1383526409 2013 engineering studies assessment task

8/12/2019 1383526409 2013 Engineering Studies Assessment Task

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Engineering Studies

Kiama High

Civil Structures

Gwilym Price

Teacher: Mr Ferguson

October/November 2012


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Gwilym Price Engineering 2012 Page 2

Abstract

This report is an investigation into a Traffic sign located of the North Kiama

Bypass, on the Princess Highway New South Wales. Section one is a detailedmaterials analysis on the traffic sign and its various components, giving specific

detail. Section two consists of a mechanical analysis on the Traffic sign, showing

the major forces acting upon the sign and giving worked equations for each

force.

Many different sources were used for this investigation including: websites,

books, and active Civil Engineers. An excursion was undertaken to the traffic sign

site to retrieve measurements. The major conclusion of this investigation is that

many materials are suitable for the job and there are many factors that come into

play when choosing the material. In the case of the sign investigated in this

report, steel support columns and aluminium facing was the most appropriate

choice. The conclusion for the mechanical analysis section is that the sign has a

huge margin of safety and was constructed correctly and within the safety

requirements.


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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements must firstly go out to my friend Jake Henderson for

continually helping with field work without complaint, without his truededication this project simply would not have been possible. My teacher Mr

Ferguson must also be thanked for his helpful insight throughout the duration of

this report; his help was greatly appreciated when I needed pointing in the right

direction. Also Mr Earls must be thanked for his enthusiastic help when drafting

the measurements, his help was sorely needed and given at the right time.

William Price, Anwen Price and Sally Carney also deserve a mention for kindly

giving up significant amounts of time to proof read and edit. This made the

report formally correct and it was essential that it was as grammatically correct

as possible, for that I dearly thank them.

My report would not have been possible without the help and cooperation of the

above named people and I am very appreciative of their contributions.


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Table of Contents

Page No.

Title Page.1Abstract2

Acknowledgements..3

Table of Contents..4

Nomenclature..5

Introductory Title Page.6

Introduction.7

Drawing..8

Main Objectives (Aim)...9Historical Overview.....10

Main Body: Section 112

Materials Analysis.12

Sub-Section 1: Support Columns and Arms...13

Sub-Section 2: Sign Facing...19

Future Materials.23

Main Body: Section 2.......24

Mechanical Analysis....24

Sub-Section 1: Momentary Forces..26Sub-Section 2: Shearing Forces....28

Sub-Section 3: Gravitational Forces...30

Sub-Section 4: Forces of Nature...31

Section Results33

Conclusion...34

References.35

Appendices36


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Nomenclature

Symbols in order that they appear throughout the report.

kg/m2Kilograms per metre per metre

MPa Mega Pascals

Ksi kip/square inch

Psi pounds/square inch

mm Millimetres

mm2Square Millimetres

kg Kilograms

M Moments

F Force

d Distance

N Newtons

Nm Newtons per metre

ms-2 - Metres per second per second

m Metres

km/h Kilometres per hour

ms-1 Metres per second.


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Traffic Sign on the Princess Highway

section: North Kiama Bypass


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Introduction:

This report has been constructed to examine the forces exerted upon a selected

traffic sign. A materials analysis has also been undertaken which includes an

insight into the metals and polymers used to construct the sign and well as theretro reflective material used on the sign printing. Included within this report

are also alternatives and recommendations for improvements. Over the last

century there has been a huge change in technology in the manufacturing of

materials, which allowed for a large development in traffic signing. These

developments have allowed for stronger, lighter and overall cheaper material.

These historical developments will also be discussed in this report as knowing

these changes are critical to improvements in the future.

This report is split up into two major sections:

1. Materials Analysis (Pages 12 22)

2. Mechanical Analysis (Pages 23 32)


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Main Objectives (Aims)

The aims are to discuss and show research into traffic signs and research into the

materials used to construct a selected traffic sign. It also aims to describe the

mechanical properties given to the sign to allow it to withstand the forces beingexerted upon it. I have gone to secondary resources on the internet and books to

find out information about the above mentioned. Correspondence with the local

Council and the local Transport Roads and Maritime Services department was

undertaken. Hopefully after reading this report the reader will have a deeper

understanding into the materials and mechanics that go into making an everyday

structure that is usually not thought to be a civil structure from the general

public perspective.


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Historical Overview

Street signs date back through history longer than any vehicle we see on the road

today and date back to the times of the Roman Empire. Milestones were erectedwhich gave direction or distance to a certain destination. It was not until the

Middle Ages that intersections adapted the multidirectional sign, giving details to

many cities rather than the capital of the country.

Figure 0.1 Figure 0.2

The modern street signs we see commonly today first came into existence in the

late 1870s. These were designed for high or ordinary bicycles. These vehicles

were powerful and fast, but most of all silent. They were erected byorganisations dedicated to the sport of cycling, and they warned of potential

hazards, such as sharp corners or unfriendly descents. These signs also included

the standard distance and direction attributes. The introduction of automobiles

meant that there was a requirement for more detailed signage, symbols, pictures,

and colours started to become associated with specific requirements or rules. In

Great Britain just after the turn of the 20thCentury the Government issued four

signs to be used nationally. These were simple shapes used as representations.

In 1908 the International Road Congresscreated a set of four basic symbols

which were to be used across Europe. It was not until after both World War I and

World War II that traffic signage started to significantly increase. The system

became much more advance and intricate and there were two main systems, the

European system and the North American system, both interlinked at certain

points and manipulated each others symbols to suit what was required.


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Sign materials started of being made of stone and wood, but the Industrial

Revolution brought along cast iron. This could be painted and was used

throughout the 18thand 19thCenturies. It was not until mid-way through the 20th

Century that aluminium began to be popular. This was due to its lightweight and

corrosive resistant properties. Most signs since 1945 have been manufactured

from aluminium sheeting with adhesive plastic coatings or galvanised steel. Atthe same time retro-reflective material was starting to be developed. Before this

glass reflectors were set into the letters and symbols.

Figure 0.3

The introduction of electronic signing has recently started to begin. These signs

can change their message and symbol, depending upon many variables such as

weather conditions, influx of traffic and possible road closures due to a collision.

Many countries have now started to adapt these electronic signs into their Global

Positioning Systems (GPS). This allows drivers to be updated to issues ahead of

them and allow them to anticipate and act appropriately to the message

displayed. These signals are transferred via FM radio wave, 3G cellular data or

satellite digital transfers.

Figure 0.4


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Main Body: Section 1.

Materials AnalysisWhen choosing the materials needed to construct a traffic sign many factors

need to be considered. The main consideration that needs to be looked at is the

climate the sign will be placed in. The climate can alter the materials and the

amounts of materials needed drastically as different forces will be applied and

the weather conditions prevalent in the area such as rain, snow and ice and high

temperatures. Another factor is where the materials are being manufactured and

their cost. Generally cheaper options are the best but for some environments a

more expensive material must be selected, as the conditions require specific

properties. The materials used in the construct of street and traffic signs areuniform in most major countries such as Australia and North American

Countries.

This section looks at all the different materials that could be used and are used to

construct a traffic sign, and then also gives specific detail into the materials used

on the traffic sign under investigation. This section should give the reader a good

understanding into the materials used and why they are used. It is split into two

sub-sections, sub-section 1 covers the materials analysis for the support

column while, sub-section 2 covers the materials analysis for the sign facing.


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Sub-Section: 1 - Support Column and Arms

Support column and arms are the rods and pipes of metal used to hold up orsupport the object in place. They need to be strong and rigid, and many other

specific properties are required. These properties are discussed in this Sub-section.

Support poles and arms have mostly been made from steel in present times. This

type of steel is referred to as structural steel; most structural steels are madefrom carbon and iron as when mixed to the right weight percentage forms

extremely strong and rigid material. A commonly used structural steel in traffic

signage is carbon steel A53. A53 steel piping and tubing can be split into three

different types with two separate grades. Most common types are A53 Type F

Grade A, this type is formed through longitudinally furnace butt welded or

continuous welding. A53 Type E Grades A and B are welded through the process

of electric resistance welding. A53 Type S Grade A and B, do not require welding

and is produced by hot working of the steel and often cold finishing. This type is

not regularly used anymore and has been replaced with a stronger seamless

carbon steel pipe. A53 has a specific gravity of roughly 7.85, which gives the

material a density of approximately 7850 kg/m3 . A53 grade A has a minimumtensile yield strength of 205 MPa (30 ksi) and its minimum ultimate tensile

strength is 330 MPa (48 ksi). A53 grade B has higher minimums in both of the

above-mentioned subjects with a minimum tensile yield strength of 240 MPa (35

ksi) and a minimum Ultimate tensile strength of 415 MPa (60 ksi). Elongation

for A-53 A steel is 19 to 25%, which is extremely good for its material class. Both

Grade A and Grade B are used in traffic signage for the same type of support

poles and arms, choosing between the two is usually determined by the price of

each grade and where the steel is being sourced.


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Figure 1.0 sourced from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com

Figure 1.1


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Chemical Properties:

The chemical nature of this steel is what makes it such a desirable steel. A-53 A

and A-53 B both can have additives mixed in to maximise different properties. In

the standard A53 piping the common amounts of the elements are as follows:Carbon - 0.30%, Manganese - 1.20%, Sulphur- 0.045% & Phosphorus - 0.050%,

Copper-0.40%, Nickel-0.40%, Chrominum-0.40%, Molybdenum-0.15%,

Vanadium-0.08%.

Figure 1.2

Manganese plays an important roll in the production stage of A-53. Manganese

has an efficient deoxidizing property, its hardening ability and being easily

alloyed. It will also improve the steels workability at higher temperatures as itcreates a high melting sulfide; this is necessary when sulphur is used in the steel

as it prevents a build up of liquid iron sulphide and the grain boundaries.

Sulphur alone in a steel alloy is disadvantageous and creates a brittle structure,

however when coupled with Manganese creates a hard structure, whichincreases its machining properties. The inclusion of Phosphorous is mainly for

the fluidity of the steel, when being heat moulded, only a very small percentage is

needed to create a difference. Other than that purpose Phosphorous is generally

left out. Copper is an essential element when making street signs, its corrosive

resistance property is greatly import as the street sign is expected to last many

years under all sorts of weather conditions. Nickel also helps in improve the

corrosion resistance, but it also improves the toughness of the steel and its

impact resistance. Impact resistance is an important property when the sign is

left on the side of a road with vehicles driving past at high speeds could easily

throw rocks and other debris into the sign face. Chromium too has an impact onthe corrosion resistance but it also, when combined with the carbon in the steel,


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improves the wear resistance in the steel, a highly important feature for

structural steel. Molybdenums inclusion is due to its ability to increase its

hardness and strength at raised temperatures; a crucial property to have in a

street sign experiences prolonged periods of heat. Vanadium improves the

elastic strength of the steel with little effect on the signs ductility.

Microstructure

A-53 Structural steel is Pearlitic steel; this is due to its low carbon content and

the nature in which it is processed. Pearlite is a microstructure composed of

alternating layers of alpha-ferrite (88 wt%) and cementite (12%).



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Shape of Piping

The shaping of the support piping used is very important in given it strength

from the forces acting upon it. Structural steel comes in many shapes and has acommon 5, this are displayed in the Figure below. The Traffic sign under

investigation has Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS, which is part of the HSS

family) for both its support pole and support rods. This shape allows for a good

strength to weight ratio and strength to material ratio.

Figure 1.5

Rectangular Hollow Sections, are ideal for structural support systems such as the

one used in the particular traffic sign as it has a large cross sectional area in

comparison to the others. This larger cross sectional area results in a greater

surface area in contact with the ground and securing system.

Figure above sourced from: Tim Wilkinsons(BSc BE MA) Report on TESTS OFCOLD-FORMED RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION PORTAL FRAMES

This graph shows the relation between a momentary force applied to different

sizes of RHS and the curvature it receives from constant momentary force

exertion.


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This image shows the shape and size of the support pole of the traffic sign being

investigated. Its dimensions are: 140mm by 250mm, giving it a total cross

sectional area of 35000mm2. This will be readdressed later in the mechanical

analysis section.


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Sub-Section: 2 - Sign Facing

The sign facing is the part of the traffic sign that displays the message to

the public and is used to alert the drivers of up coming conditions and

factors on the road. Colour, weight, visibility and size are some of themajor issues needing to be addressed when designing and constructing asign face. These factors will be discussed in this section.

All traffic sign faces generally consist of three main sections:

- A blank

- Background sheeting- Sign Copy


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Blanks

Blanks are usually made from basic materials such as plywood;aluminium and the alloy steel are also used regularly in the construction.

These blanks act as the frame working for the actually signage. Each ofthese materials mentioned above have different manufacturing properties

and service properties. Each has advantages and disadvantages to them,

but all are considered an acceptable choice for given circumstances.

Plywood is normally selected, as it is comparatively cheap to metals and

alloys. It has satisfactory strength properties, but its porous structure

makes it susceptible to damage from rain and other extremities the

weather throws at it. Aluminium is picked mainly for its lightweight

material and its corrosive resistance, which allows for smaller and

cheaper bolting and the shearing forces exerted on the bolts would not be

as great. (This is all discussed in the Mechanical Analysis section later in

the report.) The negative aspect of having this lightweight material is that

the structure needs to have further reinforcing. Also aluminium is the

most expensive out of the choices given above but will not corrode easily.

This issue with corroding is often experienced when using carbon steel;

this problem is usually rectified by applying a thick coat of zinc

(galvanisation). From an economics point of view steel is a far better

choice than the aluminium blanks. Steels strength properties are also thebest out of the three and require no reinforcement.

The sign under investigation uses an aluminium blank plate. The grade of

aluminium is known as 5052-H38. This has been selected to minimise the

weight of the sign face. The corrosive resistant properties of aluminium

give it an edge over steel. As Kiama is a coastal region it is essential with

the sea breeze that the materials can withstand the conditions. With

Dimensions of 2840mm by 4500mm (Area of 12780000mm2) the mass

of the face is 103.12kgs. This is half the weight of using standard sheetsteel, making aluminium a better choice.


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Figure 1.6

This table shows the characteristics of the important physical properties when

choosing a material.

Figure 1.7

Annealing and hot-working are the two main ways of manufacturing this

aluminium.


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Background sheeting and sign copy:

In modern times the background sheeting and letters and symbols used in the

sign copy have been manufactured from retro-reflective sheeting. Retro-

reflective material is a combination of small glass bead-like shapes and micro-prisms which are set into a plastic face which has a good degree of flexibility.

Retro-reflective sheeting is used for its reflective properties and how it reflects

the light shone at it. This image shows why this reflective style is most efficient

for traffic.

A selection of

colours can be

chosen for the

sign, which will

reflect back that

colour at the

driver. Dyes areused to alter the

colour to fit its

purpose. Colours

are used in street signage because it is easier for the drivers to associate an

action with a colour, rather than having to read a sign. Reading the sign would

result in drivers not paying attention to the road and it becoming a hazard. For

example, every driver recognises that a red sign, is most likely going to be a stop

sign and can view that from a greater distance then if reading the sign was

necessary. The retro-reflective material used on the sign under investigation is

3M Scotchlite. All retro-reflective properties can be viewed in Appendices.


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Future Materials

Materials used for structure purposes are constantly in development, by the time

this report is completed the future materials discussed will most likely be

present day materials.

The most talked about and anticipated material being tested heavily oncurrently is carbon fibre. Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer is an extremely strong

polymer. It is a vey lightweight material, this polymer is mostly epoxy, but also

can have additives such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon. Aluminium and/or

glass fibres and added occasionally when used in composite materials. The main

reason why this polymer is so popular in the structural industry is due to its

lightweight properties and mechanical strength. Very few materials currently

have properties as good as these. The main reason why it is not a main material

used in construction currently is due to the high cost of manufacturing. In the

next decade the price is predicted to drop considerably and a rollout of Carbon

Fibre materials will begin. But until that day occurs, materials such as steel and

aluminium do a more than satisfactory job.


A more distant future material is carbon-nano tubing. Carbon Nanotubes are

cylindrical in shape and are made up of only arrays of carbon atoms. They have

extraordinary thermal conductivity and mechanical and electrical properties.

They have an extremely remarkable weight to strength ratio, and this is what

makes it such a desirable building product. Although it is still in very early stages

of development, I am certain that it will become an essential building material

within the next century.

Figure1.10


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Main Body: Section 2.

Mechanical Analysis

Section 2 involves the mechanical analysis of the traffic sign the forces applied

will be discussed and calculated throughout this section. This should give the

reader a comprehensive understanding into the forces being applied to this

particular sign and how they can carry out the same investigation on other

similar structures.

Mechanical Analysis is the analysis of the mechanics of a structure, machine, and

basically anything being analysed. The mechanics of the structure under analysisinvolved the forces applied on the structure, both internal and external forces.

Mechanical analysis is necessary for many reasons. When coupled with material

analysis it can help decide which materials are most appropriate for the job

needed. It also determines what amount of material is needed, what types of

support restraints are required and where the structure will be placed. This

analysis of forces is crucial when calculating safety factors and margins of safety

of the structure. Without mechanical analysis every structure, building and

machine would not operate or be able to support its weight.

The forces being applied to the investigated traffic sign consist of many

components and are being exerted on multi areas of the sign and from many

different angles. For example the sign has Shearing Forces, Momentary Forces,

Gravitational Forces and forces of nature (e.g. the wind pressure on the face of

the sign). All of these forces can and have been calculated in this report.


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This diagram above shows all the major forces acting upon the Traffic sign, all of

these forces are investigated and analyzed within this section.


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Sub-Section: 1Momentary Forces acting around

the Base of Support Column

Momentary Forces are the forces that cause an object of structure to undergo

and circular motion. This force is a direct influence of the acceleration due to

gravity (9.81ms/s). We can calculate this force or forces by using this simple

formula:

M + = (F x d)

When we calculate these forces we use the fact that the structure is in

equilibrium, still means all of the forces being applied and exerted from the sign

and equal. We can therefore express this with the formula:

M + = 0

0 = (F1x d1) (F2 x d2)


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Sub-Section: 2Shearing force of sign face on the

Bolts.

A shearing force is a force that involves the application of a force across a

material. If the force becomes great enough structural failure will occur at a point

along the span. Shear failure gives the material an appearance that looks like it

has been cut in two by scissors. Failure of this type can have detrimental affects,

and if these forces are not taken into account safety can be at risk. A large margin

of safety is used in all force mechanisms especially shearing forces. Calculating

the exact force affect is extremely important and we can determine the forces

applied with the following simple formula:

(W x T) = Shear Force

n

Where:

W = Load

T = Span

n = Number of support points.

The shearing force being applied to the traffic sign is directly acting upon the

bolts of the support arms. This force is due to the weight of the sign face. We can

simply calculate the shear force acting upon these bolts by subbing in our data

into the formula provided above.


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Sub-Section3: Gravitational forces acting upon sign

face.

Firstly to understand how the gravitational forces act upon the traffic sign, we

need to understand gravity in itself. Gravity is a force of acceleration that acts

upon anything with mass. This force is what gives us a true weight of any object.

Gravity on average around earth is 9.81m s-2. In engineering terms we use the

figure 10.0m s-2, this making addition and calculations easier and also gives us an

extra margin of safety. But for the purpose of the experiment acceleration due to

gravity will be given as an exact.

Gravity gives us weight, weight is a force. In particular: The weight of an object is

the force acting on it due to a gravitational field. We can easily calculate weight

forces by using Newtons 2ndlaw of gravity. It is as follows:

F = MA

= Mg


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Sub-Section4: The Forces of Nature (Wind) Acting

upon Sign Face.

When considering all the forces acting upon a structure before actually building

it, the forces of nature play a major roll, in position, what way it faces, what

material is used, how much material is used, what shape the material is and the

overall sign of the structure. This consideration is very important in the design

process of street signs, as they are subject to abuse from the wind 24 hours a day

365 days a year.

These forces can be easily measured by using the formula stating above in sub-

section 3. We must test these forces with different wind speeds and determine

a maximum wind speed threshold. This can easily be done and the maximum

force for each bolt at the base of the support column has already been calculated

in sub-section 1.

Data was collected from:

http://wind.willyweather.com.au/nsw/illawarra/kiama.html

This website gave the average speeds of the Kiama region for 2012 including the

maximums, this was incorporated into the equations to produce results that

were relevant to the traffic sign under investigation. This website is reliable as it

received credibility from the Bureau of Meteorology.
http://wind.willyweather.com.au/nsw/illawarra/kiama.htmlhttp://wind.willyweather.com.au/nsw/illawarra/kiama.htmlhttp://wind.willyweather.com.au/nsw/illawarra/kiama.html


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Section Results

The table below shows the results of the Section 2 Mechanical Analysis.

Type of Force Acting Magnitude of ForceMoments as a whole 33626.57Nm

Moments per Bolt 8406.64Nm

Shearing Force as a whole 3481.1N

Shearing Force per Bolt 1790.55N

Gravitational Force 1011.61N

Wind Force (Avg. Speed) 426.8N

Wind Force (Top Speed) 3125.1N

These results conclusively show that the margin of safety is very large and this

traffic sign has been built to last.


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Conclusion:

As discussed in the above information the Steel Grade A- 53 A and Aluminum areextremely efficient Structural materials. Using materials such as these are ideal

for traffic signs for their safety capacity, and their ability to survive extended

periods of time in unfavourable conditions. I believe that these two materials are

the most appropriate materials for traffic signing at the present time for the just

given reasons, but I am sure that with the way technology is moving it will not be

long until we see a new style of materials on the market doing greater things.

As technology is advancing so fast it is hard to conclude what is the best option:

as by the time the report on it is finished a new design is being created and

developed. Much of my information came from secondary sources and I was

disappointed with how little firsthand information I could conclude myself. Anexperiment would have been ideal, where testing of different materials for their

strength, ductility and hardness, but this was not possible and these sorts of

investigations and experiments are undergone by professionals who dedicate

their life to developing and testing these materials. Most of these tests are also

created on software, which is extremely expensive, and large companies fund the

experiments. In saying this I was able to collect a wide range of information from

many different sources, I was happily impressed with the amount of information

on materials and traffic signs that was readily available. The mechanical analysis

was given proof of the quality and resilience of the materials used, and was a

decent way of proofing that they were a suitable choice, clearly as the structureis still standing. I thoroughly enjoyed creating this report.

End of Report


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References

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H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070308223220AA8THrR http://www.arasigns.com/view_doc.php?view_doc=10 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History
http://www.kiamahigh.nsw.edu.au/http://www.kiamahigh.nsw.edu.au/http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdfhttp://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_structural_sectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_structural_sectionhttp://serkanakinci.tripod.com/id19.htmlhttp://serkanakinci.tripod.com/id19.htmlhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://www.vikingchainsenvirodivision.com/vc720spmi.htmlhttp://www.vikingchainsenvirodivision.com/vc720spmi.htmlhttp://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_A325http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_A325http://spanner-bolt-sizes.blogspot.com.au/http://spanner-bolt-sizes.blogspot.com.au/https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070308223220AA8THrRhttp://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070308223220AA8THrRhttp://www.arasigns.com/view_doc.php?view_doc=10http://www.arasigns.com/view_doc.php?view_doc=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://www.arasigns.com/view_doc.php?view_doc=10http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070308223220AA8THrRhttps://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8https://www.google.com.au/search?q=5052+h38+aluminum&aq=1&oq=5052-H38&sugexp=chrome,mod=15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8http://spanner-bolt-sizes.blogspot.com.au/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_A325http://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://www.sharingzone.net/download_page.php?q=ASTM%20A53%20SCHEDULE%2040%20GRADE%20B.pdfhttp://www.vikingchainsenvirodivision.com/vc720spmi.htmlhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://ad.yieldmanager.com/rw?title=&qs=iframe3%3FYSAAALV2NQDcCRkAAAAAAAEAAAAAAAAAAgAAAAAAAAAAAP8AAAACD1otTAAAAAAAMfAsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADoBBYAAAAAAAICAgAAgD8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhttp://serkanakinci.tripod.com/id19.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_structural_sectionhttp://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdfhttp://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/english/stages4_5/teachlearn/kiamahs/kiamahs.htmhttp://www.kiamahigh.nsw.edu.au/


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Appendices

Retro-reflective material Properties Table. Sourced from: Transport

Roads and Maritime Services


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Figure 0.1

Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#HistoryFigure 0.2



Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History

Figure 1.0

Sourced fromwww.engineeringtoolbox.com.All data was received through their

experiments. This is a secondary source.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_sign#History


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Figure 1.1

Sourced fromhttp://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53

Figure 1.2

Sourced fromhttp://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53

Figure 1.3

Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PearliteFigure 1.4

Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PearliteFigure 1.5

Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelFigure 1.6

Sourced fromhttp://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052

H38

Figure 1.7

Sourced fromhttp://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052

H38

Figure 1.8

Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymer

Figure 1.9

Sourced fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube
http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymerhttp://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA5052H38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttp://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53http://www.phione.co.uk/specialised-steel-products/pipes/a-53


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Tim Wilkinsons (BSc BE MA) Report on TESTS OF COLD-FORMED

RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION PORTAL FRAMES

This report by Wilkinson was undertaken in July 1999. It was taken at The

University of Sydney Department of Civil Engineering Centre for AdvancedStructural Engineering.

To read this Report in full it can be found at

http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdf
http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdfhttp://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdfhttp://sydney.edu.au/engineering/civil/publications/r783.pdf

1383526409 2013 engineering studies assessment task

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