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Runway

Runway at Gibraltar Airport

FAA airport diagram at O'Hare International Airport. From left to right, runways

14/32 slant down, runways 4/22 slant up, runways 9/27 and 10/28 are horizontal

Runway ofChennai International Airport, Chennai, India

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Helsinki-Vantaa Airport, runway 33

On final approach to runway 24 at DCAE Cosford.

A runway (RWY) is a strip of land at an airport on which aircraft can take offand

land and forms part of the maneuvering area. Runways may be a man-made surface

(often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt

gravel, ice, orsalt).

By extension, the term has also come to mean any long, flat, straight area, such as

that used in fashion shows.

Orientation and dimensions

This section does not cite any references or sources

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources

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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009)

Runways are given a number between 01 and 36. This indicates the runway's

heading: A runway with the number 36 points to the north (360), runway 09 points

east (90), runway 18 is south (180), and runway 27 points west (270). Thus, the

runway number is one tenth of the runway centerline's magnetic azimuth, measured

clockwise from the magnetic declination.

A runway can normally be used in two directions, which means the runway may

have two names: "runway 33" and "runway 15". The two numbers always differ by

18 (= 180).

El Dorado International Airport, Runway 31R/13L

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Runways in North America that lie within the Northern Domestic Airspace are,

because of the magnetic North Pole, usually numbered according to true north.[1]

For clarity in radio communications, each digit is pronounced individually: runway

three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in "runway zero six" or

"runway zero one left", is included for International Civil Aviation Organization

(ICAO) and some United States military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base)

However in the United States at most civil aviation airports, the leading zero is

often dropped: "runway niner" (the number nine is pronounced "niner" to avoid

confusion with the spoken number "five") or "runway four right". This also includes

some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield. This American anomaly may

lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in

other countries. It is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to

clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, Runway 04, and the pilot read

back the clearance as Runway 4. In flight simulation programs those of American

origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For example Runway

05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05.

Cotswold Airport in Gloucestershire, England. The runway is 08

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Runway sign at Madrid-Barajas Airport, Spain.

Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on

the Earth's surface and the magnetic bearing will change. Depending on the airport

location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change

the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the

nearest 10 degrees, this will affect some runways more than others. For example, if

the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway

23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, the Runway

would still be Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was

226 (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway

should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is quite slow, runway

designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an

accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When

runway designations do change, especially at major airports, it is often changed

overnight as taxiway signs need to be changed and the huge numbers at each end of

the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for

example, London Stansted Airport in the United Kingdom changed its runway

designations from 05/23 to 04/22 overnight.

If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways),

each runway is identified by appending Left (L), Center (C) and Right (R) to the

number for example, Runways One Five Left (15L), One Five Center (15C), and

One Five Right (15R). Runway Zero Three Left (03L) becomes Runway Two One

Right (21R) when used in the opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the

original number for the 180 degrees when approaching from the opposite direction).

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At large airports with more than three parallel runways (for example, at Los

Angeles, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta, Denver,

and Dallas-Fort Worth), some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid

the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example

in Los Angeles, this system results in Runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all

four runways are exactly parallel (approximately 69 degrees). At Dallas-Fort

Worth, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all

oriented at a heading of 175.4 degrees.

Forfixed-wing aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the

wind to reduce takeoff roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying

speed. Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that

one can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one

runway are often constructed to be aligned with theprevailing wind.

Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide

in smallergeneral aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft)

wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largestjets, to the huge

11,917 m (39,098 ft) x 274 m (899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force

Base in California - a landing site for the Space Shuttle.[2]

[edit] Placement and grouping

Two runways pointing in the same direction are classed as dual or parallel runways

depending on the separation distance. In some countries, flight rules mandate that

only one runway may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse

weather) if the parallel runways are too close to each other.

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[edit] Declared distances

TORA [3]

Takeoff Run Available - The length of runway declared available and

suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.[4]

TODA [3]

TakeoffDistance Available - The length of the takeoff run available plus the

length of the clearway, if clearway is provided.[4]

(The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary.

According to the Federal Aviation Regulations and Joint Aviation Requirements

(JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).

ASDA [3]

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available - The length of the takeoff run available

plus the length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.[4]

LDA [3]

Landing Distance Available - The length of runway which is declared

available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing.[5]

EDA[citationneeded]

Emergency Distance Available - LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.

[edit] Sections ofa runway




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y The Runway Safety Area is the cleared, smoothed and graded area aroundthe paved runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight

or ground roll of aircraft.

y The Runway is the surface from threshold to threshold, which typicallyfeatures threshold markings, numbers, centerlines, but not overrun areas at

both ends.

y Blast pads, also known as overrun areas or stopways, are often constructed

just before the start of a runway where jet blast produced by large planesduring the takeoff roll could otherwise erode the ground and eventually

damage the runway. Overrun areas are also constructed at the end of runways

as emergency space to slowly stop planes that overrun the runway on a

landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on a rejected takeoffor a take-

off gone wrong. Blast pads are often not as strong as the main paved surface

of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes are not allowed to

taxi, take-off or land on blast pads, except in an emergency.

y Displaced thresholds may be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout,but not for touchdown. A displaced threshold often exists because obstacles

just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions may make the

beginning section of runway unsuitable for landings. It is marked with white

paint arrows that lead up to the beginning of the landing portion of the

runway.

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[edit] Runway lighting

[edit] History

The first runway lighting appeared in 1930 at Cleveland Municipal Airport (now

known as Cleveland Hopkins International Airport) in Cleveland, Ohio.[citationneeded]

A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming

in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path.

[edit] Technical specifications

Runway lighting is used at airports which allow night landings. Seen from the air

runway lights form an outline of the runway.[citationneeded] A particular runway may

have some or all of the following.

yRunway End Identification Lights (REIL

[3]

) unidirectional (facingapproach direction) or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights

installed at the runway threshold, one on each side.

y Runway end lights a pair of four lights on each side of the runway onprecision instrument runways, these lights extend along the full width of the

runway. These lights show green when viewed by approaching aircraft andred when seen from the runway.[citationneeded]

y Runway edge lights white elevated lights that run the length of the runwayon either side. On precision instrument runways, the edge-lighting becomes

yellow in the last 2,000 ft (610 m) of the runway. Taxiways are differentiated

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by being bordered by blue lights, or by having green centre lights, depending

on the width of the taxiway, and the complexity of the taxi pattern.[citationneeded]

y Runway CenterlineLighting System (RCLS[3]) lights embedded into thesurface of the runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway centerline on

some precision instrument runways. White except the last 3,000 ft (914 m),

alternate white and red for next 2,000 ft (610 m) and red for last 1,000 ft (305

m).[citationneeded]

y Touchdown ZoneLights (TDZL[3]) rows of white light bars (with three ineach row) on either side of the centerline over the first 3,000 ft (914 m) (or to

the midpoint, whichever is less) of the runway.[citationneeded]

y Taxiway CenterlineLead-OffLights installed along lead-off markings,alternate green and yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement. It

starts with green light about runway centerline to the position of first

centerline light beyond holding position on taxiway.[citationneeded]

y Taxiway CenterlineLead-On Lights installed the same way as taxiwaycenterline lead-off Lights.

y Land and Hold Short Lights a row of white pulsating lights installedacross the runway to indicate hold short position on some runways which are

facilitating land and hold short operations (LAHSO).[citationneeded]

y Approach Lighting System (ALS[3]) a lighting system installed on theapproach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe

lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway

end.[citationneeded]

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According to Transport Canada's regulations,[citation needed] the runway-edge lighting

must be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of advisory

lighting, Runway Status Lights, is currently being tested in the United States.[6]

The edge lights must be arranged such that:

y the minimum distance between lines is 75 ft (23 m), and maximum is 200 ft(61 m);

y the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 ft (61 m);y the minimum length of parallel lines is 1,400 ft (427 m);y the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.[7]

Control ofLighting System Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower,

a Flight Service Station or another designated authority.[citation needed] Some

airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones) are equipped with Pilot Controlled

Lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn on the lights when the relevant

authority is not available.[citationneeded] This avoids the need for automatic systems or

staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also

avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller

airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private

airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than a windsock beside a

landing strip.

[edit] Runway markings




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There are runway markings and signs on any runway. Larger runways have a

distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single

number to indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 ft

(2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.

There are three types of runways:

y visual Runways are used at small airstrips and are usually just a strip of grass,gravel, asphalt or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual

runway, they may have threshold markings, designators, and centerlines.

Additionally, they do not provide an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway to use it. Also, radio communication

may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.

y non-precision instrument runways are often used at small- to medium-sizeairports. These runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with

threshold markings, designators, centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305

m) mark (known as an aiming point, sometimes installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)).

They provide horizontal position guidance to planes on instrument approach

via Non-directional beacon (NDB), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)

Global Positioning System, etc.

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y precision instrument runways, which are found at medium- and large-sizeairports, consist of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets),

threshold, designator, centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft

(305 m)/1,500 ft (457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft (762 m), and 3,000 ft

(914 m) touchdown zone marks. Precision runways provide both horizontal

and vertical guidance for instrument approaches.

[edit] National variants

y In Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom,[8] as well as some othercountries all 3-stripe and 2-stripe touchdown zones for precision runways are

replaced with one-stripe touchdown zones.

y In Australia, precision runways consist of only an aiming point and one 1-stripe touchdown zone. Furthermore, many non-precision and visual runways

lack an aiming point.

y In some Latin American countries like Colombia, Ecuadorand Peru one 3-stripe is added and a 2-stripe is replaced with the aiming point .

y Some European countries replace the aiming point with a 3-stripe touchdownzone.

y Runways in Norway have yellow markings instead of the usual white ones.This also occurs on some airports in Japan. The yellow markings are used to

ensure better contrast against snow.

y Runways may have different types on each end. To cut costs, many airportsdo not install precision guidance equipment on both ends. Runways with one

precision end and any other type of end can install the full set of touchdown

zones, even if some are past the midpoint. If a runway has precision markings

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on both ends, touchdown zones within 900 ft (274 m) of the midpoint are

omitted, to avoid pilot confusion over which end the marking belongs to.

[edit] Runway safety

Several terms fall under the flight safety topic of runway safety, including

incursion, excursion, and confusion.

Runway excursion is an incident involving only a single aircraft where it makes an

inappropriate exit from the runway. This can happen because of pilot error, poor

weather, emergency, or a fault with the aircraft.[citation needed]Overrun is a type of

excursion where the aircraft is unable to stop before the end of the runway. An

example of such an event is Air France Flight 358 in 2005. Further examples can be

found in the overruns category. Runway excursion is the most frequent type of

landing accident, slightly ahead of runway incursion.[9] For runway accidents

recorded between 1995 and 2007, 96% were of the 'excursion' type.[9]

Runway event is another term for a runway accident.[citationneeded]

Runway incursion involves a first aircraft, as well as a second aircraft, vehicle, or

person. It is defined by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as: "Any

occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle

or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off

of aircraft."[10]

Runway confusion involves a single aircraft, and is used to describe the error when

the aircraft makes "the unintentional use of the wrong runway, or a taxiway, for

landing or take-off".[11]

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The U.S. FAA publishes an annual report on runway safety issues, available from

the FAA website.[10][12][13] New systems designed to improve runway safety, such as

Airport Movement Area Safety System (AMASS) and Runway Awareness and

Advisory System (RAAS), are discussed in the report. AMASS prevented the

serious near-collision in the 2007 San Francisco International Airport runway

incursion.

Runway condition is also an important parameter related to meteorological

conditions and air safety.

y Dry: the surface of the runway is clear of water, snow or ice.y Damp: change of color on the surface due to moisture.y Wet: the surface of the runway is soaked but there is no significant patches of

standing water.

y Water patches: patches of standing water are visible.y Flooded: there is extensive standing water.

According to the JAR definition, a runway with water patches or that is flooded is

considered to be contaminated.

[edit] Pavement




The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide

viewof the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the

talk page. (November2009)

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Runway surface at Congonhas International Airport in So Paulo, Brazil. The

grooves increase friction and reduce the risk ofhydroplaning.

The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the

local ground conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit,

the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is

concrete[clarificationneeded]. Although certain airports have used reinforcement[clarification

needed] in concrete pavements, this is generally found to be unnecessary, with the

exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which

permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it

can be anticipated that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years

because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install asphaltic concrete

surface, as it is easier to patch on a periodic basis. For fields with very low traffic of

light planes, it is possible to use a sod surface. Some runways also make use of salt

flat runways.

For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are

established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter

what the top surface, varies from 10 in (250 mm) to 4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.

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Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard, is

based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy

fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value[disambiguation

needed]. Experience has shown that the Kvalues on which the formula was developed

are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures.

The second method is called the Californiabearingratio and was developed in the

late 1940s. It is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable

to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear. Some designs were

made by a mixture of these two design theories.

A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle

response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all

factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in the

construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using

the landing area.

Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, every effort is made to

minimize the stresses imparted to the pavement by aircraft. Manufacturers of the

larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on

larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of the

landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized.

Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an

overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the

original slab.

Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits

the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life.

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Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is

generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action.

[edit] Pavement surface

Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for

wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement

surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and

the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tires. To maintain

the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage

in airfield rubber removal orhydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA friction

levels.

Activerunway

The active runway is the runway at an airport that is in use for takeoffs and

landings. Since takeoffs and landings are usually done as close to "into the wind"(see headwind) as possible, wind direction generally determines the active runway

(or just theactive in aviation vernacular).

Selection of the active runway, however, depends on a number of factors. At a non-

towered airport, pilots usually select the runway most nearly aligned with the wind,

but they are not obliged to use that particular runway. For example, a pilot arrivingfrom the east may elect to land straight in to an east-west runway despite a minor

tailwind or significant crosswind, in order to expedite his arrival, although it is

recommended to always fly a regulartraffic pattern to more safely merge with other

aircraft.

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At controlled airports, the active is usually determined by a tower supervisor.

However, there may be constraints, such as policy from the airport manager (calm

wind runway selection, for example, ornoise abatement guidelines) that dictate an

active runway selection that is not the one most nearly aligned with the wind.

At major airports with multiple runways, the active could be any of a number of

runways. For example, when O'Hare (ORD) is landing on 27L and 32L, departures

use 28 and 32R, thus making four active runways. When they are landing on 14R

and 22R, departures use 22L and 9R, and occasionally a third arrival runway, 14L,

will be employed, bringing the active runway count to five.

At major airports, the active runway is based on weather conditions (visibility and

ceiling, as well as wind, and runway conditions such as wet/dry or snow covered),

efficiency (ORD can land more aircraft on 14R/32L than they can on 9R/27L),

traffic demand (when a heavy departure rush is scheduled, a runway configuration

that optimizes departures vs arrivals may be desirable), and time of day (ORD is

obliged to use runway 9R/27L during the hours of roughly midnight to 6 a.m. due to

noise abatement).

London Heathrow Airport in the United Kingdom has two runways which are

parallel to each other, they are designated 09L/27R and 09R/27L. They are used in

segregated alternate mode which means one runway is used only for arrivals and the

other is only used for departures. The present pattern provides for one runway to be

used by landing aircraft from 06:00 until 15:00 and then arrivals will switch to the

other runway from 15:00 until after the last departure, after which landing aircraft

use the first runway again until 06:00. However, on Sunday each week the runway

used before midnight continues to be used for landings until 06:00. This means

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early morning arrivals before 06:00 use a different runway on successive weeks and

that the runways used by landing aircraft before and after 15:00 also alternate on a

weekly basis. This only applies to westerly operations as landing aircraft always use

runway 09L.

[edit] Runway length

)

Main article: List of longest runways

In the 1980s, Leeds Bradford International Airport extended their runway to take

wide bodied planes by building a flyoveracross the A658dual carriageway

A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft

weights below approximately 200,000 lb (90,000 kg). Larger aircraft including

widebodies will usually require at least 8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea level and

somewhat more at higher altitude airports. International widebody flights, which

carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing

requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft

(4,000 m)+.

At sea level, 10,000 ft (3,000 m) can be considered an adequate length to land

virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International, when landing

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simultaneously on 22R and 28 or parallel 27L, it is routine for arrivals from the Far

East which would normally be vectored for 22R (7,500 ft (2,286 m)) or 27L

(7,967 ft (2,428 m)) to request 28 (13,001 ft (3,963 m)). It is always accommodated

although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Lule Airport in

Sweden was extended to 10,990 ft (3,350 m) to allow any fully loaded freight

aircraft to take off.

An aircraft will need a longer runway at a higher altitude due to decreased density

of air at higher altitudes, which reduces lift and engine power. An aircraft will also

require a longer runway in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude)

Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing the adjustments

required for a given temperature.

Taxiway

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

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F-22 Raptors taxiing at ElmendorfAFB, Alaska, USA

A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars,

terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or

concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel orgrass.

Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to

allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate

the runway quicker, permitting another to land in a shorter space of time.

[edit] Taxiway markings

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide

viewof the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the

talk page. (June 2010)

y Normal Centerline. A single continuous yellow line, 15 centimetres (6 in) to30 centimetres (12 in) in width.

y Enhanced Centerline. The enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the taxiway centerline

Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for 150 feet (45.7 m) prior to a runway

holding position marking. The enhanced taxiway centerline is standard[1] at all

FARPart 139 certified airports.

y Taxiway Edge Markings.Used to define the edge of the taxiway when thetaxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. Continuous

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Markings consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at

least 15 centimetres (6 in) in width spaced 15 centimetres (6 in) apart and

define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved

surface not intended for use by aircraft. Dashed Markings. define the edge of a

taxiway on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge

is intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed taxiway edge markings

consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least

15 centimetres (6 in) in width, spaced 15 centimetres (6 in) apart (edge to

edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25 foot (7.5 m) gaps.

y TaxiShoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimesprovided with paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Shoulders

are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be unable to carry the aircraft

load. Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow lines perpendicular to taxiway

edge, from taxiway edge to pavement edge, about 3 metres.

y Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs. Yellow background with a blackinscription, and are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway

direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to supplement such signs.

These markings are located on either side of the taxiway

y Surface Painted Location Signs. Black background with a yellowinscription. When necessary, these markings supplement location signs

located alongside the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the

designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings

are located on the right side of the centerline.

y Geographic Position Markings. These markings are located at points alonglow visibility taxi routes (when RVR is below 1200 feet(360m)). They are

positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing

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Black inscription centered on pink circle with black inner and white outer

ring.

y Runway Holding Position Markings. For runways, these markings indicatewhere an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. They

consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, spaced six or twelve

inches apart, and extending across the width of the taxiway or runway. The

solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold. There are three

locations where runway holding position markings are encountered: Runway

holding position markings on taxiways, runway holding position markings on

runways, taxiways located in runway approach areas.

y Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS). Theseconsist of two yellow solid lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of

solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the taxiway.

y Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections. Theseconsist of a single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway.

y Surface Painted Holding Position Signs. Red background signs with a whiteinscription and supplement the signs located at the holding position.

The taxiways are given alphanumeric identification. These taxiway IDs are shown

on black and yellow signboards along the taxiways.

[edit] Taxiway lights

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Taxiway edge light

For night operations, taxiways at many airports are equipped with lights, although

some small airports are not equipped with them.

y Taxiway EdgeLights: used to outline the edges of taxiways during periodsof darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures are elevated and

emitblue light.

y Taxiway CenterlineLights: They are steady burning and emit green lightlocated along the taxiway centerline

y Clearance Bar Lights: Three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lightsinstalled at holding positions on taxiways

y Runway Guard Lights: Either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lightsinstalled on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights

installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway holding position marking at

taxiway/runway intersections.

y Stop BarLights: A row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavementlights installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and

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elevated steady-burning red lights on each side used in low visibility

conditions (below 1,200 ft RVR). A controlled stop bar is operated in

conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights which extend from the

stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC clearance to proceed, the stop

bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on.

Taxiway lights are spaced 75 feet apart. In some airports, the lights are closer at the

intersections.

Airport ramp



The airport ramp orapron is part of an airport. It is usually the area where aircraft

are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled or boarded. Although the use of the apron

is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more

accessible to users than the runway ortaxiway. However, the apron is not usually

open to the general public and a license may be required to gain access.

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Ben Gurion International Airport (Terminal 3) Aircraft Parking Chart

The use of the apron may be controlled by the apronmanagementservice (apron

control or apron advisory). This would typically provide a coordination service

between the users.

The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the maneuvering area. All

vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as aprontraffic.

The words "apron" and "ramp" are used interchangeably in most circumstances

Generally, the pre-flight activities are done in ramps; and areas for parking &

maintenance are called aprons. Passenger gates are the main feature of a terminal

ramp.

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The ramp (or apron)

area of Ruzyn

Airport in Prague,

Czech Republic

Boeing aircraft

in parking

position

Full ramps at Cibao

International Airport, four o

six gates are occupied by

American Airlines,

Continental Airlines and

Aeromar Lineas Aereas

Dominicanas

Tucson FAA

airport

diagram, where

aprons are

shown in light

gray

Airport Layout

Aviation is controlled by an agency of the United States' government known as the

Federal Aviation Administration or the FAA. This agency mandates identification

standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in easily recognizing

runways from the air and to taxi safely from the runway to the gate. From runway

numbers and painted stripes to airport and runway lights and signs, the FAA

regulates the National Airspace System.

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In navigation and surveying, all

measurement of direction is performed

by using the numbers of a compass. A

compass is a 360 circle where 0/360 is

North, 90 is East, 180 is South, and

270 is West. Runways are laid out

according to the numbers on a compass.

A runway's compass direction is

indicated by a large number painted at

the end of each runway. Preceding that

number are 8 white stripes. Following

that number by 500 feet is the

"touchdown zone" which is identified by

6 white stripes. A runway's number is not

written in degrees, but is given a

shorthand format. For example, a runway

with a marking of "14" is actually close

to (if not a direct heading of) 140

degrees. This is a southeast compass

heading. A runway with a marking o

"31" has a compass heading of 310

degrees, that is, a northwest direction.

For simplicity, the FAA rounds off the

precise heading to the nearest tens.

For example, runway 7 might have a

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precise heading of 68 degrees, but is

rounded off to 70 degrees.

Each runway has a different number on each end. Look at the diagram below. One

end of the runway is facing due west while the other end of the runway is facing

due east. The compass direction for due west is 270 degrees ("27"). The compass

direction for due east is 90 degrees ("9"). All runways follow this directional layout

This runway would be referred to as "Runway 9-27" because of its east-west

orientation.

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The FAA includes over 20 different runway layouts in their advisory materials

There are 4 basic runway configurations with the rest being variations of the

original patterns. The basic runway configurations are the following:

A) single runway

This is the simplest of the 4 basic

configurations. It is one runway

optimally positioned for prevailing

winds, noise, land use and other

determining factors. During VFR (visual

flight rules) conditions, this one runway

should accommodate up to 99 light

aircraft operations per hour. While under

IFR (instrument flight rules) conditions,

it would accommodate between 42 to 53

operations per hour depending on themix of traffic and navigational aids

available at that airport.

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B) parallel runways

There are 4 types of parallel runways.

These are named according to how

closely they are placed next to each

other. Operations per hour will vary

depending on the total number of

runways and the mix of aircraft. In IFRconditions for predominantly light

aircraft, the number of operations would

range between 64 to 128 per hour.

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C) open-V runways

Two runways that diverge from different

directions but do NOT intersect form a

shape that looks like an "open-V" are

called open-V runways. This

configuration is useful when there is

little to no wind as it allows for both

runways to be used at the same time.

When the winds become strong in one

direction, then only one runway will beused. When takeoffs and landings are

made away from the two closer ends, the

number of operations per hour

significantly increases. When takeoffs

and landings are made toward the two

closer ends, the number of operations

per hour can be reduced by 50%.

D) intersecting runways

Two or more runways that cross each

other are classified as intersecting

runways. This type of configuration is

used when there are relatively strong

prevailing winds from more than one

direction during the year. When the

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winds are strong from one direction,

operations will be limited to only one

runway. With relatively light winds,

both runways can be used

simultaneously. The greatest capacity for

operations is accomplished when the

intersection is close to the takeoff end

and the landing threshold as shown

below (with the configuration on the

left).

The capacity for the number of operations varies greatly with this runway

configuration. It really depends on the location of the intersection and the manner in

which the runways are operated (IFR, VFR, aircraft mix). This type of

configuration also has the potential to use a greater amount of land area than

parallel runway configurations.

Airports also use standardized lighting and ground markings to provide direction

and identification to all air and ground crews. To assist pilots in differentiating at

night between airport runways and freeways, airports have rotating beacon lights.

These beacons usually flash green and white lights to indicate a civilian airport.

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They are visible from the air long before the entire airport is recognizable. To help

pilots at night quickly identify the beginning of a runway, green threshold lights

line the runway's edge. Red lights mark the ends of runways and indicate

obstructions. Blue lights run alongside taxiways while runways have white or

yellow lights marking their edges. All these markings and lights serve to set a safety

standard for all pilots to follow.

Airports

Pavements Home > Concrete Pavements > Airports

Paving of airport runways, taxiways, and aprons has provided a strong market for

portland cement concrete in recent years, as commercial and military airport

upgrade their ground facilities to keep up with increasing air traffic. In 1992, 25

million flights took off or landed at the nation's 100 largest airports. By 2005, the

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Federal Aviation Administration projects that number to increase by almost 38% to

34.5 million. Demand for concrete is greatest at these large facilities, because

concrete provides the substantial pavement strength required to withstand the

impact of airplanes such as the 747, which can weigh more than 850,000 lb

(382,000 kg.) when fully loaded.

Some 1.1 million metric tons of portland cement were used in the United States for

airport pavement projects in 1995, up 22% from a decade earlier, when 895,000

metric tons were used. Since there has been little demand for construction of new

airports in the United States for some timethe Denver International Airport being

a notable exceptionmost of this cement is going into concrete needed for existing

airport pavements or adding new runways to existing airports. Engineers and

contractors are taking advantage of fast-track technology to upgrade ground

facilities with minimal traffic disruption, and continue to hone design techniques to

achieve maximum pavement life.

The first United States airport runway was built in 1928 in Dearborn, Michigan, by

the Ford Motor Company for a Ford-manufactured plane called the Silver Goose

This and other early runways used variable pavement thicknesses similar to those o

early highways: concrete 8 or 9 in. (20 or 22.5 cm) deep at the edges and 6 or 7 in

(15 or 17.5 cm) thick at the center. Until World War II, engineers designed these

concrete pavements based on the anticipated loads imposed by refueling trucks

carrying gasoline to the airplanes, rather than the airplanes themselves, because the

trucks imposed a more critical wheel load.

In 1942, at the beginning of World War II, 93 million sq yd (74 million sq m) o

airfield pavement was placed in the United States as the country mobilized to get

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planes airborne. At that time, 6 in. (15 cm) deep concrete pavements were the norm,

but heavier airplanes created the need to increase concrete runway pavement depth

to 12 in. (30 cm) thick. Eventually, engineers specified runway pavements as thick

as 24 in. (60 cm) to accommodate heavy loads imposed by larger aircraft. The

addition of more wheels to these airplanes, which better distributed the loads on the

pavement, reduced the pavement depth required to 12 in. (30 cm) in the late 1940s.

Today, specifications for airport concrete pavement vary depending on subgrade

conditions, expected loading, and anticipated pavement life-span. New concrete

runways at non-hub airports generally range in thickness from 9 to 12 in. (22.5 to

30 cm), while runways at hub airports often are constructed 15 to 18 in. (37.5 to 45

cm) thick to withstand larger and more frequent loading.

In an effort to create more cost-effective, longer lasting airport pavements, the

Federal Aviation Administration continues to investigate the durability o

alternative pavement designs. One such study is underway in Illinois at the Greater

Rockford Airport, where researchers are examining a taxiway paved under three

different specifications. Because pavements usually deteriorate first at their joints,

investigators are studying a section of unjointed, 1,200 ft (360 m) long concrete

made with shrinkage compensating cement (Type K) that expands during the

concrete's early curing to counteract the expected shrinkage that causes cracking. In

addition, the unjointed pavement includes steel reinforcing fibers and is reinforced

with prestressed steel to improve the tensile strength of the pavement. The

pavement section is only 7 in. (17.5 cm) thick.

Researchers will compare this unjointed pavement with a 10 in.(25 cm) thick

pavement section that also contains Type K cement and steel reinforcing fibers, but

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no prestressed steel reinforcing. Contractors placed this pavement with joints

spaced from 85 to 200 ft (25.5 to 60 m) apart. The third pavement section is a

control section, consisting of conventional, 15 in. (37.5 cm) thick concrete

pavement containing joints spaced 20 ft (6 m) apart. Paving engineers expect results

of the study to influence future airport pavement design.

Engineers anticipate at least 40 years of servicetwice the number of service years

airport pavements are usually designed to meetfrom pavements constructed at the

$4.2 billion Denver International Airport, opened in early 1995 after 5-1/2 years o

construction. Contractors placed 2.5 million cu yd of concrete to create five 12,000

ft (3,600 m) long runways, plus taxiways and aprons. To ensure pavement

durability, designers carefully compensated for Denver's expansive soil, which

tends to swell and move, by excavating the site. Contractors then laid down 6 ft (1.8

m) of compacted, non-expansive soil; a 12 in. (30 cm) deep subgrade layer o

rototilled, lime- or cement-treated soil; and an 8 in. (20 cm) thick cement-treated

base before placing 17 in. (42.5 cm) of concrete paving.

At many airports today, fast-track technology plays an important role in the

rehabilitation of existing pavements because airport officials cannot close runways

and taxiways without severely impacting operations. At the Seattle-Tacoma

International Airport in Washington, for example, engineers created a complex slab

replacement schedule for a 1994 rehabilitation project that allowed contractors to

rebuild the runway at night and reopen it to airplane traffic each morning.

Contractors demolished two pavement slabs each night and replaced them with

temporary, precast panels. Each subsequent night, the temporary panels were

removed, and new slabs of high-early-strength concrete were cast in place. At the

same time, workers demolished two additional existing slabs and replaced them

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with the temporary precast panels. In this manner, contractors replaced 73 concrete

runway slabs with minimal disruption.

Wind Rose

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Vista Data Vision has 3 different Wind Roses to analyze Wind Direction Data:

Basic Wind Rose, Vector Wind Rose and Filter Wind Rose.

Wind Rose is a clever way of analyzing data that is related to wind direction. Not

only is Wind Rose perfect to plot the classical Wind Rose, e.g. wind speed against

wind direction, but actually any sensor against wind direction. As an example,

check where from the precipitation is coming, or air temperature or air humidity, or

where from the ambient pollution is coming from, like Dust, NO, NOx, SO2, H2O

etc.

How does it work?

1.On a page with Wind Direction, click on its graph to enlarge it.2.On the top menu bar, choose any of the 3 Wind Rose options.3.Choose filter variable, choose time period.4.That's it! And its works both on the VDV web interface as on the db.data

browser desktop software.

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The Wind Rose diagram showing the wind distribution for a specific time period.

Advanced Wind Rose 1, Vector Wind Rose

Vector Wind Rose plot for Air Temperature.

The Vector Windrose allows you to view the distribution of a second Variable in

connection to Wind Direction.

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Customize presentation for different Units. Choose the limit for each segment as

well as the color. Choose the number of Bins and labeling options.

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Vector Wind Rose for Rain. Notice that 86% of the data is not shown since it is

below 0.1 mm.

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Vector Wind Rose forDust in PM10 units (Environmental measurement).

Advanced Wind Rose 2, Filter Wind Rose

Filter Wind Rose is a powerful tool that allows you to determine a relationship

between Wind Direction and a second measurement.

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Wind Rose filtered with SO2. This Wind Rose shows the Wind Direction for a

whole year when SO2 measures above 9.5 PPB. This shows you that the main

source for SO2 lies to the South-East from the Monitoring Station. You can also

see that SO2 measured above 9.5 PPB 0.5% of the time

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The same Wind Rose unfiltered.

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Wind Rose showing Wind Direction when Wind Speed is greater than 8 m/s.

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Wind Rose showing Wind Direction when Rain is above 0.5mm per 15minutes.

The Filter Wind Rose clearly shows that when it rains the wind is blowing from

East-South-East.

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Filter Wind Rose showing Wind Direction for a whole year when Air

Temperature measured between -1C and 1C.

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Wind rose



For the compass subdivision called "windrose", see Compass rose.

For the compass Ukrainian airline called "Windrose", see Wind Rose Aviation.

Wind rose plot forLaGuardia Airport (LGA),New York, New York. 2008

A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how

wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location

Historically, wind roses were predecessors of the compass rose (found on maps), as

there was no differentiation between a cardinal direction and the wind which blew

from such a direction. Using apolar coordinate system of gridding, the frequency of

winds over a long time period are plotted by wind direction, with color bands

showing wind ranges. The directions of the rose with the longest spoke show the

wind direction with the greatest frequency.

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Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport

runways, as aircraft perform their most optimal take-offs and landings pointing into

the wind.

11880 airport

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