' and `nod/nodded'. ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he die same thing.

Acquisition of Negation

Lois Bloom's study (1991) four stages Stage 1: `no' e.g., No go. No cookie.ct + no e.g., Daddy no comb hair. Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) +(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses) e.g., I can't do it , He dont it.

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Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative wh-questions (Why can he go out? Why he can't go out?) Stage 6: overgeneralizing the d form in embedded questions (I don't know why can't he go out.)

Reflect on your own language learning experience First 3 years Pre-school yearSchool years

Then, share your thoughts with a friend.


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Exercise 2

The following are some factors that are known to affect second language acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the following code: S = factors primarily in the student F = factors primarily in the family E= factors primarily in the environment of the second culture 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 11. 15. 17. 19. 20. 24. 25. Age Socioeconomic status Classroom culture Cognitive development in L1 Family support Whether environment provides adequate L2

input Literacy level Opportunities for language use in school Motivation Proficiency in the home language Role models in the community Personality Whether student has enough opportunities to use English Teacher's expectations Preferred learning styles _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ ______

_ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed.Good Apple. ISBN 1-56417-903-6.

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Now check your answers below. Answers: 1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S,11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S

Tutorial Task:

In your experience, as an English learner: i. ii. Iii, Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than another learner? Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with success in L2 acquisition? Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important and three lea

st important learner characteristics.

Individual Differences Research findings reveal that every person has a learningstyle; therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all learners. Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is,no one style is better than others. Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often described as opposites. Learners should therefore be encouraged to stretch their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning situations. Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner's L2 learning. The opportunities for learning (i.e., context - bothinside and outside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude , personality , and learning styles have alsobeen found to be important determining factors in both rate of learning and eve

ntual success in learning.

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1.2.4 Acquisition versus Learning It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes. According to linguists there is an important distinction between language acquisition and language learning.

Language Acquisition Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning. Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human beingto acquire language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but ratherseem to just `pick up' language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and w

alk. Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mothertongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surroundsthem. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to takeplace. rather seem to just `pick up' language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.

Language Learning As opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk a

bout that knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules doesnot necessarily result in good speaking or writing. We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and language learning. While all childrenbefore the critical period can innately 14

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acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the criticalperiod must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction. L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of greatinterest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve language teaching and learning methods.

Nature vs Nurture Much debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is language acquisition and development innate or taught? The debate about nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony fromboth sides. The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.

NatureInformalParents & Society Experiences

NurtureFormal

Teachers Syllabus

Environment Exposure Acquisition

Classroom Systematic Learning

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Tutorial Task: Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition

Activity 1: There are similarities and differences in first and second languageacquisition. It is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how languages are acquired. How is learning a second language like leara first? How is it different? How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences? Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to

support text reading.

Activity 2: As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students `acquire' rather than `learn' the language. Discuss.

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CONTENT SESSION ONE (3 Hours)

2.2

Theories of Language Learning The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we

have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have eme

rged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four mainschools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the course oflanguage acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social constructivism and humanism.

2.2.1 Behaviourism The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be tracedto the philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20th century, Ivan Pavlov, B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish. General perception is that there is no difference between the way one learns a language and

the way one learns to do anything else. According to the psychologist Skinner,language is a `conditioned behaviour': the stimulus response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior 18

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The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: Present information in an organized manner a logical sequence to concepts Go from simple to complex when presenting new material

Bring to mind relevant prior learning Provide for review and repetition of learning Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g. inquiry-oriented projects Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can become independent learners (Staged scaffolding) Like Behaviourism,

Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has

been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners. The following tablesums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:

Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist Focus View about the mind Teacher plans and sets S-T Roles goals for learning. One `best' way of teaching. Motivation Reward is motivation. 22 Learning is a motivator. Bahaviourist A blank slate. Basically alike' Cognitivist An active organizer. Varied, with multiple intelligences and learning styles. Students participate in planning and goal-setting. Teacher teaches with variety.

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Students are taught `what'. Curriculum Content Teacher assess. Assessment Product isimportant.

Students are taught `what' and `how' Students are involved in peer and self-assessmeProduct and process are important

Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Exercise 2

Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.

CONTENT SESSION TWO (3 Hours)

2.2.3 Social Constructivism Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant Behavioural Psychology in the 1970's, Constructivist Learning Psychology has been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990's. A reaction to didactic approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Pia

get and Vygoysky. It is Vygotsky's social development which is one of the foundations for constructivism.

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Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe thatoften it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and seebased on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately `hear' or `see' wis before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility

rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role as facilitator.Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring andgoing beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world. The following is a lis

t of constructivist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: Encourage student autonomy and initiative Students take responsibility for their own learning Respect students' ideas and encourage independent thinking

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Promote higher order thinking amongst students Ask questions that will influencestudent response Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas

Engage students in meaningful learning Provide students opportunity to express their ideas Involve students in real-world situations

The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.

Exercise 3 Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the classroom. Describe with specific examples.


2.2.4 Humanism Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the1960's and 1970's. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in ELT are those

of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976). 25

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Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather from the vantagepoint of the student who is performing the activity. Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, are especially concerned with theidea of self-actualization, the growth of a person to achieve whatever degree ofindividual satisfaction they are capable of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards self-development. A student learnsbecause he or she is inwardly driven (selfmotivation), and derives his or her r

eward from the sense of achievement that having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teacher's effort would be put into developing a student's self-esteem. This form of education, known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and owning their learning. The humanist teacher is afacilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge. He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development, cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In particular, the humanist teacher needsto have a thorough grasp of both how students learn and what motivates them tolearn. Participatory and discovery methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the student's academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the student's affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates learning. The following are some principles in the classroom base

d on humanistic principles:

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shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations. Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many different theorieswe have learnt.

Tutorial Task Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teach

er, state your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.

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TOPIC 3

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I) KRASHEN'S MONITOR MODEL

3.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory called Krashen's Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses whichform the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for teaching.

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashen's Monitor Model 2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model 3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis ofthe Monitor Model 4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.

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"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding."

The best methods are therefore those that supply

comprehensible input

in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow studentsto produce when they are

ready

, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting

production."

"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful." Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The five components are as follows: 1. The Input Hypothesis 2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis 3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis 4. The Monitor Hypothesis 5. The Natural Order Hypothesis

3.3.1 Input Hypothesis Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be jus

t a little

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CONTENT SESSION FOUR (3 Hours) 4.2.1 What is Universal Grammar?

Universal Grammar (UG) is the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages. (Chomsky, 1969) This means thata native speaker of a language knows a set of principles that can be applied toall languages and parameters that vary from one language to another. It also refers to an innate, genetic endowment of language-specific knowledge consisting ofthe principles and parameters of language.4.2.2 Why it is named `Universal Grammar'?

Chomsky named this innate capacity as Universal Grammar. `Universal' imply that it is universal to all human beings and human languages and `grammar' signify the factsabout grammar (language rules) that humans are born knowing. Before the 1960s, the Structuralist Model was very dominant. It was simply descriptive of the different levels of production, namely: phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.This model did not provide any model or frame work for understanding how the actual learning takes place. Language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that language learning, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of trials, errors, and rewards for success. Inthe late 1950s, Skinner constructed his cognitive learning model: behaviorism which correlates with the notion. Stimulus response reinforcement and habit formation

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 2. Constraints and principles cannot be learned

Chomsky believes that the reason that children so easily master the complex operations of language is that they have innate knowledge of certain principles thatguide them in developing the grammar of their language. His theory on languagelearning is facilitated by a predisposition that our brains have certain structures of language. Children, without having had any formal instruction, can consistently produce and interpret sentences that they have never encountered before even before the age of 5. At age 6, no one has the cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar as a system. It is this extraordinary ability to uselanguage despite having had only very partial exposure to the allowable syntact

ic variants that led Chomsky to formulate his poverty of the stimulus argument, which was the foundation for the Universal Grammar hypothesis that he proposed inthe early 1960s. 3.

Patterns of development are universal

When children develop their language, they learn the various aspects of languagein a very similar order. If children only learned what they are taught, the order of what they learned would vary in different environments. But Brown (1973) found that there is a very specific order of MORPHEME acquisition. Morphemes arethe smallest syntactic units that can carry a meaning such as the following examples: a) b) c) d) Prefixes un and suffix -ed in the word unlimited Present proing ( Daddy jumping) Plural s ( as in `books') Irregular past forms ( I run I r

Chomsky further explains that human languages exhibit remarkable similarities orprinciples. These patterns are called universals. We can find these similarities on many linguistic levels: i. Phonological universals: Consonants, for example, are distinguished also according to the location of their production, that is,after the various organs of the vocal tract. With the help of this detailed information we can now refer to

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an

eagle

The above example shows the existence of UG allows a speaker to follow certain rules of grammar (a sentence has to have a subject) to correctly construct a sentence in that language. Whereas Parameters of Language are systematic ways in which human languages vary which determine the syntactic variability amongst languages. For example, the use of past tense in English and Arabic which is non-exist

ent in Bahasa Melayu. Look at the following example: i. I went to the market yesterday. English ( change in verb `go' to `went') B. Melayu ( no change in verb ` per

ii. Semalam saya pergi ke pasar.

Chomsky (1986) reiterates that UG is part of the human genetic endowment and iscoded in the Language Acquisition Faculty(LAF). LAF is an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented experience, a device that converts experience into a system of knowledge attained: knowledge of one or another language.

Tutorial Task Prepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorial session. Exercise 4.1 a) b) c) d) e) In your own words, define Universal Grammar.

Why did Chomsky named this innate component of the human mind as 'Universal Grammar'? Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by 'principles' in UG. Expin briefly with your own examples what is meant by 'parameters' in UG. List and describe briefly the 3 points of critique by Chomsky on Skinner's Behaviourist Model.44

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Reflection Do you agree with Chomsky?

Take a break before you move on to the next topic.

SESSION TWO (3 Hours) 4.2.4 Universal Grammar and first language acquisition

The main questions are how UG is used and what other procedures (knowledge, methods) play a role in the acquisition process. Before we proceed, answer the following question. In your own words, what does language acquisition refer to? Let's c

heck your answer. Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants

acquisition of their native language. It is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, and to produce and use words to communicate. This is different from second language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) ofadditional languages. Can you describe the various stages of language acquisition of a child? You may check your answers in Session 2 and references listed inthe bibliography about First language acquisition.

The processes in each stage of development show that children are able to learnthe "superficial" grammar of a particular language unconsciously because all intelligible languages are founded on a "deep structure" of grammatical rules thatare universal and that correspond to an innate capacity of the human brain. Stag

es in the acquisition of a native language can be measured by the increasing complexity and originality of a child

s utterances. As illustrated by the example,goed (meaning went), children at first

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY may overgeneralize grammatical rules for a form they areunlikely to have heard, suggesting that they have intuited or deduced complex grammatical rules (here, how to conjugate regular verbs) and failed only to learnexceptions that cannot be predicted from a knowledge of the grammar alone. Although children usually learn the sounds and vocabulary of their native language through imitation, grammar is seldom taught to them explicitly whereby they couldacquire the ability to speak grammatically. This supports the theory advanced by Noam Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar.

He claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in a child in just the same way that other biological functions deve

lop(Lightbown and Spada, 1999). As one of humans' biological functions, walking, does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age aslong as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. Similarly language acquisition develops progressively naturally according to age due to the existence of the principles and parameters of UG. Exposure to languagetriggers the parameters to adopt the correct setting. Besides, language is saidto be innate because it has the following characteristics: i. Maturationally controlled This is because language emerge before they are critically needed and cannot be forced before scheduled. A child follows a sequence of stages before she is able to speak. ii. Do not appear as the result of a conscious decision. A child does not decide to consciously acquire certain skills such as walking or learning a language. iii. Do not appear due to a trigger from external events. What would prompt a child to begin speaking? iv. Are relatively unaffected by direc

t teaching and intensive practice. Although we correct children's errors, it doesnot help them learn the rules.

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 3. The language children are exposed to does not containexamples(or, in any case, not very many examples) of all the linguistic rules and patterns which they eventually know. 4. Animals even primates receiving intensive training from humans cannot learn to manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a three or four-year-old human child. 5. Childrenseem to accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without having someone consistently point out to them which of the sentences they hear and produceare `correct' and which are `ungrammatical'. The above evidences show that direct teng and correcting of grammar could not account for children's utterances because the rules of grammar children were unconsciously acquiring are already endowed inthe brain. Thus, Universal grammar forms the foundation of all human language.

A universal grammar can be equated with computer languages. There are many kindsof computer languages, but they all have some fundamental similarities. Children learn language by applying this unconscious universal grammar to the sounds they hear. Studies have point out how remarkable it is that human children, by theage of three and four, without explicit teaching, and without over reinforcement, create new and complex sentences never spoken and never heard before.

Tutorial Task Prepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorial session.

Exercise 4.2 Do you agree with Chomsky? If you agree / disagree , what are yourreasons? Elaborate your reasons with suitable examples.

Take a break before you move on to the next session.

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4.2.5

Universal Grammar and second language acquisition

The study of second language learning examines how second languages are learned;how learners create a new language system with limited exposure to a second language; why most second language learners do not achieve the same degree of proficiency in a second language as they do in their native language; and why some learners appear to achieve native-like proficiency in more than one language. The

main distinction between first and second or foreign language learning is what is learned and how it is learned. In this context, you are going to look into thefollowing question: To what extent UG is available in second language acquisition? There are different positions that have been defended by various linguists ranging from complete availability of UG to complete unavailability. Can you recall how second language is acquired? Learners acquire a second language by makinguse of existing knowledge of the native language, general learning strategies,or universal properties of language to internalize knowledge of the second language. These processes serve as a means by which the learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional system reflecting the learner's current L2 knowledge).Communication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of existing knowledge to cope with communication difficulties.

One of the factors that affect L2 acquisition is individual differences. Individual differences may include: (1) the rate of development and (2) their ultimatelevel of achievement. Learners differ with regard to variables relating to cognitive, affective and social aspects of a human being. Besides that, fixed factorssuch as age and language learning aptitude are beyond external control. Variable factors such as motivation are influenced by external factors such as social setting and by the actual course of L2 development.

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Another factor that affects L2 acquisition is cognitivestyle. Cognitive style refers to the way people perceive, conceptualize, organize and recall information. Learners who are field dependent operate holistically.They like to work with others. Field independent learners are analytic and prefer to work alone. Furthermore, there are strategies that learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable. These deliberate behaviors or actions that learners use are called learner strategies. Among the strategies used are cognitive, metacognitive and social. Cognitive strategies relate new concepts to prior knowledge. Metacognitive strategies are those which help with organizing a personal timetable to facilitate an effective study of theL2.Social strategies include looking for opportunities to converse with native s

peakers. Chesterfield & Chesterfield (1985) identified a natural order of strategies in the development of a second language. 1. repetition (imitating a word orstructure); 2. memorization (recalling songs, rhymes or sequences by rote); 3.formulaic expressions (words or phrases that function as units i.e. greetings);4. verbal attention getters (language that initiates interaction); 5. answeringin unison (responding with others); 6. talking to self (engaging in internal monologue); 7. elaboration (information beyond what is necessary); 8. anticipatoryanswers (completing another's phrase or statement); 9. monitoring (self-correctingerrors); 10. appeal for assistance (asking someone for help); 11. request for clarification (asking the speaker to explain or repeat); and 12. role-playing (interacting with another by taking on roles).

As a set of principles and parameters that constrain all human languages, UG is

part of the human genetic endowment and is encoded in the Language Acquisition Faculty(LAF). LAF is an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented experience, a device that converts experience into a system of knowledge attained: knowledge of one or another

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TOPIC 5

OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES ELT METHODS

5.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 5 will provide the definition of three concepts: approach, method and technique and their relationship. It will introduce to you seven methods of English language teaching. Each method will be discussed briefly with regards to basic principles, key features, techniques, strengths, limitations of eachmethod, learner-teacher interaction, and their implications for syllabus design

. Besides you will be provided with suggested techniques to plan activities foreach method.

5.1

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Session, you will be able to: define and explain the relationship between the concepts: approach, method, technique; state the basic principles of each method; list and describe the features of each method; illustrate thetechniques employed in each method; describe the strengths and limitations of each method; describe learner-teacher interaction; describe the implications forSyllabus Design; and, plan activities for each approach/method

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5.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT Methods Grammar-Translation Method

Direct Method

Audio-Lingual Method

Silent Way

Suggestopedia

Community Language Learning

Total Physical Response

CONTENT SESSION FIVE (6 Hours) 2.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT MethodsHarmer, J. (2007) defines the concept of approach to refer to theories about thenature of language and language learning which are the source of the way thingsare done in the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. An approach describes how language is used and how its constituent parts interlock it offers a model of language competence. It also describes how people acquire their

knowledge of the language and make statements language learning. about the conditions which will promote successful

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5.2.2

Direct Method

The Direct Method, which arrived at the end of the nineteenth century, is a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use ofthe target language in instruction and in authentic situations. The teacher andlearners have to interact with one another by relating the grammatical forms that they were studying to objects and pictures to establish meaning.

Key Features 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Instruction is conducted in the target language;no translation. Learners should be actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations as the vocabulary and sentences are ordinary, everyday language. Students are encouraged to think in the target language. Oral and listening comprehension are taught. Oral communication skills are organized withthe emphasis on speaking styles and correct pronunciation. Grammar is taught implicitly. New items are taught through modeling and practice. Concrete vocabularyis taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures whereas abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.

Strengths 1. An effective way in creating learners to be competent in using thetarget language communicatively because it makes the learning of English interes

ting and lively by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning. 2. 3. 4. 5. It is an activity/method facilitating alertness and participation of thepupils. Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract. Can be usefully employed in both the best and weakest class. Itis the quickest way of getting started in learning a language because in a few months over 500 of the commonest English words can be learnt and used in sentences. This serves as a strong foundation for further learning. 6. Learners are ableto understand what they learn, think about it and then express their own ideasin correct English about what they have read and learnt.

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 2. 3. 4. ALM frequently uses non-authentic language. Some learners may be unable to make the transition from controlled drills to more open-ended and creative language use. Basic method of teaching is repetition, speech is standardised and learners turn into parrots who can reproduce many thingsbut never create anything new or spontaneous. Learners became better and betterat pattern practice but were unable to use the patterns fluently in natural speech situations. 5. Mechanical drills of early Audio-Visual approach criticised as being not only boring and mindless but also counter-productive, if used beyondinitial introduction to new structure. 6. 7. Audio-Visual materials were open to same sort of misuse. Tendency to regard audio-visual materials as a teaching method in themselves, not as a teaching aid. Series of classroom studies threw do

ubt on claims made for language laboratory. Showed that this costly equipment did not improve performance of 11+ beginners, when compared with same materials used on single tape-recorder in classroom. 8. Soon became clear to teachers that audio-visual approach could only assist in presentation of new materials. More subtle classroom skills were needed for pupils to assimilate material and use it creatively. This final vital phase was often omitted by teachers. New technologycaught publishers and text-book writers unprepared - very few commercial materials were available in the early stages. Those that did exist stressed oral skillsand didn

t develop reading and writing skills. 9. New materials necessitated extensive use of equipment with all associated problems of black-out, extension leads, carrying tape-recorders from classroom to classroom. Some schools set up Specialist- Language rooms, but teachers still had to set up projectors and find places on tape. Equipment could break down, projector lamps explode, tapes tangle

- not sophisticated equipment of today. Hardware involved extra time, worry andproblems, and, for these reasons alone, its use gradually faded away. Learner-teacher Interaction There is learner-to-learner interaction in chain drills and when learners take different roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most interaction is between teacher and learners and is initiated by the teacher. The teacher is like an orchestra

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY Strengths1.

Learning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosterscreativity, discovery, increase in intelligent potency and long term memory. Theindirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning because good learning demands that any language learner carefully observe his or her own speech.

2.

Limitations1.

The SW is often criticised of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom because it doesnot provide learners the language for everyday situations.

2.

Neither the learners work with authentic, culturally based materials nor they hear authentic speech in the instruction. Minimum help on the part of the teacher

because she offers neither praise nor criticism and does not allow questions makes learning inefficient. The material (the rods and the charts (called `Fidels'), which are difficult to get, used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other materials will have to be introduced.

3.

4.

Learner-teacher interaction For much of the learner-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. He is still very active, however, setting up situations to "force awareness", listening attentively to students

speech, and silently working with them on their production. When the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, n

ot to model the language. Learner-learner verbal interaction is desirable and istherefore encouraged. The teachers

silence is to allow for this. The teacher constantly observes the learners and helps them overcome negative feelings whichmight interfere with learning.

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Second Concert - "Passive Review" The learners are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the learners into the optimum mentalstate for the effortless acquisition of the material.

Practice The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate th

e learning.

There are two phases incorporated in this approach: Learners learn new information very quickly and efficiently in a state of light relaxation accompanied by Baroque or classical music. This new material which has been acquired 3 to 5 timesfaster than with traditional learning techniques, is now stored passively in the brain. It is then activated by means of creative, interactive and communicative learning techniques, i.e. grammar games, role play, etc. which contribute notonly to recall and retention but also to the communication skills and personality development of the students.

Strengths It deals with the learners own often quite harmful and often quite negative feelings about their own abilities. It sets up a non-evaluative classroom

atmosphere; thus it also avoids both criticizing and praising. The processes ofdesuggestion and resuggestion requires the teacher to make deliberate and skillful use of the general learning atmosphere. Teachers need to be lively, cheerful,and efficient (Leela M. A., 1989). Limitations Teacher needs to be well-trainedand have the right personality; otherwise, this method will not be completely effective. It is unclear how successful this method would be with younger children(ibid, 1989). Learner-teacher Interaction The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with individuals right from the beginning ofa language course. Initially, the learners only respond nonverbally or with a few target language words they have practised. Later the learners

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 4. By having the learners work with the content of theirown choosing and creation, they are intimately involved with the material. Meanwhile, the teacher attends more closely to the structuring of the class and to the highlighting of the materials. By listening to the learners in structured feedback sessions, the teacher establishes an atmosphere of security which helps minimize behaviour problems( Leela, 1989). Limitations 1. 2. 3. 4. In the beginning some learners find it difficult to speak on tape while others might find thatthe conversation lacks spontaneity. We as teachers can find it strange to give our learners so much freedom and tend to intervene too much. In your efforts to let your learners become independent learners you can neglect their need for guidance. If the teacher lacks emotional or intellectual sensitivity or lacks skill

at teaching, this method will be rendered ineffective. The teacher needs to be very good at both languages. Learner-teacher Interaction It is neither learner-centered not teacher-centered but rather teacher-learner centered with both makingdecisions in the class. Building a relationship with and among learners is veryimportant. In a trusting relationship, the threat that learners feel is reduced, and non-defensive learning is promoted. Learners learn from their interactionwith the teacher. A spirit of cooperation, not competition must prevail. At times the teacher facilitates the learners

ability to express themselves, and at times the teacher is incharge and providing direction. Thus the nature of learner-teacher interaction changes within the lesson and over time. Application : Techniques At the beginning learners speak in the native language and the teacher helps them express what they want to say by supplying them with the target languagetranslations in chunks. The chunks which the learners produce are recorded, and

when replayed sound like a conversation. Later a transcription is made and it becomes the "text" with which learners work. Various activities are then conducted (e.g. examination of a grammar

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Does not promote independent language useoutside of oral work modeled by teacher in classroom. Learner needs for unrehearsed language not always met. While it can be used at higher levels TPR is mostuseful for beginners. It is also at the higher levels where preparation becomesan issue for the teacher. Learners are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way. It is easy to overuse TPR. "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." "No matter how exciting and productive the innovation, people will tire of it." 7. 8. The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. Certain target languages may not be suited to this method. It can be a challenge for shy learners.

Learner-Teacher Interaction The teacher interacts with the whole group of learners and with individual learners. Initially, the interaction is characterized bythe teacher speaking and the learners responding nonverbally. Later on, the learners become more verbal and the teacher responds nonverbally. Learners perform actions together or individually. Learners learn from each other. As learners begin to speak, they issue commands to, their peers as well as to the teacher.

Application: Techniques In the first phase of the lesson, the instructor issuescommands to learners, then performs the actions with them. In the second phase,learners demonstrate that they understand the commands by performing them on their own. The teacher then combines elements from different commands to allow learners to develop flexibility in understanding unfamiliar utterances. After learning to respond to oral commands, the learners learn to read and write them. When

learners are ready to speak they issue the commands. Learners speak only when they are ready to do so; this avoids anxiety.

Before we move on to the next teaching method, try the following quiz.

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Quiz 4.7 Put a (T) for statements which are true and put an (F) for false statements. 1 2 The emphasis in TPR is initially on voice, action and gestures. TPR follows a grammar-based view of language that focuses on meaning, not form. 3 Speaking should develop before listening. 4 It works well with a mixed ability classespecially for kinesthetic learners. 5 Helps retention by associating movementwith words because actions help strengthen the connections in the brain. 6 Doesnot promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by teacher inclassroom. 7 Learners are given the opportunity to express their own thoughts ina creative way. 8 Interaction occurs between the teacher and learners and learn

ers with other learners. 9 From the beginning the instructor issues commands tolearners and they perform the actions without any modeling. 10 Learners speak only when they are ready to do so to avoid anxiety. To find out how you fare, check your answers with your peers or tutor.

Tutorial Task 4. 8I. Create a GO to compare and contrast the 7 teaching methods with regards to :- Background - Principles - Key features - Roles of student and teacher - Techniques - Strengths - Limitations Choose one teaching method. Discuss your rationale for choosing the method with regards to its strengths and how would you overcome t its weaknesses? For each method, list the implications for English languageteaching.

II. III.

Take a break before you move on to the next topic. 81

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TOPIC 6

ELT METHODS: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

6.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 6 introduces you to key concepts of Communicative Approach orpresently known as Communicative Language Teaching. It provides insights into the principles and techniques, strengths and limitations of the approach. You will also look into the role of the teacher, learners and resources in this approach.

6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 5. explain the principles of the Communicative Approach 6. identify the techniques used in the Communicative Approach 7. list the strengths and limitations of the approach 8. explain the role of the teacher, learners and resources in the Communicative Approach

6.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

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CONTENT

SESSION SIX (3 Hours)

6.2.1 Concept of Communicative Approach The Communicative Approach which emergedin the early 1970s can be traced to the work of Chomsky in the 1960s. Chomsky reacted against the prevalent audio-lingual method and its views. He proposed thetwo notions of

competence

and

performance

which were related to language learning. These two concepts were later developed by Hymes, into the term

communi

cative competence

. According to Hedge (2000) communicative competence refers tothe psychological, cultural and social rules which discipline the use of speech. It concerns not only the knowledge of language but also ability to put that knowledge into use in communication, in other words, knowing when and how to say what to whom. Dimensions of communicative competence include linguistic or grammatical competence, sociolinguistic or pragmatic competence, discourse competenceand strategic competence (Richards & Rogers, 1986; Hedge, 2000) and fluency (Hedge, 2000). According to Bygate (2001), the communicative approach provides learners with an opportunity to use language for communication purposes without focusing on accuracy. The aims of the communicative approach are: `to make communicate competence the goal of language teaching' `develop procedures for the teaching ofthe four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication' (Richards and Rodgers, 1986) The communicative approach is a learner-

centred approach to language learning. Since the main aim of the approach is toprepare learners for meaningful communication, errors made by learners are tolerated. 83

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6.2.2 Principles of Communicative Approach Below are some of the principles of the Communicative Approach. Authentic language/language used in real context is introduced. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they are more interesting and motivating. In the language classroom, authentic texts serveas partial substitute for a community of native speakers. Newspapers and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news bulletins, discussion programmes can be exploited in variety of ways. Part of being communicatively competent is figuring out speaker's or writer's intention.

The target language is a vehicle for classroom communications not just the object of study. The target language is used as the medium for classroom management and instruction.

Classroom activities maximise opportunities for learners to use target languagein a communicative way through meaningful activities. Emphasis is on meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure).

A variety of language forms are presented together with the emphasis on the process of communication.

Students work with language at the discourse/suprasentential level learn about c

oherence and cohesion.

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6.2.5

Role of teacher, learners and resources

6.2.5.1Role of teacher The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In this role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish situations likelyto promote communication. During the activities he acts as an adviser, answering students' questions and monitoring their performance. He might make note of their errors to be worked on at a later time during more accuracy-based activities.

At other times he might be a `co-communicator' engaging in the communicative activity along with students (Littlewood, 1981).

6.2.5.2 Role of learners Students are communicators. They are actively engaged in negotiating meaningin trying to make them understood and in understanding others. Since the teacher's role is less dominant than in a teacher-centered method, students are seen as more responsible managers of their own learning

6.2.5.3 Role of resources One of the principles of Communicative Approach is theuse of authentic resources. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they are more interesting and motivating. Authentic resources are used to: Provide cultural information about the target language Provide exposure to real language Relate more closely to learners' needs Allow for a more creative app

ach to teaching

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Activities used to develop learners' knowledge of lexical chains include the following: Intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target language. First and second language comparisons and translation are carried out chunk-for-chunk rather than word-for-word and this is aimed at raising language awareness. Repetition and recycling of activities, such as summarizing a text orally one day and again a few days later a r e d o n e to keep w ords and expressions that havebeen learned active. Guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context. Noticing and recording language patterns and collocations. Working with dictionaries and other reference tools. The language activities carried out with a lexical

approach must b e directed toward language occurring naturally. What is important is raising learners' awareness of the l e x i c a l n a t u r e of language. Thelogical implication of this premise is that we should spend more time helping learners develop their repertoire of phrases, and less time on grammatical structures.

Tutorial Task: Do you think the Lexical Approach can be implemented in your classroom? What possible challenges to do foresee in the implementation of the approach?

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TASK 8.3 Fill in blanks in the grid below. Ref no.1.2

SkillsDeveloping auditory memory. Ask for and give instructions.

Language ComponentListening

ScopeRepeating sounds, numbers and sentences.

3.3 To identify, to refute, to describe, to explain. 4.7 Use the dictionary activities, processes 2.8 4.10 Perform a variety of functions in a social context. to get the appropriate meaning in context

Check your answers with your tutor.

TASK 8.4 State whether each statement is TRUE or FALSE. No Statement 1 The KBSRsyllabus emphasized that language skills be taught in an integrated manner. 2 34 5 The listening skill allows the development of inferencing skills. Pronunciation is taught through listening as well as the speaking component of the syllabu

s. There is provision for teaching pre-writing skills. Teachers are encouraged to use authentic texts in the classroom. 102 T/F

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6 7 8 9 10

There is a scope for acquiring word attack skills in both the listening and reading skills components. Pupils are taught to use correct conventions of writing for different purposes. Problem-solving skills are developed through the readingcomponent of KBSR syllabus. Pupils are exposed to the skills of filling in formsin the writing component. Besides the language skills, the sound system, grammar and word lists have to be acquired by pupils by the end of Year 6.

Check your answers with your tutor. 8.4 The 2011 PRIMARY ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM or better known as the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) 8.4.1

KBSR ENGLISH 2001Social skills Educational Emphases Multiple Intelligences Thinking Skills Contextualism Constructivism

Listening

Speaking

WritingIT skills

Grammar Sound System Vocabulary Reading

Values and Citizenship

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creative and innovative use of the new technologies by pupils to enhance language learning in the classroom Character-building infused inculcating moral values

8.4.5 CURRICULUM TRANSFORMATION

Modular approach Curriculum Standards Content Standards Learning standards Assessment school-based, authentic Teaching and learning focus Language Skills Language Arts Phonics Grammar

8.4.6

GENERAL AIMSPrimary ( exit after Year 6) The English Language Curriculum for Primary Schoolsaims to equip pupils with basic language skills to enable them to communicate effectively in a variety of contexts that's appropriate to the pupils level of development

Secondary (exit after Form 5) Pupils will be able to communicate effectively, read and respond to texts independently, produce well-structured written texts, enjoy and respond to literary works and make confident presentations.

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY 4.1.2 Able to listen to and recite nursery rhymes, jazzchants and sing action songs with correct pronunciation and rhythm.

4.2

Pupils will be able to demonstrate understanding of and express personal response to literary texts. 4.2.1 Able to listen to and talk about stories with guidance: (a) book covers (b) pictures in books

4.3

Pupils will be able to plan, organize and produce creative works for enjoyment.4.3.1 Able to produce simple creative works with guidance based on: (a) nurseryrhymes (b) action songs (c) jazz chants (d) stories 4.3.2 Able to take part withguidance in a performance based on: (a) nursery rhymes (b) action songs (c) jazz chants (d) stories

8.6

GRAMMAR5.1 Pupils will be able to use different word classes correctly and appropriately. 5.1.1 (a) (b) (c) (d) Able to use nouns correctly and appropriately: common nouns proper nouns singular nouns plural nouns

5.2 Pupils will be able to co

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