A P O L LO S O L D T E S TA M E N TC O M M E N T A R Y

9

1 & 2  KINGS

TITLES IN THIS SERIES

LEVITICUS, Nobuyoshi KiuchiDEUTERONOMY, J. G. McConville

JOSHUA, Pekka M. A. Pitkänen1 & 2 SAMUEL, David G. Firth

1 & 2 KINGS, Lissa M. Wray BealECCLESIASTES & THE SONG OF SONGS,

Daniel C. Fredericks & Daniel J. EstesDANIEL, Ernest C. Lucas

A P O L L O S O L D T E S TA M E N TC O M M E N T A R Y

9

1 & 2  KINGSSeries Editors

David W. Baker and Gordon J. Wenham

LISSA M. WRAY BEAL

AOTC_1&2Kings.indd 3 2/19/14 11:50 AM

InterVarsity Press, USA P.O. Box 1400 Downers Grove, IL 60515-1426, USA World Wide Web: www.ivpress.com Email: email@ivpress.com

©2014 by Lissa M. Wray Beal

Lissa M. Wray Beal has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of InterVarsity Press.

InterVarsity Press®, USA, is the book-publishing division of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship/USA® www.intervarsity.org and a member movement of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students.

Inter-Varsity Press, England, is closely linked with the Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship, a student movement connecting Christian Unions throughout Great Britain, and a member movement of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students. Website: www.uccf.org.uk

ISBN 978-0-8308-9622-6 (digital) ISBN 978-0-8308-2509-7 (print)

1-2Kings AOTC p4.indd 1 2/19/14 11:31 AM

CONTENTS

Editors’ preface 9

Author’s preface 11

Abbreviations 13

Introduction 211. The story of 1 – 2 Kings 212. 1 – 2 Kings in the canon 23 2.1. The prophetic character of 1 – 2 Kings 24 2.2. The historical character of 1 – 2 Kings 25 2.3. 1 – 2 Kings in relation to the larger canon

of Scripture 253. Distinctive features of 1 – 2 Kings 27 3.1. Continuity with 1 – 2 Samuel 27 3.2. Northern and southern kingdoms as the people

of YHWH 28 3.3. Regnal summaries as structuring device 30 3.4. 1 – 2 Kings as paradigms 31 3.5. The deuteronomic code 32 3.6. Reform of worship 334. Critical issues of authorship and date 345. 1 – 2 Kings as historiography 36 5.1. Defining historiography 36 5.2. Historiographical considerations 38 5.3. Israelite historiography and external witnesses 406. The problem of chronology 417. Theology of 1 – 2 Kings 45 7.1. The normative influence of the deuteronomic law 46 7.2. The covenant made with David 48 7.3. The power of the prophetic word 50 7.4. The sovereignty of YHWH over history 53 7.5. The twin realities of judgment and grace 55 7.6. Kingship as a tutor that leads to Christ 578. The approach of this commentary 59

Text and commentary 61

Bibliography 533

Index of Scripture references 573

Index of authors 600

Index of subjects 605

To my parents, Douglas Kenmure Wray and

Virginia May Wray, with love and gratitude.

For the Lord is good and his covenant love endures for ever; His faithfulness continues from generation to generation.

(Ps. 100:5)

EDITORS’ PREFACE

The Apollos Old Testament Commentary takes its name from the Alexandrian Jewish Christian who was able to impart his great learning fervently and powerfully through his teaching (Acts 18:24–25). He ably applied his understanding of past events to his contemporary society. This series seeks to do the same, keeping one foot firmly planted in the universe of the original text and the other in that of the target audience, which is preachers, teachers and students of the Bible. The series editors have selected scholars who are adept in both areas, exhibiting scholarly excel-lence along with practical insight for application.

Translators need to be at home with the linguistic practices and semantic nuances of both the original and target languages in order to be able to transfer the full impact of the one into the other. Commentators, however, serve as interpreters of the text rather than simply its translators. They also need to adopt a dual stance, though theirs needs to be even more solid and diversely anchored than that of translators. While they also must have the linguistic competence to produce their own excellent translations, they must moreover be fully conversant with the literary conventions, sociological and cultural practices, historical background and under-standing, and theological perspectives of those who produced the text as well as those whom it concerned. On the other side, they must also under-stand their own times and culture, able to see where relevance for the original audience is transferable to that of current readers. For this to be accomplished, it is not only necessary to interpret the text, but one must also interpret the audience.

Traditionally, commentators have been content to highlight and expound the ancient text. More recently, the need for an anchor in the present day has also become more evident, and this series self-consciously adopts this approach, combining both the traditional and the modern. Each author analyses the original text through a new translation, textual notes, a dis-cussion of the literary form, structure and background of the passage, as well as commenting on elements of its exegesis. A study of the passage’s interpretational development in Scripture and the church concludes each section, serving to bring the passage home to the modern reader. What we intend, therefore, is to provide not only tools of excellence for the academy, but also tools of function for the pulpit.

David W. BakerGordon J. Wenham

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

In 1986 as I prepared to attend Northwest Bible College in Edmonton, Alberta, my parents gave me my first study Bible. It was big, and its weight signalled the serious task about to be undertaken. I still have that Bible, filled with notes and jottings, prayer requests and answers. I can flip to the back and find there a chart of the kings of Israel and Judah. My old notations make clear my discovery: more kings were failures than successes.

The fates of these leaders captured my imagination and I always suspected I’d be spending more time with them in study. It delightfully came in the form of a commentary project that has undergirded my ministry for several years.

I started this commentary project not quite knowing the journey ahead. But I knew intuitively that I would need companions on the way. As I prepare to send the manuscript to Inter-Varsity Press, I have fully experienced the truth of that intuition. So, although it seems a pitifully insufficient acknowledgment, I give my thanks to many. This commentary is my work, but your lives and prayers have lifted me up and held me to the task.

Thank you to the many prayer partners through these six years: Cheryl Shea, Stephanie Douglas Bowman, my family, my home group, and colleagues past and present. You never once said you were tired of hearing my excitement or woes as I worked through a text that variously felt impossible, challenged my heart, informed my classes or brought me to worship. May your faithfulness be repaid.

Thank you to Stan Hamm, my dean at Providence Theological Seminary who enabled my sabbatical year and helped me guard precious time for writing. Thanks must also go to my colleagues who during that year graciously excused my participation in preparing an Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada visitation report. My students at Providence Theological Seminary voiced their interest and encouragement, and their reflections on the insights I brought to class helped shaped my conclusions. Special thanks are given to Martha Loeppky, whose tireless efforts at tracking down inter-library loan materials saved countless hours and made my task immensely lighter.

Regarding the editing process, I wish to thank the series editors Dr David W. Baker and Dr Gordon J. Wenham. Their wise and judicious comments on the manuscript have immeasurably improved it. Grateful thanks are given to Mr Eldo Barkhuizen for his careful work during the copy-editing

12 1 & 2 K ings

phase, and to Dr Philip Duce, Senior Commissioning Editor at Inter-Varsity Press, who shepherded the whole project with grace and skill.

Finally, for my husband Steven. You never doubted that God would reveal his word and prayed to that end. You asked the most difficult questions, got the humour of the narratives, and sustained me through all the seasons of writing. Your love was always there: sure, kind and strong. For these blessings I give thanks.

I dedicate this volume to my parents, Douglas Kenmure Wray and Virginia May Wray. They taught me the responsibilities and joys of worship. They were the first to believe his call for me, and their support through the years has never failed.

From him, and through him and to him are all things. May the King receive all glory!

Lissa M. Wray Beal

ABBREVIATIONS

TEXTUAL

Ed. Editions of the Hebrew text according to Kennicottlxx Septuagintlxx* lxx Old Greeklxx82 lxx miniscule manuscript 82lxx127 lxx miniscule manuscript 127lxxA lxx Codex AlexandrinuslxxAL lxx Codex Alexandrinus and Lucianic Recension lxxB lxx Codex Vaticanuslxx-BA lxx excepting Codices Vaticanus and AlexandrinuslxxBO lxx Codex Vaticanus and Origen’s Hexaplaric

Recensionlxx-BO lxx excepting Codex Vaticanus and Origen’s Hexaplaric

Recensionlxx-BO56 lxx excepting Codex Vaticanus and Origen’s Hexaplaric

Recension 56lxxL lxx Lucianic Recensionlxx-L lxx excepting Lucianic Recensionlxxmin lxx in medieval miniscule manuscriptslxxO lxx Origen’s Hexaplaric Recensionms(s) Manuscript(s)mt Masoretic TextPar Paralipomenon (Greek Chronicles)Syr SyriacTg(s) Targum(s)Tgf Targum JonathanVg VulgateVMSS Vulgate Codex ManuscriptsVrs All or most of the Versions

HEBREW GRAMMAR

abs. absoluteact. activeadv. adverbappos. apposition, appositional

14 1 & 2 K ings

art. articlecoh. cohortativecom. commonconj. conjunctioncons. consecutiveconst. constructcop. copulativeDDO definite direct object markerdittog. dittographyf. femininegen. genitivehiph. hiphilhith. hithpaelimp. imperativeimpf. imperfectinf. infinitiveinterr. interrogativejuss. jussiveK Kethibh (the written Hebrew text)m. masculineMp. Masora parvani. niphalnom. nominativeptp. participlepass. passivepf. perfectpi. pielpl. pluralpr. pronominal, pronounprep. prepositionpu. pualQ Qere (the Hebrew text to be read out)QOcc Qere of the western traditionsg. singularsubst. substantive, substantivallysuff. suffix

MISCELLANEOUS

ANE Ancient Near East(ern)Arab. ArabicAram. Aramaicav Authorized (King James) VersionDH Deuteronomistic History

Abbreviations 15

ed(s). editor(s)Dtr the Deuteronomistesp. especiallyET English translation ft foot/feetHebr. Hebrewkg kilogram(s)l litre(s)lb pound(s)lit. literallym metre(s)nasb New American Standard Biblenet New English Translationniv New International Versionnjb New Jerusalem Biblenkjv New King James Versionn.p. no page givennrsv New Revised Standard VersionNT New TestamentOT Old Testamentrsv Revised Standard Versiontrans. translation, translated byv(v). verse(s)

JOURNALS, REFERENCE WORKS, SERIES

AB Anchor BibleABD D. N. Freedman (ed.), Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols.,

New York: Doubleday, 1992ABR Australian Biblical ReviewAbrN Abr-NahrainAJET African Journal of Evangelical TheologyAJSLL American Journal of Semitic Languages and

LiteratureANEP J. B. Pritchard (ed.), The Ancient Near East in Pictures

Relating to the Old Testament, 2nd ed., with Supplement, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969

ANES Ancient Near Eastern StudiesANET J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed., with Supplement, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969

AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament

16 1 & 2 K ings

ARAB D. Luckenbill (ed.), Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, 2 vols., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926–7

ARI A. Grayson (ed.), Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, 2 vols., Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1972, 1976

AUSS Andrews University Seminary StudiesBA The Biblical ArchaeologistBAR Biblical Archaeology ReviewBASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental ResearchBBR Bulletin for Biblical ResearchBCOT Baker Commentary on the Old TestamentBDB F. Brown, S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs (eds.), The

Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon, Peabody: Hendrickson, 1996; repr., Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1906

BHS K. Elliger and W. Rudolph (eds.), Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, 2nd ed., Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1977

BI Biblical IllustratorBib BiblicaBibInt Biblical InterpretationBJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands LibraryBKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes TestamentBN Biblische NotizenBR Bible ReviewBSac Bibliotheca sacraBT The Bible TranslatorBTB Biblical Theology BulletinBWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen

TestamentBZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche

WissenschaftCBQ Catholic Biblical QuarterlyCBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph SeriesConBOT Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament SeriesDDD K. van der Toorn, B. Becking and P. W. van der Horst

(eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 2nd ed., Leiden: Brill; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999

Did DidaskaliaDOTP T. D. Alexander and D. W. Baker (eds.), Dictionary of

the Old Testament: Pentateuch, Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press

EA J. A. Knudtzon (ed.), Die El-Amarna-Tafeln mit Einleitung und Erläuterungen, Aalen: Ott Zeller, 1964

EI Eretz Israel

Abbreviations 17

ExAud Ex AudituExpTim Expository TimesFOTL Forms of the Old Testament LiteratureGKC E. Kautzsch (ed.), Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, rev.

and trans. A. E. Cowley, Oxford: Clarendon, 1910HALOT L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner (eds.), Hebrew and

Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, 5 vols., Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000

HOTTP D. Barthélemy (ed.), Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, vol. 1, New York: United Bible Societies, 1979

HS Hebrew StudiesHTR Harvard Theological ReviewHUCA Hebrew Union College AnnualIBD J. D. Douglas et al. (eds.), Illustrated Bible Dictionary,

3 vols., Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1980IDB G. A. Buttrick et al. (eds.), Interpreter’s Dictionary of

the Bible, 4 vols., Nashville: Abingdon, 1962IDBSup C. Krim (ed.), Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible:

Supplementary Volume, Nashville: Abingdon, 1976IEJ Israel Exploration JournalInt InterpretationJANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern SocietyJAOS Journal of the American Oriental SocietyJBL Journal of Biblical LiteratureJBQ Jewish Biblical QuarterlyJCS Journal of Cuneiform StudiesJESOT Journal for the Evangelical Study of the Old

TestamentJETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological SocietyJFSR Journal of Feminist Studies in ReligionJHS Journal of Hebrew ScripturesJITC Journal of the Interdenominational Theological

CenterJM P. Joüon, T. Muraoka, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew,

Rome: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 2005JNES Journal of Near Eastern StudiesJNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic LanguagesJQR Jewish Quarterly ReviewJSOT Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentJSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament,

Supplement SeriesJSS Journal of Semitic StudiesJTS Journal of Theological StudiesJTSA Journal of Theology for Southern Africa

18 1 & 2 K ings

KAI Kanaanäische und aramäische InschriftenKTU M. Dietrich, O. Loretz and J. Sanmartin (eds.), Die

Keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit, AOAT 24.1, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1976

LHBOTS Library of Hebrew Bible / Old Testament StudiesLJRC Listening: Journal of Religion and CultureNAC New American CommentaryNCBC New Century Bible CommentaryNEAEHL E. Stern (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological

Excavations in the Holy Land, 4 vols., Jerusalem: Carta, 1993

NEAEHLSup Supplementary Volume of NEAEHL, ed. E. Stern, Jerusalem: Carta, 2008

NIB L. E. Keck (ed.), The New Interpreter’s Bible, 12 vols., Nashville: Abingdon, 1993–2002

NIBCOT New International Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament

NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament

NIDB K. Doob Sakenfeld (ed.), The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 5 vols. Nashville: Abingdon

NIDOTTE W. A. VanGemeren (ed.), New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, Carlisle: Paternoster; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996

NIVAC New International Version Application CommentaryNRTh La nouvelle revue théologiqueOBO Orbis biblicus et orientalisOTL Old Testament LibraryOtSt Oudtestamentische StudiënPEQ Palestine Exploration QuarterlyPresb Presbyterion PRSt Perspectives in Religious StudiesQR Quarterly ReviewRB Revue bibliqueRefR Reformed ReviewResQ Restoration QuarterlyRevExp Review and ExpositorSBL Society of Biblical Literature SBT Studies in Biblical TheologySJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old TestamentSLJT Saint Luke’s Journal of TheologySR Studies in ReligionST Studia theologica STRev Sewanee Theological ReviewSwJT Southwestern Journal of Theology

Abbreviations 19

TDNT G. Kittel and G. Friedrich (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, trans. G. W. Bromiley, 10 vols., Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76

TDOT G. J. Botterweck, H. Ringgren and H.-J. Fabry (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 15 vols., Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–2006

TGUOS Transactions of the Glasgow University Oriental SocietyThTo Theology TodayTMSJ The Master’s Seminary JournalTWOT R. L. Harris and G. L. Archer, Jr., and B. K. Waltke

(eds.), Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, Chicago: Moody, 1980

TynB Tyndale BulletinUF Ugarit-ForschungenVoxEv Vox EvangelicaVT Vetus TestamentumVTSup Supplements to Vetus TestamentumWBC Word Biblical CommentaryWO’C Bruce K. Waltke, M. O’Connor, An Introduction to

Biblical Hebrew, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990WTJ Westminster Theological JournalZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

INTRODUCTION

1. THE STORY OF 1 – 2  KINGS

As the name implies, the corpus of 1 – 2 Kings covers the era of Israel’s monarchic rulers. Beginning with the transition of power from David to his son Solomon, the narrative pursues its course until the exile of both the northern and southern kingdoms, and the effective end of the monarchy in Israel.

Taking up the preceding promise to David of an ongoing dynasty (2 Sam. 7), 1 – 2 Kings begins with a lengthy narrative of Solomon and the establishment of the dynasty in his time. Dynastic establishment is effected by David’s fiat of succession and the concomitant anointing and acclamation of the successor. The attainment of peace and prosperity in Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4 – 5) enables Solomon to build the temple (1 Kgs 6 – 8). The temple is not only a place for worship of YHWH according to Deuteronomistic norms, but also stands as a testament to the con-solidation of Solomon’s rule and YHWH’s approval of the dynasty. Sadly, despite the several warnings given Solomon to walk in YHWH’s laws, statutes and commandments, Solomon’s reign at several points reveals his failure to do so and the outcome is the establishment of foreign worship in Jerusalem and its environs (1 Kgs 11).

The promise granted David is not without the possibility of chastise-ment should his descendants disregard YHWH’s torah (2 Sam. 7:14). Solomon’s reign concludes with adversaries threatening Israel’s peace, and

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a new promise that much of the kingdom will be torn from the Davidic line. The establishment of Jeroboam’s rule over the northern tribes in the time of Solomon’s son sets in motion the trajectory for the remainder of the corpus as kings of north and south rise and fall.

From 1 Kgs 12 to 2 Kgs 17 the narrative alternates between the northern and southern kingdoms, with vignettes and more extended narratives exploring selected events from the lives of the monarchs. The rule of each monarch is measured by particular criteria, foremost of which is their obedience to the deuteronomic law regarding worship practices. In the south the presence of the temple as the dwelling place of YHWH ensures some measure of cultic faithfulness, although not all cultic practices fall under the aegis of the Deuteronomistic norm. In the north kings are uniformly disobedient, and in 2 Kgs 17 the northern kingdom falls to the advancing Assyrian Empire. The chapter details the theological reasons for the fall and exile of the northern kingdom: primary are the cultic disobedience of both king and people.

The remaining chapters of 2 Kings turn to the fate of the southern kingdom. Despite the warning example of the northern kingdom’s demise and the reforming efforts of Hezekiah (2  Kgs 18) and Josiah (2  Kgs 22 – 23), Judah’s cultic life continues to deteriorate. This decline reaches its nadir in the apostasy of Manasseh, who, as a southern Ahab, walks in the ways of the nations. For his apostasy, final judgment is pronounced upon Judah. Despite the reforming efforts of Manasseh’s grandson Josiah, final judgment falls upon Judah at the hands of the Babylonian Empire; they are carried into exile, their king is deposed and imprisoned in the Babylonian court, and their temple and city are destroyed as YHWH’s wrath is outpoured.

Yet the final verses of 2  Kings leave the future open: the promises granted David, and more – the covenant commitment of YHWH to his people is yet operative. Though disobedient to the point of the ultimate chastisement of exile, God’s people may yet again experience his covenant grace.

The corpus of Kings attends to monarchic rulers and the effects of their rule upon the nation. It attends to issues of the nation and those in power. Yet the book is not a cold accounting of events without the colouration of individual lives. Many kings are developed characters whose personal lives as much as their executive powers shape the theology that clearly underlies the books. Kings marry, sicken, pray, build residences and give gifts, and the selective recounting of such events enlivens the kings as much as speaks to theological emphases.

Other individuals rise to prominence as the history unfolds. Prophets play a prominent role: Elijah and Elisha, for instance, are key figures from 1 Kgs 17 to 2 Kgs 13. Royal family members and nobility (such as Bathsheba [1 Kgs 1 – 2] and Naboth [1 Kgs 21]) precipitate great events. Palace func-tionaries (such as Obadiah [1 Kgs 18]) represent kings, and otherwise

Introduction 23

unknown and ordinary folk (such as the besieged women [2 Kgs 6:26–30] or Hiel of Bethel [1 Kgs 16:34]) provide crucial plot turns or commentary within the ongoing story.

But it is the kings around whom the story revolves. These figures are, however, indicators of two other important characters in 1 – 2 Kings. The first character is YHWH. Kings serve at YHWH’s behest and the monarchy is his allowance given his people when they rejected his own kingship (1 Sam. 8 – 12; Deut. 17:14–20). The monarchy is given in the hope of wise and godly leadership and the kings are intended as pointers to the one they represent as co-regent.

The kings also point to a second character: the covenant people of God. For good or ill, the people follow the king as they followed pre-monarchic leaders. With the leadership of Moses and Joshua, YHWH’s people escaped servitude and in hope entered the Promised Land. Both Moses and Joshua led the people in covenant making and renewal before YHWH (Exod. 19 – 24; Deut. 29; Josh. 24). Under the judges Israel was repeatedly called to repentance and covenant faithfulness. Kings were to lead the people to follow YHWH, to worship him truly and enjoy the life of promise. The tragedy is that the life of promise too quickly degenerated to servitudes: syncretized and aberrant worship, corvée labour for monu-mental building projects, and the ongoing encroachment of foreign armies with the ultimate loss of national life and servitude in Babylon – a new Egypt.

1 – 2 Kings tells this tragedy, but because it tells the story of YHWH’s involvement with his people, it is never a story without hope and the possibility of new life.

2. 1 – 2  KINGS IN THE CANON

Although the present formation of Kings divides the narrative into two books, that division is artificial and practical. Originally reproduced on ancient scrolls, the narrative’s length could not easily be accom-modated on even the longest scroll. The present division of 1 – 2 Kings provides for two blocks of fairly equal length, each reproducible on a single scroll. The connection between the two books is apparent as, in its present form, the reign of Ahaziah begins in 1 Kgs 22 but ends in 2 Kgs 1.

It is helpful to examine the different places in which the books appear in both the Hebrew and the English canons of Scripture. Early wit- nesses to the Hebrew canon (for instance, Josephus [Against Apion 1.37–43], the Prologue to Sirach, and even the NT [Luke 24:44]) reveal its division into three main sections: the writings of Moses (the Pentateuch), the Prophets (including the Former and Latter Prophets) and the Writings. Kings is placed in the Former Prophets, with Joshua,

24 1 & 2 K ings

Judges and Samuel; the Latter Prophets include Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve.

The English canon (the one reflected in most English translations today) was shaped in response to the concerns and understandings of the early church. No longer placed in a discrete section of Former Prophets, Kings is now in a large section known as the Historical Books that includes books from Joshua to Nehemiah.

Before discussing the import of the placement of Kings in the English Bible, a discussion of its placement in the Former Prophets illuminates many of the themes and theological concerns of Kings. This discussion is especially important as often the prophetic outlook of Kings is overlooked. Given modern discourse concerning historical chronology and verifiability, the classification of Kings as one of the Historical Books can foreground those questions, overshadowing the important consideration of Kings’s prophetic character. This brief discussion serves as an introduction only; many of the items surfaced here are examined in greater detail later in this introduction.

2.1. The prophetic character of 1 – 2 Kings

One obvious indication of the prophetic outlook of Kings is the many prophets in its chapters. These prophets include major characters whose words and action strongly shape the narratives (Nathan, Elijah, Elisha, Micaiah, Huldah), as well as those mentioned in passing (Jehu [1 Kgs 16:1]; Jonah [2 Kgs 14:25]), and even prophets who remain unnamed (1 Kgs 20:13, 22, 35; 2 Kgs 9:1; 17:13). Wherever prophets appear, they are not simply incidental characters but forward the narrative and its themes. By their actions, confrontations with power and prophecies, they com-municate YHWH’s will for king and people.

The prophetic character of Kings is also apparent in the emphasis on the fulfilment of the prophetic word. The prophets as YHWH’s covenant mediators speak his word, and that word is fulfilled with an inevitability that speaks to its power. Gerhard von Rad (1953: 74–92) provides the classic exploration of this phenomenon. He rightly argues that the fulfil-ment of the prophetic word is repeatedly noted in Kings (1953: 74–92; see 7.3 below). The fulfilment of this word is a primary theological theme undergirding the corpus.

Finally, the placement of Kings within the Former Prophets reveals a conviction that the events recorded therein are interpreted from the divine perspective. Not simply a neutral listing of historical occur- rences, the presentation is shaped to reveal YHWH’s activity and his purposes in the life of his covenant people. Within that prophetic record the prophets serve as reliable guides to understand this divine perspective.

Introduction 25

2.2. The historical character of 1 – 2 Kings

In the English canon Kings is included in the section of Historical Books. This placement indicates the early church understood the book plays a unique role in the historical unfolding of YHWH’s plan. For the church that plan culminates in Jesus the Messiah. This recognition does not preclude the prophetic character of the book but reflects an additional appropriation of its message.

The canonical placement in the Historical Books reveals the conviction that the book has a historiographic intent. The exploration of the meaning and implications of this intent is addressed later in this introduction (5.2). This is an important discussion in a modern age concerned with questions of history and chronology, but these modern questions must not displace a more lasting theological pursuit, which is the focus of the present discussion.

The placement of Kings within the Historical Books reveals a theo-logical understanding that reaches deeper than concerns about historical verifiability. The church understood it was part of, because a continuance of, the long history of YHWH’s unfolding will that culminates in the person of Jesus Christ. Not only is what YHWH did in the nation of Israel pertinent to that nation in its own time, not only is what YHWH did in the nation of Israel pertinent to that nation’s own reflection upon its history, but YHWH’s action in Israel’s history is a historical preparation for Jesus the Christ. Likewise, the church that arose out of his life was grafted in to that same history (Rom. 11:17).

The English canon, then, makes plain that Jesus Christ and his church cannot be wholly understood on the basis of the NT alone. His character, words, actions, and especially his death and resurrection, take up the covenants traced through Israel’s history and expressed in Kings. And in the study of Kings can be found words, actions and types that illuminate Jesus’ life, and the necessities that called forth that life.

2.3. 1 – 2 Kings in relation to the larger canon of Scripture

1 – 2 Kings is indelibly connected to the larger canon of Scripture. It draws upon, and informs other books within the canon and, although the nature of the dependence or influence is not always without dispute (e.g. the relationship of Kings to Jeremiah or Isaiah), the book is clearly part of a larger whole, connected by overarching plot, language and themes.

The connection to the Pentateuch has already been alluded to. Kings is aware of the promises made to Abraham and posits the Abrahamic Covenant as instrumental to the relationship between YHWH and Israel. It is to the Abrahamic Covenant that YHWH’s persistent commitment to Israel is credited (1 Kgs 18:36; 2 Kgs 13:23). To the role of the priests and

26 1 & 2 K ings

the sacrificial system recorded in Exodus and Leviticus Kings pays little attention. However, Kings is not without cultic concern. That concern is reflected in the centrality of the temple to the life of the nation. Deuteronomy provides the call to worship YHWH at the place he will choose as a dwelling for his name (Deut. 12:5; 16:5–6). This call finds its fulfilment in the Jerusalem temple (1 Kgs 8:13–20), where the ark is housed. Worship in that temple is prescribed according to the norms of Deuteronomy, and Israel and their king are repeatedly called to live by the statutes and laws of Deuteronomy. The temple is a symbol of YHWH’s favour upon king and nation, but even more a symbol of YHWH’s living presence in the midst of his people and their ability to call upon him in prayer (1 Kgs 8).

The importance of Deuteronomy to Kings is part of a larger phenom-enon. Deuteronomy can be viewed as an introduction to the large block of literature (Joshua–Kings) that records Israel’s entry into, life in and exile from the land. The influence of Deuteronomy upon Joshua–Kings has long been recognized and raises questions regarding the authorial relationship of Deuteronomy to these books (see further at ‘Critical issues of authorship and date’, below).

The canonical relationship of the books extending from Deuteronomy to Kings is one of narrative arc: Deuteronomy prepares Israel by providing the torah for successful life in the land. Joshua narrates the entry into the land and, what is left uncompleted in Joshua is taken up in Judges 1. The remainder of Judges speaks of the ongoing failure of Israel to live according to the deuteronomic code and YHWH’s chastisement of a wayward people. It is the two books of Samuel that move the nation from the charismatic leadership of judges to dynastic monarchy, narrating the lives of the first two kings, Saul and David. David’s life ends and the succession passes to Solomon in 1 Kgs 1 – 2. Kings takes Israel and Judah through five hundred years that end in exile, fulfilling the curses outlined in Deuteronomy.

Kings also has a particular canonical connection to the chronicler’s history. The chronicler retells what is contained in Kings, addressing the theological concerns of the post-exilic era. Much of the chronicler’s work is a verbatim account of material from Kings, and specific citations (2 Chr. 16:11; 20:34; 25:26) suggest the chronicler often used Kings as source material (Williamson 1982: 17–23).

The prophetic nature of Kings connects it with the prophetic corpus of the so-called Writing Prophets. These prophets, like the prophets within Kings, similarly stand as covenant mediators between YHWH and the people. Thus, for instance, Jeremiah can be cited as calling Israel back to covenant life. Within the prophetic corpus Jeremiah also has a more specific connection to Kings. He prophesied in Jerusalem during the final years of the southern kingdom and his work addresses many of the same historical events with substantial verbatim repetition (for instance, the fall of Jerusalem [Jer. 39]; the governorship of Gedaliah [Jer. 40 – 41]).

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Finally, a consideration of canonical connections must move to the canon of the Christian tradition. Beyond viewing the NT story as a con-tinuance of the history unfolded in Kings (as above), there are more specific connections, the most pertinent being the presentation of Christ as the king of Israel. He is born of the Davidic line (Matt. 1:1–17; Luke 1:69; Rom. 1:3) and at his birth is sought as Israel’s king, the anointed one (Matt. 2:2; Luke 2:11). His trial and crucifixion are as Israel’s king (Matt. 27:29, 37, 42; Mark 15:2, 26; Luke 22:67; 23:3, 38) and his commission to his followers is with sovereign authority (Matt. 28:18–20). There is no doubt that in the NT, YHWH the king of Israel (Exod. 15:18; 19:6; 1 Sam. 8:7; 12:12; Pss 93:1; 95:3; 96:10) is embodied in Jesus of the line of David. That which every king in 1 – 2 Kings does with greater or lesser degrees of failure, Jesus the Christ does with perfect success.

3. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF 1 – 2  KINGS

Several elements of structure and content distinctively mark 1 – 2 Kings. An overview of some major distinctions prepares a reader to enter the book.

3.1. Continuity with 1 – 2 Samuel

The first distinctive is immediately apparent, for the story continues without preamble the narrative of 1– 2 Samuel. Knowledge of 1 – 2 Samuel is necessary to contextualize the story. The story’s continuity is apparent in the Greek versions (lxx) where the four books are called 1 – 4 Kingdoms, or Reigns. Further, not all Greek texts divided Samuel from Kings at the same point; the Lucianic edition of the lxx continues 1 – 2 Reigns through to 1 Kgs 2:11 (a division similarly made in Josephus’ Antiquities).

In 1 Kgs 1 – 2 there is a strong sense of engaging a story already in motion. Many of the characters (such as Bathsheba, Nathan, Zadok, Joab, Abiathar and Solomon) enter the narrative as if the audience already knows their history. Even the reasons for the factional alliances with Adonijah and Solomon find possible explanations in Samuel. Further, King David – presented as a frail and impotent man – is only a reminder of who he was in Samuel: a strong, virile king. And Adonijah’s accoutre-ments of royalty – chariots, horsemen, runner – echo the similar actions of Absalom (2 Sam. 15:1) and raise the narrative question ‘Will Adonijah succeed where Absalom failed?’

Because of the continuity with 1 – 2 Samuel, 1 Kgs 1 – 2 easily transitions the account to trace the line of David in Solomon. Once the succession is decided in Solomon’s favour and the dynasty promised David in 2 Sam. 7 is set in motion, it is the second promise of 2 Sam. 7 that must be answered: