110328 - mpt - at lecture notesapi.ning.com/files/emfyvzxutwfha5eqrmabrxg3q34j1ueb70g0fvr5… ·...

31/03/2011

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Alternative Tourism – Managing our eco-

cultural landscape for the benefit of our

environment and our tourism industry

Michael Parlato Trigona

Alternative Tourism

Some of the online organisations that market Alternative tourism directly to the traveller:

Alternative Tourism Guide (Balkans)

http://www.alternativetourguide.com/

Alternative Tourism Group (Palestine)

http://www.atg.ps/

Bulgarian Association for Alternative Tourism

http://www.baatbg.org/welcome.php?page=21

Alternative Tourism South Africa

http://www.alternativetourismsa.co.za/index.html

Alternative Tourism

... combines tourist products or individual tourist services, different

from the mass tourism by means of supply, organization and the

human resource involved.

These include rural, ecotourism, adventure (biking, horseback

riding, snowshoeing, ski mountaineering, rafting, diving, caving,

climbing), thematic tourism – connected with the cultural and

historical heritage, justice and solidarity tourism, the esoteric,

religion, wine, traditional cuisine, ethnography and traditional music

and handicrafts – WIKIPEDIA.ORG

Alternative Tourism

"Alternative Tourism", concept that is defined as not being mass

tourism. Under the alternative tourism concept we can find a series

of classifications and types of tourism. What characterizes the

concept of "Alternative" is the existence of small or medium

companies, created by families or friends, where there is the

possibility of more contact with the communities and where most of

the times there is a respect for the environment.

This concept is generally used by government institutions and

academics, and very rarely a traveller will ask in an information

centre for places or activities of alternative tourism –

WIKIANSWERS.COM

Alternative Tourism

AT is used as a broad term to include several types of

alternatives to mass tourism, such as:

‘sociocultural’, ‘appropriate’, ‘ethical’, ‘eco’, ‘nature’, ‘soft’,

‘responsible’, ‘people to people’, ‘controlled’, ‘small-scale’,

‘cottage’ and ‘green’ tourism

(Wall, 1997:37; Butler, 1996 as cited in Weaver, 1998:32; Fennel, 1999:9)

In general AT may be defined as:

…forms of tourism that are consistent with natural, social and

community values, and which allow both hosts and guests to

enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared

experiences

(Eadington & Smith,1992 as cited in Stronza, 2001)

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Alternative Tourism

Typology of Tourism Definitions

Category 1 – Market based segments Category 2 – Ethical based tourism*

Tourism, Mass tourism, Adventure

tourism, Nature tourism, Urban

tourism – including cultural, cruise,

resort, etc

Ecotourism, Geotourism, Pro-poor

tourism, Responsible tourism,

Sustainable tourism

Source: Chafe (2005) as cited with amendments in

SNV (2009) Netherlands Development Organisation [online]

* all are variations on the same theme of environmental, social and

economic sustainability

“Those who are unaware of history are destined to repeat it” - George

Santayana (1863-1952), Spanish American philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist

"The first step towards getting somewhere is to decide that you are

not going to stay where you are." - John Pierpont Morgan (1837-1913)

American financier, banker and art collector

"If you don't know where you are going, you might wind up

someplace else.” - Lawrence Peter "Yogi" Berra (1925), former American Major

League baseball catcher, outfielder and manager

Alternative Tourism

Evolution of ‘Green’ Travel

People increasingly seeking natural environments as an escape

form their mundane built surroundings and hectic lifestyles,

often motivated by a search for relaxation and spiritual renewal

(Burton, 1998:756; Fennel, 1999:30; Honey, 1999a:19; Kimmel,

1999:40; Wearing & Neil, 1999:4; Ryan et al., 2000:149; Blamey,

2001:5 [online])

‘it is clear…that the environment is a social, cultural, economic

and political construct’ (Duffy, 2002:5)


Convergent evolution: ‘where many places and people

independently responded to the need for more nature travel

opportunities in line with society’s efforts to become more

ecologically minded.’ (Fennel, 1999:32)

A post modernist phenomenon, ‘characterized by feelings of

alienation, fragmentation, and superficiality’ MacCannell (1976,

as cited in Stronza, 2001:265)


Intense environmental debate of instrumental versus intrinsic

value of nature and its resources (Honey, 1999a:19)

Anthropocentric versus Biocentric view of the environment

vs.

The Tragedy of the Commons

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8gAMFTAt2M

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Ecotourism in Theory

‘Turismo ecologico’ (sic.), generally attributed to Hector

Ceballos-Lascuráin (Wearing & Neil, 1999) who coined the term

ecotourism in 1983:

Travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural

areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and

enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as

any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present)

found in these areas’ (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987)

Ecotourism in Theory

Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the

environment and improves the well-being of local people."

(TIES, 1990)

1990 – established

2007 – 1st Global Ecotourism conference

2010 – 1st European conference (EuroEco)

Ecotourism in Practice

Unsustainable practiceSustainable practice

AT

Mass

Tourism

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM UNSUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Ecotourism

Sociocultural

Source: Butler (1996) as cited in Weaver (1998:32)


With reference to Ceballos-Lascuráin’s definition of ecotourism

as travel ‘…with the specific objective of studying, admiring and

enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals…’

‘…ecotourists at Fogg Dam were on the whole less inspired by

an opportunity to study than to “admire” and “enjoy”.’ (Ryan et

al. 2000:157-158)


Exploitive

-results in

damage to the

host environment

Passive

-minimal

damage to the

host environment

Active

-contributes to

the health of

host environment

More responsible and more desirable ecotourism

The continuum of ecotourism types

Source: Orams (1995 as cited in Orams, 2001:30 [online])

It is argued that for ecotourism to be categorised as active it

must include a lifestyle or behavioural change on behalf of the

participant as well as actions that result in environmental

benefits (Weaver, 1998:16)


Difficult

Dedicated

Easy

&

Casual

Difficult

& Dedicated

Soft

Hard

Hard

Soft

Degree of interest/experience in natural attraction

Lev

el o

f ch

alle

ng

e/p

hy

sica

l d

iffi

cult

y

Source: Laarman and Durst (1987 as cited in Orams 2001:28 [online]; Fennel 1999:35)

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Tom Baum – Future Industry

Trends...Changing Perceptions

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bLp0V0tHdFI&feature=related

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NEEDS

Physiological Needs(hunger, thirst)

Safety Needs(security, protection)

Social Needs (sense of belonging, love)

Esteem Needs (self-esteem)

Self Actualization

Travel Career Ladder - revisited

as cited in Pearce (2005) Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation; Journal of Travel Research February; 43: 226-237

Nostalgia, romance

Host-site-involvementNature related

More important for experienced travellers

More important for less experienced travellers

Important for all travellers

Roger’s Adoption/Innovation Curve

Early market Mainstream market

Plog’s Model of Personality types

Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and

Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13

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Plog’s Model of Personality types

Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and

Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13

Ecotourism in Europe


‘…relative to its proportion of overall international tourist

arrivals, the less developed world appears to be over

represented in the ecotourism literature’ Weaver (1998:69)

According to UNWTO, with 460 million international arrivals

annually, Europe has more than 50% of the market share of

worldwide tourism – a position which, according to long-term

forecasts, it looks likely to retain (European Travel Commission

Nov 2010)


Europe is a unique destination as it is made up of ‘a mosaic of

relatively small countries’ with a ‘diversity of ecosystems and

landscapes,…cultures,... languages, traditions and gastronomy’

(Blangy & Vautier, 2001:155-156 [online])

Connects ‘nature interpretation with local traditions,

architecture and culture’ Blangy & Vautier (2001:156 [online])

‘the peculiarity of the European landscape is that it is mainly a

product of human activity


Europe as a whole is the most popular travel destination today

and is in the lead in terms of tourist numbers and economic

earnings, with the Mediterranean region being the most

attractive destination as well as the one to have suffered the

most impacts as a direct result of tourism (Blangy & Vautier,

2001 [online])

Kimpton Hotels & Restaurants

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KfVhPvz5jA

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Resource Management Issues

Tourism operators tend to develop a ‘selling mentality to the

resource’ which limits effectiveness PATA (Pacific Asia Travel

Association,1992 as cited in Wearing & Neil, 1999:33)

‘…whatever laudable, environmentally sound polices and goals

the industry articulates, they will remain subsidiary to the

demand for profit’ (Giannecchini, 1993:430).

Market Failure: ‘entrepreneurs are not always required to

compensate for their negative impacts’ (Sirakaya, 1997:920-

921)


‘educating the tour operators and placing a call to their

conscience…are the key strategies for increasing compliance’

‘…personal morality’ was the most important factor as non-

compliance resulted in ‘guilt’ feelings. There was also greater

compliance from female operators than from their male

counterparts (Sirakaya, 1997:942).


Protected

area

personnel

Financial

Institutions

NGOs

Tourism

Industry

Local communities

National

ecotourism

committees

Consumers

Successful

ecotourism

State

Collaborative stakeholder approach to ecotourism

Source: Adapted from Ceballos-Lascuráin, (1996:93-95)


Preservationist approach (fines and fences) failed as local

population reacts badly to a ‘militaristic defence strategy’

Stakeholders theory – which states ‘that people will protect

what they receive value from’ (Honey, 1999a:12)

Managing Mass & Ecotourism

Asked if they would totally substitute their Sun/Sand/Sea (3S’s)

vacation for an ecotourism vacation, 300 + interviewees replied

as follows:

21.4% ‘Strongly in favour’

12.2% ‘In favour’

10.4% ‘Maybe’

56% ‘Totally against’


Asked if they would partially substitute their Sun/Sand/Sea

(3S) vacation for an ecotourism vacation, 300 + interviewees

replied as follows:

42.6% ‘Strongly in favour’

23.6% ‘In favour’

14.2% ‘Maybe’

19.6% ‘Totally against’

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Soft ecotourism is based on ‘many of the characteristics of

mass tourism’

Similarly, according to Weaver (2001b:110) and Duffy

(2002:16), soft ecotourism represents a multipurpose holiday

in which such tourists make use of the mass tourism

infrastructure


Weaver (2001b:110) suggests that the added eco-experience is

what draws soft ecotourists to destinations such as Costa Rica,

Belize and Queensland (Australia), instead of ‘cheaper and

more accessible 3S [sun, sand & sea] destinations such as

Malta, Jamaica or Hawaii’

Soft ecotourists are increasingly opting for more ‘sun-plus’

destinations ‘that offer environmental as well as 3S

attractions’ which in turn have the potential to ‘accelerate the

movement in mass tourism towards sustainability’ (Weaver,

2001b:110)


Tourism platforms

Source: Adapted from Jafari (1989 as cited in Weaver, 2001b:107)

Platform Evolution View of tourism

Advocacy platform 1950’s &

1960’s

Perceived as the ‘ideal smokeless industry’

Cautionary

platform

1970’s A Trojan horse capable of undermining the

environmental, economic and socio-

cultural integrity of destinations

‘Adaptancy’

platform

1980’s Increased demand for more acceptable

forms of tourism – emergence of

Alternative tourism and eventually

ecotourism which gained its identity from

its conscious opposition to mass tourism

Knowledge-based

platform

1990’s Attempts to apply a more judicious

approach and move beyond the ideological

platforms of the past – focus on

management not scale

Rory MacLellan – Sustainable

Tourism ...


Ecotourism Mass tourism

Imparts sustainability/environmental ethos to mainstream tourism

Provides diversification opportunities for mass tourism

Attractive to an increasingly ‘green’ tourist market

Provides sufficient market and revenue flows to position ecotourism

as a major resource stakeholder, with significant lobbying clout

Introduction of effective environmental management systems

Converging and symbiotic relationship between ecotourism and mass tourism

Source: Weaver (2001a:79 [online])


‘…political nature of legitimacy management is particularly

acute in the context of emerging industries like ecotourism’

(Lawrence et al., 1997:309) – stakeholder involvement necessary

Negative tourism impacts could be due to ‘mismanagement’

rather than ‘any inherent flaw with mass tourism’ (Lawton,

2001:299 [online])

Two main strategies which can be employed to increase carrying

capacity include; site hardening measures and consumer

education

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_08Nxj-7RSQ&feature=related

Site Hardening

Site Hardening Site Hardening

Visitor Interpretation

What is interpretation?What is interpretation?

A communication process designed to reveal meanings and

relationships of our cultural and natural heritage to visitors,

through first hand experiences with objects, artifacts,

landscapes, and sites


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• Without interpretive services, you do not have a heritage or

historic site, you have an OLD site.

• It is through the interpretation of a site’s stories to visitors,

that the “heritage” of a site is brought to life.

• Visitors need to know: Who you are, How and Why you do

what it is you do

• Interpretation is the most powerful communication process

any historic or heritage site has to communicate its message

to visitors

Visitors want to learn, see, and do! They travel to destination

for a mix of ‘edutainment’ experiences.


Interpretive

Communication

Strategies

Advertising

Consumer

Behaviour

Psychology of the

Audience

Recreational

learning theory

Marketing

Other related

professions &

disciplines


Interpretation is an Attitude

Interpretation not just a thing (signs, boards or exhibits). It’s a way

of thinking about level of quality of the communication & services

you offer to visitors.

It’s an indispensable part of a heritage site’s ultimate success

(financial, political or educational)

Without this attitude about interpretive quality and customer care

excellence, the site visit becomes stale, boring and lacks soul.

Interpretation is the main reason visitors go to heritage sites

Indicators that sites need

Interpretation

• Visitation numbers have not significantly increased over thepast couple of years

• Visitation numbers have flat-lined

• Visitation numbers far below expectations given historicalvalue & location of site as well as in comparison to othersimilar sites or sites in the area

• Visitation numbers are decreasing

• Visitor management problems and impacts are increasing orremain unresolved

Indicators that sites need

Interpretation

• Poor community support

• Experiencing reduction in grant aid

• Visitors do not leave site truly understanding the story of the

site or the value in preserving historic sites and landscapes

• Your marketing material depicts landscapes, furniture,

buildings but no people in pictures

• Site lacks sparkle, entertainment, fun, experiences & benefits

to visitors

Creating Powerful Interpretation

To be interpretive, the communication must:

– Provoke the attention of the visitor

– Relate to everyday lives of visitors

– Reveal the essence of the message in a unique or

interesting manner

– Address the whole i.e. support a high level theme or story

– Strive for message unity i.e. use correct design elements

and audio to support the topic

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Creating Powerful Interpretation

• Develop objective and outcome-based media plans

• Target messages to specific market groups

• Have in-depth understanding of audiences

• Make presentations fun, inspirational & memorable

• Plan for total visitor experience

Benefits of Interpretation

• Benefits are not only advantageous to the heritage site but

are sought after by the visitor

• Show visitors why site has value

• Inspire visitors and create sense of pride

• Visitors come for the interpretation of the site

• Gets visitors to care about heritage

• Interpretation is the reason visitors come back

• Can increase visitation by increasing the perceived BENEFITS

tourists receive

Benefits of Interpretation

• Interpretive programs can reduce cost of maintenance and

visitor management when used as management tool

• Interpretation makes money

• Provides added value

• Heritage tourism is dependant upon heritage interpretation

• Helps visitors create their own way to experience & learn

about a site

Planning for Interpretation

1. First of all it is imperative to consider the main story or theme

of the heritage site

2. Decide on Total Media Mix (leaflets, exhibits, demonstrations,

guided tours, audio devices, etc)

3. Decide on the measurable objectives that can demonstrate

success or failure

4. Remain product based – what are you really promoting to the

visitor?

5. Identify and communicate benefits that visitor will receive

from visiting the site

Planning for Interpretation

1. What? - Inventory

2. Theme – Topic/Programme

3. Why? - Mission Statement, Goals & Objectives

4. The two most important Questions

5. Who? - Who is your audience?

6. How/When/Where? - Story Development

7. So What? - Evaluation

1. Creating an Inventory

What do we inventory?

Resources

Natural Cultural

Biological

Geological

Tangible

Intangible

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2. Identifying the Theme

A theme is the central or key idea (the “Big Picture”) of any

presentation and should:

• Be stated as a complete sentence

• Contain one main idea

• Reveal the overall purpose of the presentation

• Be stated in an interesting manner

2. Identifying the Theme

The multiple use of the Forest

benefits people and wildlife

Programme themes or sub-topics can be more specific:

• Mosquitoes are fascinating insects

• The grizzly’s survival is threatened

• There are many ways you can help protect this natural park

Many animals have specialised ways for finding food or pray

All animals have developed a variety of strategies to survive in a global ecosystem

Some animals have evolved special reproduction strategies for survival

Some animals have special adaptations for surviving harsh climates (staying warm /cool)

Many animals have evolved survival strategies for “not being eaten”

3. Mission Statement, Goals &

Objectives

• Mission statement drives interpretation

• Mission statement to be set after inventory & Theme

• Interpretive goals are broad in nature but help to set the

general direction

• Interpretive Objectives are more specific and measurable

Learning Objectives

• Most commonly used, focus on visitors being able to name,

list, describe or illustrate desired items upon completion of a

given programme

• Example:

– The majority of the visitors will be able to list five ways the

forest is using state-of-the-art conservation techniques to

improve habitats for wildlife


Objectives

Visitor Perception & Behavioural Objective

Change Strategy

Behaviour Change

Motivated to Change Behaviour

Awareness of Issue

Issue Identification & Information Learning

Objectives

Emotional

Objectives

Behavioural

Objectives


Objectives

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Emotional Objectives

• You cant begin to change or alter behaviour or attitudes unless you accomplish these

• These are the “driving force” objectives

• They help visitors remember the topic because of strong “feelings” they create

• Example:

– The majority of visitors will feel that taking an active role in recycling materials at home helps people and wildlife; they will feel good about recycling


Objectives

Behavioural Objectives

• Probably most important

• Focus on what it is that you want visitors to do (how you want

them to use the info)

• Example:

– The majority of visitors will want to join in local efforts for

historical preservation


Objectives

4. Two Most Important Questions

1. Why would a visitor want to know that?

2. How do I want the visitor to use the information I am giving

them?

People learn better when they're actively involved in the

learning process and when they're using as many senses as

possible.

People retain about:

10% of what they hear

30% of what they read

50% of what they see

90% of what they do

5. Know your Audience

• Understand visitor motivations for selecting and attending

Heritage sites and Interpretive programmes

• Ohio State Park example

• Essential to carry out research

• Pacing Interpretive services

6. Story Development

• Once we’ve decided What/Why/Who, we move onto

How/When/Where

• Remember that there is the Theme

• Interpretation at each site much illustrate main Theme

(Address the whole + Message Unity)

7. Evaluation

• The So What? Section

• Plan evaluation into your project

• The evaluation Process:

– Identify objectives that you wanted to evaluate

– Select most appropriate evaluation tool

– Apply technique & obtain results

– Compare actual results to desired results from objectives

– Analyse results

– Make recommendations for improvements

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Interpretation Case Study

Interpretation material:

1. Three Cities Strategic Plan

2. Three Cities Flyer

3. Grand Harbour Water Taxi

4. Interpretation Panels

5. Three Cities Leaflet

6. Location Maps

The end

Thank you for your attention

[email protected]

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