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Sound Advertising

Sound Advertising: A Review of the Experimental

Evidence on the Effects of Music in Commercials on

Attention, Memory, Attitudes, and Purchase ntention

!avid Allan, Ph"!"

!epartment of Mar#eting

Saint $oseph%s &niversity

Online Publication Date: October 23, 2007

Journal of Media Psychology, Volume 12, No 3, !all, 2007

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Sound Advertising

A'stract

"#is article revie$s t#e em%irical studies on t#e interaction o& music and t#e #ierarc#' o&

advertising e&&ects, or s%eci&icall' attention, memor', attitudes and %urc#ase intention "#e most

relevant literature is anal'(ed t#roug# t#e &ormation o& t$o com%re#ensive tables o& t#eories and

e)%eriments *usic variables suc# as a%%eal, &it, melod', mood, tem%o, te)ture, tonalit', and

valence are s#o$n to in&luence consumer attitude to$ard t#e ad and t#e brand, recall, %leasure

and arousal, and %urc#ase intention "#is revie$ %rovides a summar' o& t#e results and t#e

&oundation &or &uture researc# into sound advertising

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Sound Advertising

ntroduction

+t is almost im%ossible to turn on t#e radio or t#e television, or $al into a retail establis#ment

and not $itness t#e marriage o& art and commerce -ven be&ore t#e da's o& media and malls,

music $as a ma.or &orce in consumer mareting /it#out e)ce%tion, music %la's a vital role in

t#e interactive %rocess o& consumer be#avior "#e commercial uses o& music in mareting

account &or billions o& dollars nation$ide Not sur%risingl', t#is area o& stud' #as received

considerable attention %rimaril' &ocused on t#e im%act o& music on consumer res%onses to

commercial advertising

"#ere are man' stimuli, or environmental cues, t#at retailers use to a&&ect consumer be#avior

including music, color, scents, etc *usic is considered to be t#e most commonl' studied

stimulus variable "urle' *illiman, 2000 *ost retailers $ould agree t#at music is one o&

t#eir most im%ortant considerations and e)%enses alc# S%angenberg, 1443 5illions o&

dollars are s%ent $orld$ide on music in t#e retail environment Nort# 6argreaves, 144 Past

revie$s o& e)%erimental evidence in t#is area #ave included music as %art o& a larger revie$ o&

atmos%#eric e&&ects 8am, 20019 "urle' *illiman, 2000, and more narro$l' &ocused on .ust

its e&&ect on s#o%%ing be#avior Allan, in %ress

"#ere are also man' stimuli, or e)ecutional cues, t#at advertisers use to a&&ect consumer

res%onse to commercials including music, s%oes%ersons, animation, etc *usic is also

considered to be t#e most used e)ecutional cue in commercials alc#, 1441 Dunbar 1440,

% 200 argued t#at music maes 'ou $atc# or listen ;to advertising< in a di&&erent $a'= t#an

commercials $it#out music and adds an emotional dimension to t#e consumer res%onse to t#e

brand

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Sound Advertising

/#ile it s#ould not be sur%rising t#at t#e e&&ect o& music on advertising #as been e)tensivel'

researc#ed, it s#ould be sur%rising t#at a current, com%re#ensive, and critical revie$ o& t#e

literature #as not been com%leted 5runer 1440 %rovided an earl' collection o& relevant

researc# involving music and advertising as %art o& t#e literature revie$ &or #is *usic, *ood

and *areting= but t#at is no$ more t#an a decade old Nort# and 6argreaves 1447 u%dated

t#e list as %art o& a larger c#a%ter *usic and >onsumer 5e#aviour= on t#e commercial and

industrial uses o& music advertising, s#o%s and t#e music industr' in The Sociology of Music. "

"#is article t#en, #as t#ree %ur%oses !irst, it is a revie$ o& t#e most im%ortant studies

involving music and advertising beginning $it# t#e most relevant de&initions "able 1 Second,

it is a s'nt#esis and com%arison o& variables and results "#ird, based on $#at #as been done and

#o$ it #as been e)ecuted, it is a &oundation and &acilitation &or &uture researc#

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"able 1A Summar' o& @elevant De&initions

De&inition >itation

!it "#e musicBs relevance or a%%ro%riateness to t#e central ad message *ac+nnis Par 1441

+nde)icalit' "#e e)tent to $#ic# t#e music arouses emotionCladen memories *ac+nnis Par 1441

ingle EniFue, novel l'rics $ritten &or a %articular advertisement /allace 1441

*odalit' A %itc#Crelated variable t#at is t#e con&iguration o& intervals bet$een notesin t#e scale suc# as ma.or and minor modes

Gellaris Gent 1441

*ood A &leeting, tem%orar' &eeling state, usuall' not intense and not tied to a

s%eci&iable be#avior

Hardner 14I

*usic A com%le) c#emistr' o& t#ree main controllable elements time, %itc# and

te)ture

5runer 1440

Needledro% *usic t#at is %re&abricated, multi%ur%ose, and #ig#l' conventional Scott 1440

Placement "#e %osition o& t#e music in t#e advertisement 5rooer /#eatle' 144?

Po%ular

*usic

*usic t#at is $ellClied= b' ordinar' %eo%le= S#uer, 144? t#at #as

#ad $ide e)%osure and a%%eal but usuall' &or a &i)ed %eriod o& time

S#uer 144?

"em%o A timeCrelated variable t#at controls %ace Gellaris Gent 1441

"e)ture >om%rised o& timbre and orc#estra Gellaris Gent 144?

"onalit' "#e con&iguration o& intervals bet$een %itc#es on a scale Gellaris Gent 144?

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Sound Advertising

(iterature Review

"#e revie$ o& literature is divided into t$o %arts "#e &irst %art is a discussion o& t#e most

cited t#eories and models including t#e terms and conce%ts "#e second %art is an anal'sis o& t#e

most relevant em%irical studies o& t#e e&&ects o& music on advertising A summar' table &ollo$s

eac# section

)heories and Models

Advertising and music #ave been investigated t#roug# man' variables $it# a $ide range o&

outcomes An anal'sis o& t#ese studies begins $it# a discussion o& t#e most relevant t#eories and

models "#ese t#eories and models %rovide t#e &oundation o& music in advertising

e)%erimentation and include attitude t#eor', classical conditioning t#eor', involvement t#eor'

es%eciall' t#e elaboration lieli#ood model -8*, and music t#eor'

Attitude Theory. !is#beinBs 14J3 attitude t#eor', t#at a %ersonBs attitude is a &unction o& #is

salient belie&s activated &rom memor' at a %oint in time in a given situation, is t#e %rimar'

consideration $it# all researc# dealing $it# attitude to$ard t#e ad and attitude to$ard t#e brand

As $ill be a%%arent in t#e results section, man' researc#ers #ave studied musicBs e&&ect on

attitude to$ard t#e brand in regard to %roduct %re&erence Allen *adden, 14I9 Horn, 1429

Gellaris >o), 1449 *iddlestadt et al, 144?9 Par oung, 14J9 Pitt Abratt, 149 K#u,

200I and %urc#ase intention 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 *orris 5oone, 144 Ot#ers #ave

also considered attitude to$ard t#e ad and %roduct %re&erence *aclin, 149 S#en et al, 200J

and %urc#ase intention *orris 5oone, 1449 Nort# et al, 200? "#e music variables $it#

regard to attitude to$ard t#e brand and t#e ad t#at #ave been most studied are inde)icalit', or

t#e e)tent to $#ic# t#e music arouses emotionCladen memories,= and &it, or t#e musicBs

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Sound Advertising

relevance or a%%ro%riateness to t#e central ad message,= and its e&&ect on t#e %rocessing o& t#e

commercial *ac+nnis Par, 1441

Classical Conditioning Theory. PavlovBs classical conditioning, as it relates to advertising,

suggests t#at %ositive attitudes to$ards an advertised %roduct or a conditioned stimulus, usuall'

t#e brand, mig#t develo% t#roug# its association in a commercial $it# stimuli t#at are reacted to

%ositivel', suc# as music, celebrities, or color 5ut, researc# #as %roduced con&licting results

Horn 142 concluded t#at %ositive attitudes to$ards an advertised %roduct, in t#is case colored

%ens, mig#t develo% t#roug# its association in a commercial $it# ot#er stimuli lie music #e

used t#e t#eme &rom Hrease= and classical +ndian music "#e results o& t$o e)%eriments

su%%orted t#e notion t#at t#e sim%le association bet$een a %roduct and anot#er stimulus suc# as

music can a&&ect %roduct %re&erences as measured b' %roduct c#oice !urt#ermore, an individual

$#o is in a decisionCmaing mode $#en e)%osed to a commercial is more a&&ected b' t#e

in&ormation t#erein t#an an individual $#o is not in a decisionCmaing mode *an' researc#ers

#ave attem%ted to e)tend HornBs stud' but #ave been unable to re%licate #is &indings Allen

*adden, 14I9 Al%ert Al%ert, 1440, Gellaris >o), 1449 Pitt Abratt, 14 As it stands,

classical conditioning a%%ears to occur unreliabl' Gellaris >o), 144 and t#en onl' in case

o& lo$ involvement consumers

Involvement Theory. +nvolvement "#eor' in general, and t#e -laboration 8ieli#ood *odel

-8* in %articular, #ave been suggested as e's to understanding #o$ music a&&ects res%onses

to advertising Grugman 14JI de&ined involvement as t#e number o& conscious bridging

e)%eriences, connections, or %ersonal re&erences %er minute t#at a vie$er maes bet$een #is or

#er o$n li&e and a stimulus= % 3IJ Salmon 14J added t#at involvement, in an' &orm,

seems to mediate bot# t#e acFuisition and %rocessing o& in&ormation t#roug# activating a



Sound Advertising

#eig#tened state o& arousal andLor greater cognitive activit' in an interaction bet$een an

individual and a stimulus= % 2J? Pett' and >acio%%oBs 14J conce%t o& elaboration

lieli#ood re&ers to t#e lieli#ood one engages in issueCrelevant t#ining $it# t#e aim o&

determining t#e merits o& t#e arguments rat#er t#an t#e total amount o& t#ining %er se in $#ic#

a %erson engages= % J7? -8* assumes t#at once an individual receives a message, %rocessing

begins De%ending on t#e %ersonal relevance o& t#is in&ormation, t#e receiver $ill &ollo$ one o&

t$o routes= to %ersuasion: central= and %eri%#eral= /#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a

#ig# degree o& attention, t#ere is #ig# involvement and t#us a central active %rocessing route

/#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a lo$ degree o& attention, t#ere is lo$ involvement and a

%eri%#eral %assive %rocessing route Pett' and >acio%%o suggested t#at #ig# involvement $as

t#e result o& a message $it# #ig# %ersonal relevance @esearc#ers t#at #ave studied involvement

$it# regard to advertising and music #ave &ound t#at it can %ositivel' a&&ect message %rocessing

in lo$ involvement conditions *ac+nnis Par, 14419 Par oung, 14J

Music theory. "#e idea t#at music #as t#e %otential to en#ance attention stimulate a$areness

and memor' recall #as been $idel' s%eculated and researc#ed Adorno 14?1, 147J9 5artlett

Snelus, 1409 5o$er 5olton, 14J49 Hali(io 6endric, 14729 6ecer, 14?9 *aclin, 149

@ot#sc#ild, 1479 @ubin, 14779 Sc#ulind et al, 14449 /allace, 144?

*aclin 14 &ound t#at messages t#at $ere sung in a %roduced, original .ingle t#at

sounded lie a nurser' r#'me %roduced t#e same recall &rom c#ildren as s%oen messages

5artlett and Snelus 140 &ound t#at cued recall o& l'rics o& %o%ular songs &rom 1421 /#en

!rancis Dances /it# *e= to 147? *orning 6as 5roen= $as #ig#er in res%onse to melodies

t#an in res%onse to titles Sc#ulind, 6ennis, and @ubin 1444 observed a correlation bet$een

music, emotion and autobiogra%#ical, longCterm memor' o& older adults and songs &rom t#eir

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Sound Advertising

'out# $#en testing t#e "o% 20 &rom 143I On "reasure +sland= to 144? "#atBs "#e /a'

8ove Hoes= Some researc#ers #ave also observed t#e en#ancement o& recall b' music @ubin

1477 &ound t#at recall o& in&ormation is im%roved $#en cued $it# t#e melod' o& a $ell no$n

song Star S%angled 5anner= /allace 144? &ound t#at t#e melod' o& a song using t#ree

ballads &rom "#e !ran > 5ro$n >ollection o& Nort# >arolina !ollore could &acilitate recall

o& te)t b' %roviding it $it# musical structure &or learning and remembering Sera&ine, >ro$der,

and @e%% 14?, Sera&ine, Davidson, >ro$der, and @e%% 14J, and >ro$der, Sera&ine and

@e%% 1440 suggested an integration e&&ect $#ere t#e melod' or te)t o& a song using &olsongs

&rom -rdei is better recalled $it# original te)t t#an $it# di&&erent te)t "#ese results suggest t#at

music in ads #as t#e %otential to stimulate emotion, attention and recall but not all studies

su%%ort t#is t#eor' Hali(io and 6endric 1472 did not observe t#at memor' &or verbal

in&ormation $as en#anced b' %resenting t#e in&ormation in t#e &orm o& a song t#e musical

accom%animent o& a guitar A summar' o& t#e most cited t#eories and models including terms

and conce%ts can be seen in "able 2

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Sound Advertising

"able 2A Summar' o& @elevant "#eories and *odels

"#eor' >itation

Attitude

"#eor'

Suggests t#at belie&s are t#e onl' mediators o& attitude &ormation and c#ange

and t#at a %ersonBs attitude is a &unction o& salient belie&s at a %articularmoment

!is#bein

14J3

>lassical>onditioning

"#e %rocess o& be#avior modi&ication b' $#ic# a sub.ect dog comes tores%ond in a desired manner to a %reviousl' neutral stimulus bell t#at #as

been re%eatedl' %resented along $it# an unconditioned stimulus &ood t#atelicits t#e desired res%onse

Pavlov1427

-laboration

8ieli#ood

*odel-8*

Assumes t#at once an individual receives a message, %rocessing begins

/#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a #ig# degree o& attention because it

is relevant t#ere is #ig# involvement and t#us a central active %rocessingroute /#en t#e consumer gives t#e message a lo$ degree o& attention

because it is not relevant, t#ere is lo$ involvement and a %eri%#eral%assive %rocessing route

Pett'

>acio%%o

14J

6ierarc#' o&

Advertising

-&&ects

"#e %rocesses o& attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its

content, develo%ing attitudes, and generating conative ;tendenc' to

move to$ards< res%onses occur in a seFuential causal c#ain

"#orson et al 1442

+nvolvement "#e number o& conscious bridging e)%eriences, connections, or %ersonalre&erences %er minute t#at a vie$er maes bet$een #is or #er o$n li&e and a

stimulus

Grugman 14JI

*usic

"#eor'

"#e recall o& in&ormation is im%roved $#en cued $it# t#e melod' o& a $ell

no$n song "#e melod' o& a song can &acilitate recall in certainenvironments "#ere is a correlation bet$een music, emotion and memor'

@ubin 1477

/allace 144?Sc#ulind et al 1444

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Sound Advertising

*aria'les

/#ile t#e amount o& consumer be#avior t#eories and models used in t#e investigation and

e)%lanation o& musicBs e&&ect on advertising ma' be relativel' &e$, t#e variables #ave been man'

and varied "#e &ollo$ing is a summar' o& t#e most $idel' observed inde%endent and de%endent

variables including a continuum, &ollo$ed b' a com%re#ensive revie$ o& t#e results o& t#e

interaction o& t#ese variables

Independent Variables. "#e im%act o& music on advertising #as been observed $it# a variet'

o& be#aviors $#en mediated eit#er individuall' or t#roug# t#e interaction o& certain variables

*usic a%%eal lie or dislie #as been observed in relation to %roduct %re&erences Allen

*adden, 14I9 Horn, 1429 Gellaris >o), 1449 Pitt Abratt, 14 "#e e&&ect o& music

arousal or mood a tem%orar' &eeling or state $as studied $it# %urc#ase intention Al%ert

Al%ert, 14409 Al%ert et al, 200I9 Gellaris *antel, 144J *usic &it #as been observed in

relation to message %rocessing *ac+nnis Par, 14419 Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en et al, 200J

Di&&erent t'%es o& music %lacementsLtreatments vocals, instrumentals, .ingles, etc and recall

#ave been researc#ed Allan, 200Ja9 @oe#m, 20019 /allace, 1441, 144?9 alc#, 1441 *usic

%resence #as %ositivel' a&&ected %roduct %re&erence and %urc#ase attention $#en interacting $it#

attitude *aclin, 149 *orris 5oone, 1449 *iddlestadt et al, 144?9 Par oung, 14J9

/#eatle' 5rooer, 144? and recall *aclin, 149 Olsen, 144I9 /#eatle' 5rooer,

144? !inall', music tem%o s%eed or %ace, te)ture timbre and orc#estration, modalit'

intervals bet$een notes, and tonalit' intervals bet$een %itc#es in a scale #ave been s#o$n to

#ave t#e %otential to en#ance %leasure and arousal resulting in a greater %urc#ase intention

5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Gellaris Gent, 1441, 144?9 Gellaris @ice, 1443

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Sound Advertising

ependent Variables. /#en mediated $it# t#e above variables, t#e e&&ect o& music in

advertising on a variet' o& consumer res%onses #as also been observed Attitude to$ard t#e ad

can be %ositivel' in&luenced b' t#e %resence o& music *aclin, 149 *orris 5oone, 1449

Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en et al, 200J Perce%tion o& ad time can be decreased b' arousing music

Gellaris *antel, 144J Attitude to$ard t#e brand can be im%roved b' a%%ealing music Allen

*adden, 14I9 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Horn, 1429 Gellaris >o), 1449 Gellaris

@ice, 14439 *iddlestadt et al, 144?9 *orris 5oone, 1449 Par oung, 14J9 Pitt Abratt,

149 K#u, 200I 5rand recall can be increased b' %ersonall' relevant and signi&icant music

Allan, 200Ja9 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Gellaris et al, 14439 *aclin, 149 *ac+nnis

Par, 14419 Nort# et al, 200?9 Olsen, 144I9 @oe#m, 20019 S#en et al, 200J9 /allace, 1441,

144?9 alc#, 14419 /#eatle' 5rooer, 144? *usic attitude can be %ositivel' a&&ected b'

tem%o Gellaris @ice, 14439 Gellaris Gent, 144? PleasureLarousal can be a&&ected b' not

onl' t#e tem%o but t#e tonalit' and te)ture o& t#e music Gellaris Gent, 144? !inall',

%urc#ase intention can be a&&ected b' interaction o& music and mood Al%ert Al%ert, 14409

Al%ert et al, 200I9 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9 Gellaris Gent, 14419 *orris 5oone, 1449

Nort# et al, 200? A continuum o& de%endent variables and t#e corres%onding inde%endent

variables t#at #ave been observed can be seen in !igure 1

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Sound Advertising

!igure 1DVL+V >ontinuum

Attitude "o$ard MM M AdMMM Attitude "o$ardMM 5randMMM PleasureLM M M Purc#aset#e Ad "ime t#e 5rand @ecall Arousal +ntention

*usic &it *usic arousal *usic a%%eal *usic &it *usic tem%o *usic &it

*usic %resence *usic melod' *usic te)ture *usic melod'*usic %resence *usic tonalit' *usic modalit'

*usic tem%o *usic mood *usic %lacement

*usic %resence

*usic tem%o

1I



Sound Advertising 1J



Sound Advertising

Results

*uc# #as been learned about music and advertising since it $as &irst used in commercials in

t#e earl' da's o& radio "#roug# a surve' and anal'sis o& e)%erimental literature and a content

anal'ses o& e)%erimental results and t#eir t#eoretical under%innings, a better understanding o& t#e

interaction o& inde%endent and de%endent variables or more conversationall', ho! music a&&ects

t#e %rocessing o& t#e ad, and ho! much it is being used in advertising, #as been ac#ieved /#at

&ollo$s is a discussion o& t#e results

Attitude )oward the Ad

S#im% 141 argued t#at attitude to$ard t#e ad A""A is an im%ortant mediator $#en a

consumer maes a c#oice Since t#en, musicBs %otential to a&&ect t#e consumerBs ad attitude #as

received some attention $it# con&licting results "#e %resence o& music $as s#o$n to a&&ect #o$

a vie$er &eels $#en looing at %rint ads *orris 5oone, 144 *usical &it resulted in a better

attitude to$ard t#e ad Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en >#en, 200J 5rooer and /#eatle' 144?,

#o$ever, re%orted no e&&ect o& music %lacement on attitude to$ard t#e ad 8ie$ise, *aclin

14 re%orted no e&&ect o& music %resence on attitude to$ard t#e ad $it# c#ildren

Ad )ime

+t #as been argued t#at, under some circumstances, t#ere is a dis%arit' bet$een ob.ective time

and %erceived time o& t#e ad and t#at t#e latter is a&&ected b' e)ternal stimuli lie music Gellaris

*antel, 144?9 144J /#ile not a lot o& attention #as been given to %erceived ad time, it is still

$ort# mentioning Arousal $as &ound to moderate t#e in&luence o& stimulus congruit' on

%erceived time suc# t#at congruit' contributed %ositivel' to retros%ective duration estimates

among sub.ects e)%osed to soot#ing versus arousing music Gellaris *antel, 144J "#e

im%lications o& ob.ective time versus %erceived time involve t#e %otential bene&its to t#e

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advertiser o& increasing memor' &or t#e ad $#ile reducing its lengt# J0Csecond versus 30C

second commercial

Attitude )oward the +rand

*itc#ell and Olson 141 argued t#at a consumerBs attitude or internal evaluation= o& a

brand #as al$a's been an im%ortant consideration in mareting researc# +t is not sur%rising t#en,

t#at a considerable amount o& investigation into musicBs e&&ect on attitude to$ard t#e brand

A""5 #as been undertaen $it# a variet' o& variables and results Horn 142 observed t#at

#earing lied or dislied music can a&&ect %roduct %re&erences but #is results $ere never

re%licated Allen *adden, 14I9 Gellaris >o), 1449 Pitt Abratt, 14 "#e %resence o&

music 5londieBs "ide +s 6ig#= #ad a &acilitative e&&ect on brand attitude s#am%oo and t#eir

&unctional %er&ormance in t#e lo$ involvement condition and a distracting e&&ect &or t#ose in t#e

cognitive involvement condition Par oung, 14J *usic %resence $as also s#o$n to #ave

eit#er no e&&ects *orris 5oone, 144 or negative e&&ects S#en et al, 200J on attitude

de%ending on its &it As to #o$ t#e %rocess o& attitude c#ange to$ard t#e brand occurs, it #as

been suggested t#at it mig#t be a belie&Cbased rat#er t#an an a&&ectCbased c#ange *iddlestadt et

al, 144? 5rooer and /#eatle' 144? re%orted no e&&ect o& %lacement on attitude to$ard t#e

brand *aclin 14 re%orted no e&&ect o& t#e %resence o& music on attitude to$ard t#e brand

$it# c#ildren

+rand Recall

@ecall o& t#e brand is obviousl' a %rimar' consideration in t#e evaluation o& t#e e&&ectiveness

o& music in advertising /#en t#e music &it, t#e message %rocessing o& t#e ad $as en#anced

*ac+nnis Par, 14419 Nort# et al, 200? Di&&erent music treatments original and altered

vocals, instrumentals, .ingles, silence did a&&ect recall di&&erentl' under varied conditions Allan,

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Sound Advertising

200Ja9 Olsen, 144I: @oe#m, 20019 /allace, 1441, 144?9 alc#, 1441 "#e %resence or absence

o& music $as s#o$n to be bot# attentionCgetting Par oung, 14 and distracting

/#eatle' 5rooer, 144? "#e %lacement 5rooer /#eatle', 144? or t#e %resence o&

music *aclin, 14 $as not observed to a&&ect recall *usical &it, #o$ever, $as s#o$n to

stimulate better recall o& brands Nort# et al, 200?9 S#en et al, 200J

Pleasure and Arousal

+t #as been argued t#at music is an es%eciall' %o$er&ul stimulus &or a&&ecting moods 5runer,

1440 "#us, it is ma'be a bit sur%rising t#at musicBs %otential to a&&ect moods %rimaril' t#roug#

%leasure and arousal garnered a signi&icant amount o& attention in t#e 1440Bs but not muc# since

During t#at time, it $as observed t#at arousing music $as &ound to %roduce greater degrees o&

mood en#ancement t#us %ositivel' a&&ecting %urc#ase intention Al%ert Al%ert, 14409 Al%ert et

al, 200I9 Gellaris *antel, 144J9 *orris 5oone, 144 *usic tem%o &ast $as s#o$n to

#ave %ositive e&&ects on be#avioral intent Gellaris Gent, 1441

Purchase ntention

Since %urc#ase intention or conation $as &irst de&ined as be#avior directed to$ard action=

S#anteau Ptace, 143, % 1?4, it #as been one o& t#e most di&&icult advertising e&&ects to

researc# but arguabl' t#e most im%ortant /it# regard to %urc#ase intention and music, t#e

results varied $it# some observing signi&icant e&&ects Al%ert Al%ert, 14409 Al%ert et al, 200I9

Gellaris Gent, 1441 and some observing no signi&icant e&&ects 5rooer /#eatle', 144?9

*orris 5oone, 144 "#e %lacement o& music $as s#o$n to invite attention to t#e message

and motivating consumers to %rocess t#e message and &acilitate t#e %otential to %urc#ase

5rooer /#eatle', 144? "#e combination o& music $it# silence also #as been s#o$n to be

attentionCgetting resulting in t#e en#ancement o& %urc#ase intention Olsen, 144I "#e e&&ect o&

14



Sound Advertising

music tem%o $as s#o$n to #ave #ad contradictor' results $it# some re%orting a %assive e&&ect

on %urc#ase intention Gellaris Gent, 1441, and some re%orting no e&&ect 5rooer

/#eatle', 144?9 *orris 5oone, 144

Content Analyses

Onl' a &e$ studies #ave dealt $it# t#e amount o& commercials on television and radio $it#

music Ste$art and !urse 14J, % 1J0 &ound music &eatured in slig#tl' more t#an ?0 o& 1000

television commercials t#e' studied, but t#at onl' 12 o& t#ose used l'rics to directl' conve' t#e

advertising message Similar &reFuencies $ere obtained in a &ollo$Cu% stud' Ste$art Goslo$,

144, % 24 A%%elbaum and 6alliburton 1443 anal'(ed international commercials and &ound

music in 4 o& t#eir sam%le % 237 Allan 200Jb anal'(ed commercials in %rimeCtime

television and re%orted t#at J o& t#e uniFue ads contained some t'%e o& music A summar' o&

t#e most relevant Fualitative and Fuantitative studies on t#e e&&ects o& music on advertising can

be seen in "able 3

20



Sound Advertising

"able 3 Summar' o& @elevant -&&ectual @esearc# +nvolving Advertising and *usic

>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults

21



Sound Advertising

"able 3

continued

>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults

Horn 142 2??

undergraduates

*usic a%%eal 5rand attitude 6earing lied or dislied

music $#ile being e)%osed toa %roduct can directl' a&&ect

%roduct %re&erences

Allen

*adden14I

J0 undergraduates *usic a%%eal 5rand attitude 6earing lied or dislied

music $#ile being e)%osed toa %roduct did not directl'

a&&ect %roduct %re&erences

Par oung

14J

120 $omen *usic

%resenceLabsence,+nvolvement

#ig#Llo$"V ads

5rand attitudeLin&ormation *usic #ad a &acilitative e&&ect

on brand attitude &or sub.ectsin t#e lo$ involvement

condition and a distractinge&&ect &or t#ose in t#e

cognitive involvementcondition

Se$all Sarel 14J

200 malls#o%%ersL

32 radio ads

*usic bacground 5rand recall 5acground music #ad nosigni&icant e&&ect

Pitt Abratt

14

172 undergraduate

students

*usic a%%eal 5rand attitude 6earing lied or dislied

music $#ile being e)%osed toa %roduct did not directl'

a&&ect %roduct %re&erences

22



Sound Advertising

"able 3

continued>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults

*aclin

14

7I %resc#oolers *usic bacground

Presence

Ad attitude

5rand attitude5rand recall

*usic did not en#ance outcomes

Stout 8ecenb'

14

1?4 malls#o%%ersL

I0 "V ads

*usictem%o9 mode9

volume9 %resence

>ognitiveLA&&ective res%onses

*usic #ad onl' minor e&&ects

Gellaris >o)

144

302

undergraduates

*usic a%%eal 5rand attitude No evidence t#at %roduct %re&erences can

be conditioned t#roug# a single e)%osure

to a%%ealing or una%%ealing music>lassical >onditioning

Al%ert

Al%ert 1440

? undergraduate

students

*usic *ood

Purc#ase intention

*usic #ad a signi&icant e&&ect on moods

and %urc#ase intention

Gellaris

Gent 1441

10

undergraduates

*usic tem%oL

modalit'

*usic evaluation

Purc#ase intention

"em%o and *odalit' in&luenced arousal

and intent

*ac+nnis Par 1441

17 undergraduate$omen

*usic &itLinde)icalit'

"V ads

*essage %rocessing +nde)icalit' and &it a&&ect t#e %rocessing o& bot# #ig#C and lo$Cinvolvement consumers,

in&luencing messageC and nonCmessageC

based %rocessing

23



Sound Advertising

"able 3


/allace

1441

120 sub.ects *usic %lacementC

SungLs%oen $ords

.inglesL

ballads

5rand recall *usic %rovides a retrieval cue

*usic acts as a &rame $#ic# t#e te)t istig#tl' &it

alc# 1441 103undergraduates

*usic %lacementCslogans $it# and

$it#out music.ingles

5rand recall *usic en#ances memor' &or advertisingslogans $#en t#e slogans $ere

incor%orated into an advertisement in t#e&orm o& a .ingle or song

Gellaris @ice 1443

I2 undergraduates *usic tem%o,8oudness,

Hender

*usic res%onses Hender moderates t#e in&luence o&loudness resulting in &emales res%onding

more %ositivel' to music at lo$ervolumes

Gellaris et al

1443

231

undergraduates

*usicCmessage &it,

AttentionCgaining

value

5rand recallL

@ecognition o& brand

name and messages

+ncreasing audience attention to music

en#ances message rece%tion $#en t#e

music evoes messageCcongruentt#oug#ts

2?



Sound Advertising

5rooer

/#eatle'144?

100 %artici%ants *usic tem%oL

%lacementradio ads

Ad attitudes

5rand attitudesPurc#ase intention

5rand recall

"em%o #ad e&&ects on %erce%tion

o& music but no e&&ect on DVBsPlacement #ad a stronger e&&ect

on DVBs

Gellaris

Gent 144?

2

undergraduates

*usic tem%oL

"onalit'L"e)ture

PleasureLArousal "em%o a&&ected %leasure and

arousal"onalit' a&&ected %leasure and

sur%rise"e)ture moderated tem%o and

tonalit' on %leasure

*iddlestadt et

al 144?

47 undergraduates *usic %resence 5rand attitude 5elie&Cbased c#ange

/allace144?

J? undergraduates *usic melod' 5rand recall "e)t is better recalled $#en it is#eard as a song rat#er t#an as

s%eec#, %rovided t#e music

re%eats so t#at it is easil'learned

/#eatle'

5rooer

144?

1?? undergraduate

students and t#eir

%arents

*usic

%resenceLabsence

S%oes%ersonsradio ads

5rand recall

>ognitive res%onse

*usic #indered message recall

and did not en#ance attention

2I



Sound Advertising

"able 3


2J



Sound Advertising

Olsen 144I 1?? undergraduate

students

*usic

%resenceLabsencemusicLsilence

5rand recallL

attribute im%ortance

Silence e&&ectivel' increases

listener retention o& adin&ormation es%eciall' $#en t#e

#ig#lig#ted in&ormation $as t#e

last item o& a series

Gellaris *antel 144J

I undergraduatestudents

*usic arousalLcongruit'

radio ads

Ad time Arousal $as &ound to moderatet#e in&luence o& stimulus

congruit' on %erceived time suc#t#at congruit' contributed

%ositivel' to retros%ective

duration estimates among sub.ectse)%osed to soot#ing versus

arousing music

*orris 5oone 144

40 undergraduates *usic %resenceLabsence

%rint ads

-motional res%onse5rand attitude

Purc#ase +ntention

*usic a&&ected emotionalres%onse o& %rint ads No e&&ect on

brand attitude or %urc#ase

intention

@oe#m 2001 ? *5AstudentsL??

communit' %eo%le

*usic %lacementversus vocals

radio ads

5rand recall +nstrumentals %roduced greaterrecall o& t#e message i& t#e

individuals ne$ t#e song Vocals

%roduced greater recall o& t#el'rics i& t#e individuals did not

no$ t#e song

27



Sound Advertising

"able 3 continued>itation Sam%le +nde%endent Variables De%endent Variables @esults

2



Sound Advertising

Nort# et al

200?

1J2 %artici%ants *usicLvoice &it Attitude to$ard t#e ad

5rand recallPurc#ase +ntention

*usical &it resulted in better

recall o& %roducts, brands, andclaims, attitude to$ard t#e ad,

and %urc#ase intention

Voice &it resulted in better recallo& claims, attitude to$ard t#e

ad, and %urc#ase intention

Al%ert et al200I

7I undergraduatestudents

*usic mood Purc#ase intention /#en music is used to evoeemotions congruent $it# t#e

s'mbolic meaning o& %roduct

%urc#ase, t#e lieli#ood o& %urc#asing is en#anced

K#u, @ui

*e'ersC8ev',oan 200I

77L104

undergraduates

*usic meanings

embodiedLre&erential

5rand attitude +ntensive %rocessors are

sensitive to music meanings

S#en >#en200J

130 students *usic &it Ad attitude /#en t#e music does not &itmusic incongruit' it can #ave

an adverse e&&ect on attitudesto$ard t#e ad

24



Sound Advertising 30



Sound Advertising

uture Research

+tBs been over t$ent' 'ears since 6ecer 14?, % 7 called music t#e catal'st o&

advertising= 6e suggested t#at researc#ers can better understand and use t#is magic i& t#e'

understand t#at music is too im%ortant to be $asted on amor%#ous, irrelevant, or ina%%ro%riate

goals= /#ile muc# #as been done, t#ere is still great %otential &or real researc# into musicBs

e&&ectiveness= Dunbar, 1440 5runer 1440, % 102 rein&orced in #is revie$ o& literature t#at

t#e relevant bod' o& researc# $as indeed still meager= and Nort# and 6argreaves 1447, % 22

concluded t#at t#e &ield is ;still< underCinvestigated= A number o& t#e studies revie$ed #ave

suggested additional researc# t#at eit#er #as not been undertaen or needs additional

investigation "#ese include more collaboration bet$een t#e %rivate and academic sectors, a

longitudinal stud' on t#e amount o& music in advertising, more attention to t#e e&&ect o& music on

brand image, t#e use o& di&&erent e)%erimental environments, and &inall' a ric#er investigation o&

t#e e&&ect o& music &it and inde)icalit' on advertising

Advertisers and Academics

Al%ert and Al%ert 1441, % 23J called &or more coo%erative e&&orts bet$een academic

researc#ers and industr' %ractitioners a%%l'ing musical t#eories to advertising e)ecutioners=

"oo o&ten t#e e&&orts remain se%arate $it# t#e industr' &indings unavailable oint e&&orts $ould

bene&it bot# %arties to better understand $#en and $#' music $ors in advertising= % 23J

*an' advertisers use %o%ular music in t#eir advertising es%eciall' The "ap and #ld $avy "#e

Ha% %rimaril' uses original l'rics $it# Old Nav' utili(ing altered l'rics Since t#e' are bot#

o$ned b' t#e same %arent com%an', it $ould be bene&icial to not onl' conduct an academicall'C

based e&&ectual stud' as $ell as to correlate t#e &indings $it# sales results during t#e cam%aign

31



Sound Advertising

At t#e ver' least, %rivate researc# s#ould be made available to t#e academic communit' to veri&'

t#e results and %rovide a %ractical basis &or t#e use o& music in advertising

Advertising and Popular Music

+t is clear t#at t#ere is a need to more consistentl' Fuanti&' and trend t#e use o& music,

es%eciall' %o%ular music, in advertising Ste$art and !urse 14J, % 1J0 lamented t#e absence

o& its s'stematic measurement and set out to %rovide suc# documentation +n a later re%ort,

Ste$art, !armer, and Stannard 1440 recommended t#at additional researc# $as needed in t#is

area Nonet#eless, onl' A%%elbaum and 6alliburton 1443 and Allan 200Jb #eeded t#is

recommendation b' anal'(ing international commercials A longitudinal investigation o& t#e

amount o& music in advertising, es%eciall' %o%ular music, s#ould be conducted to trac its

%roli&eration and %rogression

Since t#e use o& %o%ular music in advertising continues to %ros%er, more needs to also be

no$n about t#e e&&ects +n &act, Gellaris and Gent 1441, % 2? suggested &urt#er stud' into t#e

e&&ects o& musical com%onents on t#e %rocessing o& verbal material eg, song l'rics, advertising

messages *ore needs to be done $it# %o%ular music and altered l'rics eg e5a', Old Nav'

"#is could include more diverse demogra%#ics and t#e role o& listener c#aracteristics in s#a%ing

res%onses to music Gellaris Gent, 144?, % 347 Additionall', $#ile com%arisons #ave been

made bet$een some %lacementsLtreatments vocalsLinstrumentals, etc, a larger stud' needs to

be done com%aring all %ossible treatments vocals, instrumentals, .ingles, altered vocals, and a

control treatment o& silence Also a%%arent is t#e need &or &urt#er researc# into t#e role o&

bacground music Al%ert Al%ert, 1440, % 130 +t is also clear t#at $e need &urt#er

investigations o& advertisements $it# songs t#at re%resent varied st'les o& %o%ular music=

@oe#m, 2001, % I7

32



Sound Advertising

!inall', *c>#esne' 2001 called %o%ular music and advertising t#e banru%tc' o& culture=

and 5urns 144J called it disturbing and even s#ocing= Advertisers $#o use it consider it a

marriage o& art and commerce= and Allan 200I suggested t#at t#e combination o& %o%ular

music and advertising creates a ne$ cultural %roduct= >learl', more attention needs to be given

to t#e social and et#ical im%lications o& t#e use o& %o%ular music and advertising "#is can be

done as %art o& a longitudinal stud'

+rand mage

Stout and 8ec#enb' 14, % 223 called &or more researc# into t#e contribution made b'

music to brand image= +t is clear t#at man' advertisers are using music to create an image eg,

iPod /#at is not so clear is musicBs e&&ectiveness or t#e im%lications &or t#e music andLor

artists eg, E2 A related area o& consideration is t#e use o& music in t#e imaging o& a brand as

a distribution c#annel eg, Starbucs -ac# o& t#ese areas o& researc# is certainl'

underdevelo%ed and $arrants &urt#er investigation Additionall', some %o%ular music and artists

are actuall' being e)%osed and branded= t#roug# advertising eg, *odest *ouse and

%lacement in television s#o$s eg, Hre'Bs Anatom' "#e e&&ects o& advertising and media on

%o%ular music could also be investigated

Environments

Scott 1440, % 23? argued t#at $e must not let our met#ods drive our t#eories but must

instead design our met#ods in a $a' t#at can encom%ass $#atever t#eor' seems articulate

enoug# to &ull' describe t#e %#enomenon= Studies need to be conducted under more realistic

vie$ing and listening conditions 5runer 1440 agreed and called &or t#e raising o& level o&

e)%erimental so%#istication= % 100 !ar too man' studies continue to be done in isolated lab

environments One %ossible idea $ould be to observe and surve' customers in "#e Ha% or Old

33



Sound Advertising

Nav' $#en t#eir res%ective advertisements are %la'ed in t#e store Additionall', due to t#eir

gro$ing distribution o& music, Starbucs %rovides a %otentiall' e&&ective &ield e)%eriment

location

it and ndexicality

*ore studies need to &urt#er investigate &it a %ersonBs %erce%tion o& t#e musicBs relevance

and inde)icalit' a %ersonBs emotionCladen memories "#is researc# can be e)%anded to loo at

various genres and eras o& music $it# s%ecial attention given to t#e %ersonal relevance o& t#e

musicLe&&ect o& %rocessing -8* Additionall', more &ocus needs to be given to t#e stud' o&

e)ecutional cues and t#eir %rocessing im%lications &or #ig#C and lo$Cinvolvement consumersB ad

%rocessing= *ac+nnis Par, 1441, % 172 +t ma' be t#at music can in&luence a %ersonBs

involvement $it# advertising due to some conce%tuali(ation o& involvement Kaic#o$s',

14J suc# as %ersonal, ob.ect, or situational c#aracteristics A great deal o& contem%orar'

advertising utili(es classic roc music evidentl' targeted to$ards 2ICI? males, 'et some

teenagers are also listening to t#is genre o& music &rom t#e 1470s +t ma' certainl' be involving

to bot# demogra%#ics $it# muc# di&&erent inde)icalit', not to mention &it !urt#er investigation

must be conducted to determine t#e conseFuences

Conclusion

So is 'our advertising sound i& 'ou use sound in advertising "#e researc# suggests t#at music

is more liel' to %ositivel' t#an negativel' a&&ect t#e consumerBs res%onse to 'our advertising

"#atBs t#e eas' %art but not ver' #el%&ul to an agenc' tr'ing to advise an advertiser on $#et#er or

not to use music and $#at music to use "#e use o& music in general, and t#e t'%e o& music in

%articular, must be care&ull' c#osen $it# t#e target audience and t#e desired outcome driving t#e

selection +t is clear &rom t#is revie$ t#at music #as been s#o$n to bot# %ositivel' and negativel'

3?



Sound Advertising

stimulate a variet' o& res%onses including attention, mood, attitude, and %urc#ase intention "#e

stimulation o& t#ese res%onses is di&&erent based on various c#aracteristics o& t#e music itsel&

including its a%%eal, %resence, tem%o, bacground or &oreground, etc +n t#e case o& its a%%eal,

di&&erent genres o& music &rom di&&erent eras a&&ect di&&erent demogra%#ics o& consumers

di&&erentl' So itBs com%licated /#at $e do no$ &rom t#is overvie$ o& researc# on music and

advertising is t#at, $#en used e&&ectivel', it can be e&&ective "#at sounds= rat#er trite but itBs

true An advertiser s#ould not .ust use an' music in a commercial .ust &or t#e sae o& using

music +t s#ould be care&ull' c#osen and tested to %redict its %otential to stimulate a %ositive

res%onse &or t#e brand andLor t#e ad $it# t#e ultimate goal o& branding and %urc#ase "#ere is a

substantial amount o& researc# out t#ere to guide t#e advertiser and t#is revie$ %rovides t#e

&oundation &or t#at %rocess "#ere is also muc# researc# t#at needs to be done and t#is revie$

also %rovides direction and motivation

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Adorno, " / 147J Introduction to the sociology of music Ne$ or: "#e Seabur' Press

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Advertising )esearch% *( ?, 1C11

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A-*>, San !rancisco, >A

3I



Sound Advertising

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music on s#o%%ing be#avior +n " * 8o$re' -d, ,ric- ' Mortar Shopping in the /st

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Allen, > ", *adden, " 14I A closer loo at classical conditioning Journal of

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Psychology ' Mar-eting% 0 2, 104C133

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5o$er, H 6, 5olton, 8 S 14J4 /#' are r#'mes eas' to learn Journal of

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Culture% 363, 124C1?1

3J



Sound Advertising

>ro$der, @ H, Sera&ine, * 8, @e%%, 5 1440 P#'sical interaction and association b'

contiguit' in memor' &or t#e $ords and melodies o& songs Memory ' Cognition% /1I, ?J4C

?7J

Dunbar, D S 1440 *usic and advertising International Journal of Advertising% &3, 147C

203

!is#bein, * 14J3 An investigation o& t#e relations#i% bet$een belie&s about an ob.ect and

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music var'ing in tem%o, tonalit', and te)ture Journal of Consumer Psychology% ?, 31C

?01

37



Sound Advertising

Gellaris, , *antel, S P 144? "#e in&luence o& mood and gender on consumers time

%erce%tions Advances in Consumer )esearch% /, I1?CI1

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I01CI1I

Gellaris, , @ice, @ > 1443 "#e in&luence o& tem%o, loudness, and gender on

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Grugman, 6 - 14JI "#e im%act o& television advertising: 8earning $it#out involvement

Public #pinion 8uarterly% &, 3?4C3IJ

8am, S 2001 "#e e&&ects o& store environment on s#o%%ing be#avior: A critical revie$

Advances in Consumer )esearch% 1, 140C147

*ac+nnis, D , Par, > / 1441 "#e di&&erential role o& c#aracteristics o& music on

#ig#C and lo$Cinvolvement consumers %rocessing o& ads Journal of Consumer )esearch% /1,

1J1C173

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res%onses: an e)%erimental investigation +n S 6ecer D / Ste$art -ds, $onverbal

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attitudes: A&&ectC or belie&Cbased c#ange +n - * >lar " > 5roc D / Ste$art

-ds, Attention% Attitude% and Affect in )esponse to Advertising %% 1?4C1J7 6illsdale, N:

8a$rence -rlbaum

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Sound Advertising

*itc#ell, A A, Olson, > 141 Are %roduct attribute belie&s t#e onl' mediator o&

advertising e&&ects on brand attitude Journal of Mar-eting )esearch% /1, 31C332

*orris, D, 5oone, * A 144 "#e e&&ects o& music on emotional res%onse, brand

attitude, and %urc#ase intent in an emotional advertising condition Advances in Consumer

)esearch% 2, I1CI2J

Nort#, A >, 6argreaves, D 1447 *usic and consumer be#avior +n D 6argreaves

A > Nort# -ds, The Sociology of Music O)&ord: O)&ord Eniversit' Press

Nort#, A >, 6argreaves, D 144 "#e e&&ect o& music on atmos%#ere and %urc#ase

intention in a ca&eteria Journal of Applied Social Psychology% 12?, 22I?C2273

Nort#, A >, *acGen(ie, 8 >, 8a$, @ * 200? "#e e&&ects o& musical and voice Q&itQ

on res%onses to advertisements Journal of Applied Social Psychology% 3*, 1J7IC170

Olsen, H D 144I >reating t#e contrast: "#e in&luence o& silence and bacground music on

recall and attribute im%ortance Journal of Advertising% /*?, 24C??

Par, > /, oung, S * 14J >onsumer res%onse to television commercials: "#e

im%act o& involvement and bacground music on brand attitude &ormation Journal of

Mar-eting )esearch% 3, 11C2?

Pavlov, + P 1427 Conditioned refle5es 8ondon: @outledge and Gegan Paul

Pett', @ -, >acio%%o, " 14J Communication and persuasion9 Central and peripheral

routes to attitudes change Ne$ or: S%ringerCVerlag

Pitt, 8 !, Abratt, @ 14 *usic in advertisements &or unmentionable %roducts C a

classical conditioning e)%eriment International Journal of Advertising% 0 2, 130C137

@oe#m, * 8 2001 +nstrumental vs vocal versions o& %o%ular music in advertising Journal of

Advertising )esearch% */3, ?4CI

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@ot#sc#ild, * 8 147 Advertising9 :rom fundamentals to strategies 8e)ington, *A:

6eat#

@ubin, D > 1477 Ver' longCterm memor' &or %rose and verse Journal of Verbal ;earning

and Verbal ,ehavior% /( I, J11CJ21

Salmon, > 14J Pers%ectives on involvement in consumer and communication researc# +n

5 Dervin -d, Progress in Communication Sciences Vol 7, %% 2?3C2J Nor$ood, N:

Able)

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memor' Memory ' Cognition% 0 J, 4?C4II

Scott, 8 * 1440 Enderstanding .ingles and needledro%: A r#etorical a%%roac# to music in

advertising Journal of Consumer )esearch% /0 , 223C23J

Sera&ine, * 8, >ro$der, @ H, @e%%, 5 6 14? +ntegration o& melod' and te)t in

memor' &or song Cognition% /( 3, 2IC303

Sera&ine, * 8, Davidson, , >ro$der, @ H, @e%%, 5 6 14J On t#e nature o& melod'C

te)t integration in memor' &or songs Journal of Memory ' ;anguage% 22, 123C13I

Se$all, * A, Sarel, D 14J >#aracteristics o& radio commercials and t#eir recall

e&&ectiveness Journal of Mar-eting% 26, I2CJ0

S#anteau, , Ptace, > 6 143 @ole and im%lications o& averaging %rocesses in

advertising +n 8 Perc' A H /oodside -ds, Advertising and consumer psychology

%% 1?4C170 8e)ington, *A: 8e)ington 5oos

S#en, C>, >#en, "C> 200J /#en east meets $est: "#e e&&ect o& cultural tone

congruit' in ad music and message on consumer ad memor' and attitude International

Journal of Advertising% 21, I1C70

?0



Sound Advertising

S#im%, " A 141 Attitude to$ard t#e ad as a mediator o& consumer brand c#oice Journal

of Advertising% /6, 4C1I

S#uer, @ 144? <nderstanding Popular Music Ne$ or: @outledge

Ste$art, D /, !armer, G *, Stannard, > + 1440 *usic as a recognition cue in

advertisingCtracing studies Journal of Advertising )esearch% 36?, 34C?

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commercials 8e)ington, *A: 8e)ington 5oos

Ste$art, D /, Goslo$, S 144 -)ecutional &actors and advertising e&&ectiveness:

A re%lication Journal of Advertising% /13, 21C32

Stout, P, 8ecenb', D 14 8et t#e music %la': *usic as a nonverbal element in "V

commercials +n S 6ecer D / Ste$art -ds, $onverbal Communication in Advertising

8e)ington, *A: 8e)ington 5oos

"#orson, -, >#i, A, 8eavitt, > 1442 Attention, memor', attitude, and conation: A test o&

advertising #ierarc#' Advances in Consumer )esearch% /&, 3JJC374

"urle', 8 /, *illiman, @ - 2000 Atmos%#eric e&&ects on s#o%%ing be#avior: A revie$

o& e)%erimental evidence Journal of ,usiness )esearch% *&, 143C211

/allace, / " 1441 ingles in advertisements: >an t#e' im%rove recall Advances in

Consumer )esearch% /1, 234C2?2

/allace, / " 144? *emor' &or music: e&&ect o& melod' on recall o& te)t Journal of

45perimental Psychology% 6J, 1?71C1?I

?1



Sound Advertising

/#eatle', , 5rooer, H 144? *usic and s%oes%erson e&&ects on recall and cognitive

res%onse to a radio advertisement +n - * >lar " > 5roc D / Ste$art -ds,

Attention% Attitude% and Affect in )esponse to Advertising %% 14C20? 6illside, N:

8a$rence -rlbaum Associates, +nc

alc#, @ ! 1441 *emor' in a .ingle .ungle: *usic as a mnemonic device in

communicating advertising slogans Journal of Applied Psychology% 0( 2, 2JC27I

alc#, @ !, S%angenberg, - 1443 <sing store music for retail =oning. Pa%er %resented at

t#e Association &or >onsumer @esearc#, Provo, E"

Kaic#o$s', 8 14J >once%tuali(ing involvement Journal of Advertising% /22, ?C1?

K#u, @, *e'ersC8ev' 200I Distinguis#ing bet$een meanings o& music: /#en

bacground music a&&ects %roduct %erce%tions Journal of Mar-eting )esearch% *, 333C3?I

>orres%ondence s#ould be sent to:

David Allan, P#D

De%artment o& *areting

Saint ose%#s Eniversit'

IJ00 >it' Avenue

P#iladel%#ia, PA 14131

%#one: J10CJJ0C1J37

eCmail: dallanRs.uedu

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