Environmental effects of pesticides.An impression of recent scientific literature

August 2010.

Pesticides present the only group of chemicals that are purposely applied to the environment with aim to suppress plant and animal pests and to protect agricultural and industrial products. However, the majority of pesticides is not specifically targeting the pest only and during their application they also affect non-target plants and animals. Repeated application leads to loss of biodiversity. Many pesticides are not easily degradable, they persist in soil, leach to groundwater and surface water and contaminate wide environment. Depending on their chemical properties they can enter the organism, bioaccumulate in food chains and consequently influence also human health. Overall, intensive pesticide application results in several negative effects in the environment that cannot be ignored.

First warning signals about pesticides danger

In 1962, Rachel Carson, an American courageous woman and scientist, wrote down her nature observation and pointed out sudden dying of birds caused by indiscriminated spraying of pesticides (DDT). Her book, Silent Spring, became a landmark. It changed the existing view on pesticides and has stimulated public concern on pesticides and their impact on health and the environment. Silent Spring facilitated the ban of the DDT in 1972 in the United States.

Silent spring book summary http://www.enotes.com/silent-springonline Google book http://books.google.com/books?id=HeR1l0V0r54C&dq=silent+spring&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=cs&ei=RnOYTI_FK-jO4wavs_Bu&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false

More research has been done and several dangerous and persistent organic pesticides like Dieldrin, Endosulfan and Lindane have been banned or restricted since that time.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, a global treaty entered in force in May 2004, aims to eliminate the production and use of twelve priority POPs including organochlorine pesticides such as aldrin, dieldrin, DDT and metabolites, endrin, heptachlor, chlordane, mirex and toxaphene. In August 2010, and hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane, chlordecone and pentachlorobenzene were added.

Stockholm Convention http://chm.pops.int/default.aspx

These obsolete pesticides are characterised by a high persistence in the environment (e.g. half life for DDT in soil range form 22 to 30 years, Toxaphene up to 14 years, Mirex about 12 years, Dieldrin up to 7 years, Chlordecone up to 30 years), low water solubility and thus potential to accumulate in fatty tissue of living organisms including humans and toxicity to both human and wildlife. Due to intensive releases to the environment in past several decades, their chemical properties and tendency to long-range transboundary atmospheric transport, they are now widely distributed and are found around a globe. Significant levels are detected in regions where persistent pesticides have never been used such as in polar regions, in tissues of fishes, birds and bears.

1

An example of intensive pesticides application that results in a serious environmental and health impact is given below.

Martinique pesticide disaster

Two French Caribbean islands, Martinique and Guadeloupe, are heavily contaminated by pesticide chlordecone after several decades of its spraying on bananas plantations. Initially, the use led to higher crop yields but each season more chlordecone was required to achieve the same results. As a consequence, this tropical paradise with about 800,000 inhabitants now faces an environmental disaster with far-reaching ecological, economical and social impacts. Chlordecone, persistent and toxic compound, was banned in France's Caribbean territories in 1993, but it was used illegally, often sprayed by aeroplanes, up to 2002. In 2003, local authorities restricted cultivation of crops because of the high soil contamination. Rivers, drinking water as well as food chain has been contaminated for decades. Concentrations detected in fishes are among the highest ever reported in the literature and also other wildlife organisms are contaminated (Bocquené and Franco 20051; Coat et al., 20062). Health consequences for island’s population are warning as well. The islands have one of the highest prostate cancer rates in the world. Half the men of Martinique and Guadeloupe were likely to develop prostate cancer. The rate of congenital malformation and birth defects in children is increasing.

News articleshttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2485340.ecehttp://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/health-disaster-in-french-caribbean-linked-to-pesticides-402816.html

Research article (full text):1 http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2005/publication-879.pdf2 http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2006/publication-1662.pdf

The problem of pesticide usage is not over now in many countries the old persistent, bioaccumulative pesticides have been banned. A lot of new substances have been developed and used in large quantities. For many of these substances today we still do not have sufficient amount of knowledge about their possible risks and adverse effects on the environment and human. Several of them appear to have a bad environmental profile.

Environmental effects of pesticides, in different compartiments.

1. Soil contamination

Pesticides enter the soil via spray drift during foliage treatment, wash-off from treated foliage, release from granulates or from treated seeds in soil. Some pesticides such as soil fumigants and nematocides are applied directly into soil to control pests and plant diseases presented in soil. The transport, persistence or degradation of pesticides in soil depend on their chemical properties as well as physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. All these factors affect sorption/ desorption, volatilisation, degradation, uptake by plants, run-off, and leaching of pesticides.

Persistent organochlorine pesticides (OC) in soils

Persistence of pesticides in soil can vary from few hours to many years in case of OC pesticides. Despite OC pesticides were banned or restricted in many countries, they are still detecting in soils (Shegunova et al., 20071; Toan et al., 20072; Li et al., 20083; Hildebrandt et al., 20094; Jiang et al., 20095; Ferencz and Balog 20106).

1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB5-4M340F5-3/2/85b08c0e669c60912dfce4c6686f8fb32 abstract : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/174764413 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V74-4PNF9RM-3/2/2334f0ff319662eaaa42b5228e04304d4 abstract : http://www.springerlink.com/content/63943n2118744115/5 full text: http://www.sklog.labs.gov.cn/atticle/b09/B09037.pdf6 full text : http://www.ubm.ro/sites/CJEES/upload/2010_1/Ferencz_Balog.pdf

2

Sorption is the most important interaction between soil and pesticides and limits degradation as well as transport in soil. Pesticides bound to soil organic matter or clay particles are less mobile, bio available but also less accessible to microbial degradation and thus more persistent.

Soil organic matter is the most important factor influencing sorption and leaching of pesticides in soil. Addition of organic matter to soil can enhance sorption and reduce risk to water pollution. It has been demonstrated that amount and composition of organic matter had large impact on pesticides sorption. For example soil rich on humus content are more chemically reactive with pesticides than nonhumified soil (Farenhorst 2006).

Article full text: https://www.soils.org/publications/sssaj/articles/70/3/1005 High yield agriculture, as it is widely practised in Europa, depletes soil organic matter and will reduce sorption.

Fast sorption usually occurs in short time after pesticide application. With time sorption is much slower. However, it has been observed for many pesticides that increasing time, repeated application could increase their sorption and formation of bound, non-extractable residues.

Although bound residues are considered of low significance because they are inactive and nonavailable, it has been detected that they can release in some time. Change in soil pH or addition of nitrate fertilizers can induced a release of this residues. There exist also evidences that some organisms, e.g. plants and earthworms, can uptake and remobilise old tightly bound residues (Gevao et al., 2000).

Abstract: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es000144d

An overview of bound residues, their formation and environmental impact studies is made by Barraclough et al. (2005)1 and Navarro et al., (2007)2; a review of mobility and degradation of pesticides in soil and risk to groundwater pollution studies by Arias-Estévez et al., (2008)3.

1 full text http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/afs/Soil_Science/MSSS/links/pdfs/bound%20residues.pdf2 abstract and full text http://www.scientificcommons.org/233655653 abstract and full text http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf0635356

A review is published showing that about 50 % of plant protection products from EU registration dossiers exhibit a low proportion (up to 30% of initial amount) of non-extractable residues and about 12 % proportion exceeding 70%. The largest proportion of bound residues was found for carbamates, and in particular, for dithiocarbamates. In this study authors further summarized and discussed factors that affect formation of bound residues, chemical properties as well as soil and environmental condition (Barriuso et al., 2008).

Abstract http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es7021736Full text http://pfmodels.org/downloads/ID024.pdf

2. Water contamination

Pesticides can get into water via drift during pesticide spraying, by runoff from treated area, leaching through the soil. In some cases pesticides can be applied directly onto water surface e.g. for control of mosquitoes. Water contamination depends mainly on nature of pesticides (water solubility, hydrophobicity), soil properties, weather conditions, landscape and also on the distance from an application site to a water source. Rapid transport to groundwater may be caused by heavy rainfall shortly after application of the pesticide to wet soils. During 90ies, herbicide Atrazine and Endosulphan were found most often in surface waters in the

USA and Australia due to their widespread use. Other pesticides detected included Pronofos, Dimethoate, Chlordane, Diuron, Prometryn and Fluometuron (Cooper 1996).

3

More recent studies also reported presence of pesticides in surface water and groundwater close to agriculture lands over the world (Cerejeira et al., 20031; Konstantinou et al., 20062; Gilliom 20073; Woudneh et al., 20094; Añasco et al., 20105). In general, the compounds most frequently detected were currently used pesticides (herbicides Atrazine, Simazine, Alachlor, Metolachlor and Trifluralin, insecticides Diazinon, Parathion methyl, and organochlorine compounds due to their long persistance (lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and other organochlorine pesticides).

1 full text http://www.topps-life.org/upl/29/default/doc/WaterResearch2003.pdf2 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB5-4HB4DK8-1/2/f5daeb87ac7426b55fc460c99afccdc53 abstract and full text http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1940079/4 https://www.crops.org/publications/jeq/abstracts/38/3/9405 abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/u231132583921211/

The geographic and seasonal distribution of pesticide occurrence follows patterns in land use and pesticide use. Streams and rivers were frequently more polluted that groundwaters and more near the areas with substantial agricultural and/or urban land use. Pesticides usually occurred in mixture of multiple compounds, even if individual pesticide were detected bellow limits. This potentially can lead to underestimation of toxicity when assessments are based on individual compounds.

High levels of pesticides chlordecone were detected in coastline, rivers, sediments and groundwater in the Caribbean island of Martinique due to its massive application on bananas plantations (Bocquené and Franco 2005).

Full text http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2005/publication-879.pdf

3. Effects on organisms

Soil organisms and processes

Soil microorganisms play a key role in soil. They are essential for maintenance of soil structure, transformation and mineralization of organic matter, making nutrients available for plants. Soil microorganisms are also able to metabolise and degrade a lot of pollutants and pesticides and thus are of great concern for using in biotechnology. On the other hand, microbial degradation can lead to formation of more toxic and persistent metabolites. Although soil microbial population are characterized by fast flexibility and adaptability to changed environmental condition, the application of pesticides (especially long-term) can cause significant irreversible changes in their population. Inhibition of species, which provide key process, can have a significant impact on function of whole terrestrial ecosystem.

Fungicides were found to be toxic to soil fungi and actinomycetes and caused changes in microbial community structure (Liebich et al., 20034; Pal et al., 20055).

4 abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/etc.5620220416/abstract5 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V74-4FY3NYW-5/2/6d1b3ecb9bae76e64669c00593c4e7b8

Other bacterial species, such as nitrification bacteria, are very sensitive to pesticides influence. Inhibition of nitrification was proved by sulphonylurea herbicides (Gigliotti and Allievi 20011). Chlorothalonil and dinitrophenyl fungicides such as Mancozeb, Maneb or Zineb have also been shown toxic to nitrification and denitrification bacterial processes (Kinney et al., 20056; Lang and Cai 20097).

6 full text http://infolib.hua.edu.vn/Fulltext/ChuyenDe2009/CD239/9.pdf7 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B8CX4-4W3HPK7-9/2/78deb68a2ac587d15fe64832bbe69f07

A ew studies show that some organochlorine pesticides suppress symbiotic nitrogen fixation resulting in lower crop yields. Authors found out that pesticides Pentachlorphenol, DDT and Methyl

4

parathion at levels found in farm soils interfered signalling from leguminous plant such as alfalfa, peas, and soybeans to symbiotic soil bacteria. This effect, loosely comparable to endocrine disruption effects of pesticides in human and animals, significantly disrupt N2 fixation. As consequence increased dependence on synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer, reduced soil fertility, and unsustainable long-term crop yields occur. The observations also may explain a trend in the past 40 years toward stagnant crop yields despite record high use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers worldwide (Fox et al., 20078; Potera 20079).

8 Full text http://www.pnas.org/content/104/24/10282.full9 Summary of article http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.115-a579a

Some pesticides (Benomyl, Dimethoate) can also negatively affected symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi, which facilitate plant nutrient uptake (Menendez et al., 199910; Chiocchio et al., 200011). Moreover, agricultural practises such us tillage, crop rotation, fertilization, pesticide application, irrigation can also reduce root colonisation by myccorhizal fungi (Jansa et al., 200612).

10 full text http://revistes.iec.cat/revistes/index.php/IM/article/viewFile/6183/572311 full text http://revistes.iec.cat/index.php/IM/article/viewFile/6084/562012 abstract http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/266/1/89

Soil invertebrates

Nematodes, springtails, mites and further micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and all these small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic compounds such as leaves, manure, plant residues and they also prey on crop pests. Soil organisms enhance soil aggregation and porosity and thus increasing infiltration and reducing runoff.

Earthworms represent the greatest part of biomass of terrestrial invertebrates (>80 %) and play an important role in soil ecosystem. They are used as bioindicator of soil contamination providing an early warning of decline in soil quality. They serve as model organisms in toxicity testing. Earthworms are characterized by high ability to cumulate a lot of pollutants from soil in their tissues, thus they are used for studying of bioaccumulation potential of chemicals.

A recent review of pesticides effects on earthworms showed on negative effects on growth and reproduction by many pesticides (Shahla and D'Souza 2010).

Full text http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/aess/2010/678360.pdf

A microcosm study conducted in orchards in the South Africa indicated adverse effects of spraying by pesticides (Chlorpyrifos and Azinphos methyl) on earthworm’s biomass and cholinesterase activity. Authors concluded that earthworms were detrimentally affected by the pesticides due to chronic and intermittent exposure (Reinecke and Reinecke 2007).

Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WDM-4HNSPPH-2/2/cd84b9c6fb66ade36e649fc6ded5e146

A laboratory experiment that reproduced vineyard conditions in France showed that mixture of insecticides and/or fungicides at different environmental concentrations caused a neurotoxic effect in earthworms. After a long period of exposure or high concentrations, earthworms were physiologically damaged and could not cope with the high toxicity (Schreck et al., 2008).

Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V74-4S2VRH3-2/2/cd8ebbe1b59c95422551c785754434fc

Glyphosate, nonselective herbicide, and chlorpyrifos, insecticide, belong to the most worldwide used pesticides, especially on transgenic resistant crops. An integrated study on a Roundoup resistant soya field in Argentina showed deleterious effect of these pesticides on earthworm population. Earthworms avoided soil with glyphosate, their feeding activity and

5

viability were reduced. Glyphosate and chlorpyrifos caused also several adverse effects at cellular level (DNA damage) that indicated physiological stress. Author concluded that the effects observed on the reproduction and avoidance caused by glyphosate could contribute to earthworm decrease, with the subsequent loss of their beneficial functions (Casabé et al., 2007).

Abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/u7l47j47h6323447/Full text http://www.glifocidio.org/docs/soya/so2.pdf

Other soil species are also often affected by pesticides application and non-target soil community structure can be strongly affected.

As reported in another study, glyphosate affected predatory arthropods (spiders and ground beetle) in agricultural field, caused behavioural changes and influenced long-term surviving even in residual exposure. These Results also suggest that herbicides can affect arthropod community dynamics separate from their impact on the plant community and may influence biological control in agroecosystems (Evans et al., 2010).

Abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/v418510x6g572126/ Decrease in number of spiders and diversity, and species richness of Collembolan after

application of insecticide chlorpyrifos has been reported on grassland pasture in UK (Fountain et al., 2007).

Full text http://www.unemat.br/prppg/ppgca/docs/disciplina/manejo/3.pdf

The negative impact of pesticides spraying on invertebrate communities might not be seen instantly but may produce detrimental effects afterwards as was showed by Amalin et al., 2009. Authors studied impact of chemical treatment on arthopod community in the agriculture area near Everglades Nation Park, USA. Overall, more arthropod taxa were present in the non-sprayed field, with a higher number of predators such as coccinelles, than on field treated by broad-spectrum herbicides and insecticides eleven times during two years (Amalin et al., 2009).

Abstract and full text http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/dspace/handle/10113/41568

In the review article from 2010 authors investigated the impact of pesticide restriction in arable crop edges on naturally occurring terrestrial invertebrates. Authors conclude that the restriction of herbicides in crop edges has a positive influence on arthropod populations, especially for chick-food insects, Heteroptera and other herbivores. Predatory insects may be affected indirectly by the exclusion of herbicides alone, or as a result of changes in their prey availability (Frampton and Dorne 2007).

Abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01277.x/abstract

Other non-target species

Effect of pesticides on bees are closely watched because their crop pollination. However, little is known about the impacts of pesticides on wild pollinators in the field. In recent study conducted in Italian agricultural area, authors monitored species richness of wild bees, bumblebees and butterflies were sampled after pesticides application. They detected decline of wild bees after repeated application of insecticide fenitrothion. Lower bumblebee and butterfly species richness was found in the more intensively farmed basin with higher pesticide loads (Brittain et al., 2010).

Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B7GVS-4Y7P9VS-1/2/07ffb70c93fcc9330bac5aceec257595

Several articles reported negative effects of pesticides and intensive agriculture on butterflies populations (Longley and Sotherton 19971; White and Kerr 20072; Adamski et al., 20093), and showed positive impact of organic farming (Saarinen 20024; Feber et al., 20075).

6

1 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-3W3FGBH-1/2/9499b086862287a0d6e1e3d9d7d3c7572 abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00298.x/abstract3 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WP8-4W211YC-2/2/4952cd145d9ce7b1043b694ef7a3c31a4 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-4606S0V-5/2/6409768b726fd0e5370b5637dc88fb145 abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00296.x/abstract

Impact of pesticides on insect is determined by the timing of application because susceptibility to exposure differs between species and at different life stages. Therefore, unconsidered agricultural practises can harm butterfly populations.

It has been shown that using herbicides to control of invasive plants can significantly reduce survival, wing and pupa weight of butterfly at treated areas. Author highlighted the importance of careful consideration in the use of herbicides in habitats harboring at-risk butterfly populations. Reduction of adverse effect may be reached by applications in late summer and early fall, post flight season and during larval diapause (Russell and Schultz 2009).

Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B7GVS-4Y7P9VS-1/2/07ffb70c93fcc9330bac5aceec257595

Water organisms – invertebrates, amphibians, fishes

Pesticides can enter fresh water streams directly via spray drift or indirectly via surface runoff or drain flow. Many pesticides are toxic to freshwater organisms. Acute and chronic effects are derived from standart toxicity tests. Within the ecological context, sublethal effects of toxic contaminants are very important. For example, downstream drift of stream macroinvertebrates in common reaction to various types of disturbance, including chemical contamination and may result in significant changes of structure of lotic communities.

Downstream drift was shown for several pesticides such as pyrethroid, neonicotinoid, organochlorine, organophosphate insecticides or lampricides. Neurotoxic insecticides exhibited the strongest drift-initiating effects on stream-dwelling insects and crustaceans. Moreover, it was detected that macroinvertebrate drift can be induced even by short-term pulse exposures (within 2 hours) at field-relevant concentrations (already 7–22 times lower than the respective acute LC50 values) (Beketov and Liess 2008).

Abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/a021gn0237828n81/abstract/

A large-scale investigation of pesticides effects on stream macroinvertebrate community structure was conducted in France and Finnland. Authors proved that pesticides stress was associated with a decrease in the relative abundance and number of sensitive species and suggested that effects may also occur below levels that are commonly thought to be protective. They also found out that undisturbed upstream reaches improve the quality of impaired downstream reaches. This finding could be use in constitute a valuable measure for future risk mitigation of agricultural practices (Schäfer et al., 2007).

Full text http://www.systemecology.eu/Publications/Field_Effects_files/PesticideEffFrFi.pdf

In ecotoxicologial risk assessment of pesticides, attention is also focused on the ability of treated aquatic ecosystems to recover. After pesticide application structural and functional changes in ecosystem were monitored. Whereas some species can be reduced, other may profit from lower predation and food competition. The time needed for recovery depends on biotic factor such as presence of dormant forms, life cycle characteristics, landscape as well as on the season when exposure occur.

7

It has been detected, isolated ecosystems were more susceptible to damage and community structure changed to lower biodiversity states. Recovery in these ecosystems depends on the availability of immigrating organisms (Caquet et al., 20071; Hanson et al., 20072). Long-living species might not recover until very long time (7 months of experiment) (Beketov et al., 20083).

1 Full text http://nrg.ncl.ac.uk/ecoserv/assets/pdf/caquet07.pdf2 full text http://www.ceg.ncl.ac.uk/ecoserv/assets/pdf/hanson07.pdf3 Full text http://www.famu.org/mayfly/pubs/pub_b/pubbeketovm2008p96.pdf

Adoption of no-spray buffer zones were shown as an effective mitigation measure that reduced impact of pesticide application on bentic macroinvertebrates in study conducted in UK (Maltby and Hills 2008).

Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB5-4SK0C4X-2/2/65d1df9cb9436d94e1ed127fad970f75

Several studies reported toxicity of pesticides on aquatic vertebrates – amphibians and fishes

For example, Carbaryl has been found toxic for several amphibian species, additional combination with predatory stress caused higher mortality (Relyea 20031). Also herbicide Roundup, glyphosate, caused high mortality of tadpoles and juvenile frogs in a outdoor mesocosms study (Relyea 2005b2).

1 abstract http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/02-52982 astract http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/04-1291

Impact of Malathion a broad spectrum insecticide, on aquatic ecosystem has been demonstrated. Malathion is the most commonly applied insecticide around the world and can be legally directly sprayed over aquatic habitats to control the mosquitoes. This study showed that relatively small concentration of malathion caused direct and also indirect effect on aquatic food web. Changes in plankton and periphyton abundance and composition consequently affected growing of frog tadpoles and reduced predation rates on amphibians (Relyea and Hoverman 20083). Moreover, repeated low dose application caused large impact than single exposure (Relyea and Diecks 20084). Similar results were observed also for insecticides carbaryl and herbicides glyphosate and 2,4-D (Relyea 2005a5; Boone et al., 20076).

3 full text http://www.pitt.edu/~biology/Dept/pdf/3155.pdf4 full text http://training.fws.gov/EC/Resources/pesticides/Limitations%20and%20Uncertainty/Relyea%20and%20Diecks%202008%20-%20pesticide%20induced%20trophic%20cascades.pdf5 full text http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/03-53426 http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/1051-0761%282007%29017%5B0291%3AMSIACE%5D2.0.CO%3B2

These results pointed out that although single species laboratory experiments are important starting point the full understanding of possible effects (direct and indirect) could only be observed when organisms are embedded within a natural community. All these evidences might contribute to explanation of a global decline in amphibian diversity.

Mixture of pesticides are commonly detected in the environment and exposition to organisms can be more dangerous than individual effect.

A study published in Environmental Health Perspectives gave evidence of synergistic and additional effects of pesticide mixture. Author investigated in vivo effects of combination of common used organophosphate and carbamate pesticides on acetylcholin enzyme inhibition in the brains of juvenile coho salmon. All tested pesticides resulted in sublethal inhibition effects, exposures to binary mixtures of OP and CB pesticides produced significant additive or synergistic effect and lower lethal concentration. Synergistic effect was greater at higher exposure concentrations (Laetz et al., 2008).

Abstract and full text http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2661902/

8

Birds

Decline of farmland bird species has been reported over several past decades and often attributed to changes in farming practises, such as increase agrochemical inputs, loss of mixture farming or unfarmed structures. Besides lethal and sub lethal effects of pesticides on birds, concern has recently focused on the indirect effects. These effects act mainly via reduction of food supplies (weeds, invertebrates), especially during breeding or winter seasons. As consequence insecticide and herbicide application can lead to reduction of chick survival and bird population. Time of pesticides application plays also important role in availability of food. Several practises (generally Integrated crop management techniques) can be used to minimize unwanted effects of pesticides on farmland birds, such as use of selective pesticides, avoiding spraying in during breeding season and when crops and weeds are in flower, minimise spray drift or creation of headlands.

Evidences of this important indirect effect of pesticides has been reported e.g. by Moreby and Southway 19991; Boatman et al., 20042; Taylor et al., 20063.

1 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-3W19RNV-8/2/e22797a7eb42e4d3620084fafabd44c62 full text http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-3W19RNV-8/2/e22797a7eb42e4d3620084fafabd44c63 full text http://infolib.hua.edu.vn/Fulltext/ChuyenDe2009/CD251/52.pdf

A recent review about this topic and possible mitigation measure were published by Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in UK (Bright et al., 2008).

Report full text http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/projects/details/192699-a-review-of-indirect-effects-of-pesticides-on-birds-and-mitigating-landmanagement-practices

4. Effects of pesticides and farming practises on biodiversity

Intensive pesticides and fertilizers usage, loss of natural and semi-natural habitats and decreased habitat heterogeneity and all other aspects of agricultural intensification have undoubted impact on biodiversity decline during last years.

Intensive agriculture

A current Europe-wide survey in eight West and East European countries brought alarming evidence of negative effects of agricultural intensification on wild plants, carabid and bird species diversity. Authors demonstrated that, despite decades of European policy to ban harmful pesticides, pesticides are still having disastrous consequences for biodiversity on European farmland. Insecticides also reduced the biological control potential. They conclude that if biodiversity is to be restored in Europe, there must be a Europe-wide shift towards farming with minimal use of pesticides over large areas (Geiger et al., 2010).

Abstract and full text: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7GVS-4Y71D54-3&_user=10&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2010&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1476968002&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=7a1b201c3bdc79799ca545dd2cc061d7&searchtype=a

Taking a landscape in Great Britain as an example, it has been showed that impact of agriculture intensification on biodiversity differs among agricultural land use and depends on specific agricultural pressure like land use changes, land cover or crop management. Authors found out that, as result of eutrohication and N surplus, vegetation diversity surrounding cropped land shifted to a composition typical for more fertile conditions. However, species richness of plants and breeding birds were more affected by broad habitat diversity (Firbank et al., 2008).

9

The pressures of agricultural changes may be reduced by:- minimizing loss of large habitats, - minimizing permanent loss of agricultural land, - maintaining habitat diversity in agricultural landscapes in order to provide ecosystem services, - minimizing pollution from nutrients and pesticides from the crops themselves.

Abstract and full text http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1492/777.full

A recent study, conducted in agriculture area in Netherlands, estimated impact of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides drift on terrestrial biodiversity outside treated area. Researches demonstrated that under scenarios based on wider buffer zones and ‘best available practise‘ the pesticide impact could be cut to zero. This study suggests that increasing unsprayed buffer zones around crops is critical to the success of any new strategy to prevent the harmful impact of pesticides (de Jong et al., 2008).

Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WJ7-4N08X5X-1/2/162e07fb0b50b6437226f48b9b70372fEU press release http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/105na1.pdf

References:

Adamski, Z., Machalska, K., Chorostkowska, K., Niewadzi, M., Ziemnicki, K., Hirsch, H.V.B. (2009): Effects of sublethal concentrations of fenitrothion on beet armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) development and reproduction. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 94(2-3), pp 73-78.

Altieri, M.A., Nicholls, C.I. (2003): Soil fertility management and insect pests: harmonizing soil and plant health in agroecosystems. Soil and Tillage Research 72(2), pp 203-211.

Amalin, D.M., Peña, J.E., Duncan, R., Leavengood, J., Koptur, S. (2009): Effects of Pesticides on the Arthropod Community in the Agricultural Areas near the Everglades National Park. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 122.

Añasco, N., Uno, S., Koyama, J., Matsuoka, T., Kuwahara, N. (2010): Assessment of pesticide residues in freshwater areas affected by rice paddy effluents in Southern Japan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 160(1), pp 371-383.

Arias-Estévez, M., López-Periago, E., Martínez-Carballo, E., Simal-Gándara, J., Mejuto, J.-C., García-Río, L. (2008): The mobility and degradation of pesticides in soils and the pollution of groundwater resources. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 123(4), pp 247-260.

Baker, B.P., Benbrook, C.M., Groth, E., Benbrook, K.L. (2002): Pesticide residues in conventional, integrated pest management (IPM)-grown and organic foods: insights from three US data sets. Food Additives and Contaminants 19(5), pp 427 - 446.

Barraclough, D., Kearney, T., Croxford, A. (2005): Bound residues: environmental solution or future problem? Environmental Pollution 133(1), pp 85-90.

Barriuso, E., Benoit, P., Dubus, I.G. (2008): Formation of pesticide nonextractable (bound) residues in soil: magnitude, controlling factors and reversibility. Environmental Science and Technology 42(6), pp 1845-1854.

Beketov, M., Liess, M. (2008): Potential of 11 Pesticides to Initiate Downstream Drift of Stream Macroinvertebrates. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 55(2), pp 247-253.

Beketov, M.A., Schäfer, R.B., Marwitz, A., Paschke, A., Liess, M. (2008): Long-term stream invertebrate community alterations induced by the insecticide thiacloprid: Effect concentrations and recovery dynamics. Science of The Total Environment 405(1-3), pp 96-108.

Bengtsson, J., AhnstrÖM, J., Weibull, A.C. (2005): The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 42(2), pp 261-269.

Boatman, N.D., Brickle, N.W., Hart, J.D., Milsom, T.P., Morris, A.J., Murray, A.W.A., Murray, K.A., Robertson, P.A. (2004): Evidence for the indirect effects of pesticides on farmland birds. Ibis 146, pp 131-143.

10

Bocquené, G., Franco, A. (2005): Pesticide contamination of the coastline of Martinique. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(5-7), pp 612-619.

Boone, M.D., Semlitsch, R.D., Little, E.E., Doyle, M.C. (2007): Multiple stressors in Amphibian communities: Effects of chemical contamination, Bullfrog and Fish. Ecological Applications 17(1), pp 291-301.

Bright, J.A., Morris, A.J., Winspear, R. (2008): A review of Indirect Effects of Pesticides on Birds and mitigating land-management practices. Research Report 28, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, UK.

Brittain, C.A., Vighi, M., Bommarco, R., Settele, J., Potts, S.G. (2010): Impacts of a pesticide on pollinator species richness at different spatial scales. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2), pp 106-115.

Caquet, T., Hanson, M.L., Roucaute, M., Graham, D.W., Lagadic, L. (2007): Influence of isolation on the recovery of pond mesocosms from the application of an insecticide. II. Benthic macroinvertebrate responses. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26(6), pp 1280-1290.

Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962.

Casabé, N., Piola, L., Fuchs, J., Oneto, M.L., Pamparato, L., Basack, S., Giménez, R., Massaro, R., Papa, J.C., Kesten, E. (2007): Ecotoxicological Assessment of the Effects of Glyphosate and Chlorpyrifos in an Argentine Soya Field. Journal of soil sediments 7(4), pp 232-239.

Cerejeira, M.J., Viana, P., Batista, S., Pereira, T., Silva, E., Valério, M.J., Silva, A., Ferreira, M., Silva-Fernandes, A.M. (2003): Pesticides in Portuguese surface and ground waters. Water Research 37(5), pp 1055-1063.

Coat, S., Bocquene G., Godard, E. (2006): Contamination of some aquatic species with the organochlorine pesticide chlordecone in Martinique. Aquat. Living Resour. 19(2), pp 181-187.

Condron, L.M., Cameron, K.C., Di, H.J., Clough, T.J., Forbes, E.A., McLaren, R.G., Silva, R.G. (2000): A comparison of soil and environmental quality under organic and conventional farming systems in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 43(4), pp 443-466.

Cooper, B. (1996): Central and North West Regions Water Quality Program 1995/1996. Report on Pesticide Monitoring. TS96.048, NSW Department of Land & Water Conservation, Sydney, Australia.

de Jong, F.M.W., de Snoo, G.R., van de Zande, J.C. (2008): Estimated nationwide effects of pesticide spray drift on terrestrial habitats in the Netherlands. Journal of Environmental Management 86(4), pp 721-730.

Downing, H.F., DeLorenzo, M.E., Fulton, M.H., Scott, G.I., Madden, C.J., Kucklick, J.R. (2004): Effects of the agricultural pesticides atrazine, chlorothalonil, and endosulfan on South Florida microbial assemblages. Ecotoxicology 13(3), pp 245-260.

Evans, S., Shaw, E., Rypstra, A. (2010): Exposure to a glyphosate-based herbicide affects agrobiont predatory arthropod behaviour and long-term survival. Ecotoxicology, pp 1-9.

Farenhorst, A. (2006): Importance of Soil Organic Matter Fractions in Soil-Landscape and Regional Assessments of Pesticide Sorption and Leaching in Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70(3), pp 1005-1012.

Feber, R.E., Johnson, P.J., Firbank, L.G., Hopkins, A., Macdonald, D.W. (2007): A comparison of butterfly populations on organically and conventionally managed farmland. Journal of Zoology 273(1), pp 30-39.

Ferencz, L., Balog, A. (2010): A pesticide survey in soil, water and foodstuffs from entral Romania. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, April 2010, 5(1), pp 111-118.

Firbank, L.G., Petit, S., Smart, S., Blain, A., Fuller, R.J. (2008): Assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity: a British perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363(1492), pp 777-787.

Fließbach, A., Oberholzer, H.R., Gunst, L., Mäder, P. (2007): Soil organic matter and biological soil quality indicators after 21 years of organic and conventional farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 118(1-4), pp 273-284.

Fountain, M.T., Brown, V.K., Gange, A.C., Symondson, W.O.C., Murray, P.J. (2007): The effects of the insecticide chlorpyrifos on spider and Collembola communities. Pedobiologia 51(2), pp 147-158.

11

Fox, J.E., Gulledge, J., Engelhaupt, E., Burow, M.E., McLachlan, J.A. (2007): Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(24), pp 10282-10287.

Frampton, G.K., Dorne, J.L.C.M. (2007): The effects on terrestrial invertebrates of reducing pesticide inputs in arable crop edges: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 44(2), pp 362-373.

Fuller, R.J., Norton, L.R., Feber, R.E., Johnson, P.J., Chamberlain, D.E., Joys, A.C., Mathews, F., Stuart, R.C., Townsend, M.C., Manley, W.J., Wolfe, M.S., Macdonald, D.W., Firbank, L.G. (2005): Benefits of organic farming to biodiversity vary among taxa. Biology Letters. 22, pp 431-434.

Geiger, F., Bengtsson, J., Berendse, F., Weisser, W.W., Emmerson, M., Morales, M.B., Ceryngier, P., Liira, J., Tscharntke, T., Winqvist, C., Eggers, S., Bommarco, R., Pärt, T., Bretagnolle, V., Plantegenest, M., Clement, L.W., Dennis, C., Palmer, C., Ońate, J.J., Guerrero, I., Hawro, V., Aavik, T., Thies, C., Flohre, A., Hänke, S., Fischer, C., Goedhart, P.W., Inchausti, P. (2010): Persistent negative effects of pesticides on biodiversity and biological control potential on European farmland. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2), pp 97-105.

Gevao, B., Mordaunt, C., Semple, K.T., Piearce, T.G., Jones, K.C. (2000): Bioavailability of Nonextractable (Bound) Pesticide Residues to Earthworms. Environmental Science & Technology 35(3), pp 501-507.

Gigliotti, C., Allievi, L. (2001): Differential effects of the herbicides Bensulphuron and Cinosulphuron on soil microorganisms. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 36(6), pp 775 - 782.

Gilliom, R.J. (2007): Pesticides in U.S. Streams and Groundwater. Environmental Science & Technology 41(10), pp 3408-3414.

Gottschalk, T., Diekötter, T., Ekschmitt, K., Weinmann, B., Kuhlmann, F., Purtauf, T., Dauber, J., Wolters, V. (2007): Impact of agricultural subsidies on biodiversity at the landscape level. Landscape Ecology 22(5), pp 643-656.

Hanson, M.L., Graham, D.W., Babin, E., Azam, D., Coutellec, M.A., Knapp, C.W., Lagadic, L., Caquet, T. (2007): Influence of isolation on the recovery of pond mesocosms from the application of an insecticide. I. Study design and planktonic community responses. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26(6), pp 1265-1279.

Hildebrandt, A., Lacorte, S., Barceló, D. (2009): Occurrence and Fate of Organochlorinated Pesticides and PAH in Agricultural Soils from the Ebro River Basin. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 57(2), pp 247-255.

Hole, D.G., Perkins, A.J., Wilson, J.D., Alexander, I.H., Grice, P.V., Evans, A.D. (2005): Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation 122(1), pp 113-130.

Horrigan, L., Lawrence, R.S., Walker, P. (2002): How sustainable agriculture can address the environmental and human health harms of industrial agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives 110(5), pp 445-56.

Chiocchio, V., Venedikian, N., Martinez, A.E., Menendez, A., Ocampo. J.A., Godeas, A. (2000): Effect of the fungicide benomyl on spore germination and hyphal length of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae. International Microbiology 3, pp 173–175.

Jansa, J., Wiemken, A., Frossard, E. (2006): The effects of agricultural practices on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 266(1), pp 89-115.

Jiang, Y.-F., Wang, X.-T., Jia, Y., Wang, F., Wu, M.-H., Sheng, G.-Y., Fu, J.-M. (2009): Occurrence, distribution and possible sources of organochlorine pesticides in agricultural soil of Shanghai, China. Journal of Hazardous Materials 170(2-3), pp 989-997.

Katayama, A., Funasaka, K., Fujie, K. (2001): Changes in the respiratory quinone profile of a soil treated with pesticides. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33(6), pp 454-459.

Kinney, C.A., Mandernack, K.W., Mosier, A.R. (2005): Laboratory investigations into the effects of the pesticides mancozeb, chlorothalonil, and prosulfuron on nitrous oxide and nitric oxide production in fertilized soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37(5), pp 837-850.

Konstantinou, I.K., Hela, D.G., Albanis, T.A. (2006): The status of pesticide pollution in surface waters (rivers and lakes) of Greece. Part I. Review on occurrence and levels. Environmental Pollution 141(3), pp 555-570.

12

Laetz, C.A., Baldwin, D.H., Collier, T.K., Hebert, V., Stark, J.D., Scholz, N.L. (2008): The Synergistic Toxicity of Pesticide Mixtures: Implications for Risk Assessment and the Conservation of Endangered Pacific Salmon. Environmental health perspectives 117(3), pp 348–353.

Lang, M., Cai, Z. (2009): Effects of chlorothalonil and carbendazim on nitrification and denitrification in soils. Journal of Environmental Sciences 21(4), pp 458-467.

Li, X.-h., Wang, W., Wang, J., Cao, X.-l., Wang, X.-f., Liu, J.-c., Liu, X.-f., Xu, X.-b., Jiang, X.-n. (2008): Contamination of soils with organochlorine pesticides in urban parks in Beijing, China. Chemosphere 70(9), pp 1660-1668.

Liebich, J., Schäffer, A., Burauel, P. (2003): Structural and functional approach to studying pesticide side-effects on specific soil functions. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(4), pp 784-790.

Longley, M., Sotherton, N.W. (1997): Factors determining the effects of pesticides upon butterflies inhabiting arable farmland. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 61(1), pp 1-12.

Maeder, P., Fliessbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P., Niggli, U. (2002): Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming. Science 296(5573), pp 1694-1697.

Maltby, L., Hills, L. (2008): Spray drift of pesticides and stream macroinvertebrates: Experimental evidence of impacts and effectiveness of mitigation measures. Environmental Pollution 156(3), pp 1112-1120.

Matson, P.A., Parton, W.J., Power, A.G., Swift, M.J. (1997): Agricultural Intensification and Ecosystem Properties. Science 277(5325), pp 504-509.

Menendez, A., Martínez, A., Chiocchio, V., Venedikian, N., Ocampo, J.A., Godeas, A. (1999 ): Influence of the insecticide dimethoate on arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and growth in soybean plants. International Microbiology 2, pp 43-45.

Moreby, S.J., Southway, S.E. (1999): Influence of autumn applied herbicides on summer and autumn food available to birds in winter wheat fields in southern England. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 72(3), pp 285-297.

Navarro, G., Vela, N., Navarro, S. (2007): Review. An overview on the environmental behaviour of pesticide residues in soils. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 5(3), pp 357-375.

Pal, R., Chakrabarti, K., Chakraborty, A., Chowdhury, A. (2005): Pencycuron application to soils: Degradation and effect on microbiological parameters. Chemosphere 60(11), pp 1513-1522.

Pimentel, D. (2005): Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States. Environment, Development and Sustainability 7, pp 229–252.

Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D., Seidel, R. (2005): Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems. BioScience 55(7), pp 573-582.

Potera, C. (2007): Agriculture: Pesticides Disrupt Nitrogen Fixation. Environ Health Perspect 115(12).

Reganold, J.P. (1995): Soil quality and profitability of biodynamic and conventional farming systems: A review. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 10(01), pp 36-45.

Reganold, J.P., Elliott, L.F., Unger, Y.L. (1987): Long-term effects of organic and conventional farming on soil erosion. Nature 330(6146), pp 370-372.

Reganold, J.P., Papendick, R.I., Parr, J.F. (1990): Sustainable Agriculture. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN June 1990, pp 112-120.

Reinecke, S.A., Reinecke, A.J. (2007): The impact of organophosphate pesticides in orchards on earthworms in the Western Cape, South Africa. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 66(2), pp 244-251.

Relyea, R.A. (2003): Predator cues and pesticides: a double dose of danger for amphibians. Ecological Applications 13(6), pp 1515-1521.

Relyea, R.A. (2005a): The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities. Ecological Applications 15(2), pp 618-627.

13

Relyea, R.A. (2005b): The lethal impact of Roundup on aquatic and terrestrial amhibians. Ecological Applications 15(4), pp 1118-1124.

Relyea, R.A., Diecks, N. (2008): An unforeseen chain of events: lethal effects of pesticides on frogs at sublethal concentrations Ecological Applications 18(7), pp 1728-1742.

Relyea, R.A., Hoverman, J.T. (2008): Interactive effects of predators and a pesticide on aquatic communities. Oikos 117(11), pp 1647-1658.

Russell, C., Schultz, C.B. (2009): Effects of grass-specific herbicides on butterflies: an experimental investigation to advance conservation efforts. Journal of Insect Conservation 14(1), pp 53-63.

Saarinen, K. (2002): A comparison of butterfly communities along field margins under traditional and intensive management in SE Finland. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 90(1), pp 59-65.

Shahla, Y., D'Souza, D. (2010): Effects of Pesticides on the Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm: A Review. Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2010, pp Article ID 678360, 9 pages.

Shegunova, P., Klánová, J., Holoubek, I. (2007): Residues of organochlorinated pesticides in soils from the Czech Republic. Environmental Pollution 146(1), pp 257-261.

Schäfer, R.B., Caquet, T., Siimes, K., Mueller, R., Lagadic, L., Liess, M. (2007): Effects of pesticides on community structure and ecosystem functions in agricultural streams of three biogeographical regions in Europe. Science of The Total Environment 382(2-3), pp 272-285.

Schreck, E., Geret, F., Gontier, L., Treilhou, M. (2008): Neurotoxic effect and metabolic responses induced by a mixture of six pesticides on the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa nocturna. Chemosphere 71(10), pp 1832-1839.

Taylor, R.L., Maxwell, B.D., Boik, R.J. (2006): Indirect effects of herbicides on bird food resources and beneficial arthropods. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 116(3-4), pp 157-164.

Toan, V., Thao, V., Walder, J., Schmutz, H.-R., Ha, C. (2007): Contamination by Selected Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) in Surface Soils in Hanoi, Vietnam. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 78(3), pp 195-200.

White, P.J., Kerr, J.T. (2007): Human impacts on environment–diversity relationships: evidence for biotic homogenization from butterfly species richness patterns. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16(3), pp 290-299.

Woudneh, M.B., Ou, Z., Sekela, M., Tuominen, T., Gledhill, M. (2009): Pesticide Multiresidues in Waters of the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Part I. Surface Water. J. Environ. Qual. 38(3), pp 940-947.

Zehnder, G., Gurr, G.M., KĂĽhne, S., Wade, M.R., Wratten, S.D., Wyss, E. (2007): Arthropod Pest Management in Organic Crops. Annual Review of Entomology 52(1), pp 57-80.

14