11 ocean tides and sea level. chamberlin and dickey, 2008 exploring the world ocean questions to...

1111 Ocean Tides and Sea LevelOcean Tides and Sea Level

Chamberlin and Dickey, 2008Chamberlin and Dickey, 2008

Exploring the World OceanExploring the World Ocean

Questions to ConsiderQuestions to Consider

What are tides?

What causes tides?

Is sea level rising?

What are tides?

What causes tides?




Do You Know?Do You Know?

1. Tides

a) are daily changes in sea level

b) are caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun

c) occur in the open ocean

d) all of the above

1. Tides

a) are daily changes in sea level

b) are caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun

c) occur in the open ocean

d) all of the above



A Brief History of TidesA Brief History of Tides

Tides have been known and used by humans in India since 2300 BC.

Sir Isaac Newton published the first complete theory of tides in 1687, the equilibrium theory.

Pierre Simon, Marquis de LePlace formulated a more advanced theory of tides between 1755 and 1825, the dynamic theory of the tides.

Alexander von Humboldt established a fixed point on shore from which tides can be measured, the tidal datum.

Tides have been known and used by humans in India since 2300 BC.

Sir Isaac Newton published the first complete theory of tides in 1687, the equilibrium theory.

Pierre Simon, Marquis de LePlace formulated a more advanced theory of tides between 1755 and 1825, the dynamic theory of the tides.

Alexander von Humboldt established a fixed point on shore from which tides can be measured, the tidal datum.



Tides DefinedTides Defined

The daily rise and fall of sea level in response to the inflow and outflow of tidal currents characterizes the ocean tides. Earth’s crust also experiences tides.

Note that tides are measured in the vertical direction, the rise and fall of sea level, but they are caused by currents, a horizontal flow. Tides do not result from water being pulled towards the Sun or Moon or being flung from one side of the Earth like a bucket of water on a rope. Tides are a horizontal phenomenon.

The daily rise and fall of sea level in response to the inflow and outflow of tidal currents characterizes the ocean tides. Earth’s crust also experiences tides.

Note that tides are measured in the vertical direction, the rise and fall of sea level, but they are caused by currents, a horizontal flow. Tides do not result from water being pulled towards the Sun or Moon or being flung from one side of the Earth like a bucket of water on a rope. Tides are a horizontal phenomenon.

QuickTime™ and aSorenson Video decompressorare needed to see this picture.



Short video of the outgoing tide in the Bay of Fundy

Short video of the outgoing tide in the Bay of Fundy



High and Low TidesHigh and Low Tides

When sea level is at its maximum height during the tidal period, the tide is said to be high.

When sea level is at its minimum height during the tidal period, the tide is said to be low.

The heights of high tides and low tides are rarely constant; they may change with each new tide.

The heights of tides are measured relative to a fixed location on the shore, called a tidal datum.

When sea level is at its maximum height during the tidal period, the tide is said to be high.

When sea level is at its minimum height during the tidal period, the tide is said to be low.

The heights of high tides and low tides are rarely constant; they may change with each new tide.

The heights of tides are measured relative to a fixed location on the shore, called a tidal datum.



Low tide exposes a number of otherwise-submerged marine organisms.

Low tide exposes a number of otherwise-submerged marine organisms.



Daily PatternsDaily Patterns

Tides vary depending on their location in the world ocean. Tides that occur once daily are called diurnal tides. Twice daily tides are called semidiurnal tides.

The tidal period, the time between successive high (or low) tides, is 24 hours and 50 minutes for diurnal tides; semi-diurnal tides occur every 12 hours and 25 minutes.

In some locations with semidiurnal tides, the tide heights of the twice-daily high and low tides are unequal. In these cases, the tides are referred to as mixed semidiurnal tides.

A complete tidal cycle, once or twice-daily, is called the tidal day. A tidal day is always 24 hours and 50 minutes.

Tides vary depending on their location in the world ocean. Tides that occur once daily are called diurnal tides. Twice daily tides are called semidiurnal tides.

The tidal period, the time between successive high (or low) tides, is 24 hours and 50 minutes for diurnal tides; semi-diurnal tides occur every 12 hours and 25 minutes.

In some locations with semidiurnal tides, the tide heights of the twice-daily high and low tides are unequal. In these cases, the tides are referred to as mixed semidiurnal tides.

A complete tidal cycle, once or twice-daily, is called the tidal day. A tidal day is always 24 hours and 50 minutes.



Figure 11-10



Figure 11-4



Tidal RangeTidal Range

Tidal range refers to the difference between the lowest low tide and the highest high tide in a tidal period or day:

tidal range = tide height (high) - tide height (low)

What is the tidal range when the high tide is 3.0 feet and the low tide is -1.0 feet?

Tidal range refers to the difference between the lowest low tide and the highest high tide in a tidal period or day:

tidal range = tide height (high) - tide height (low)

What is the tidal range when the high tide is 3.0 feet and the low tide is -1.0 feet?



The Tides, the Moon, and the SunThe Tides, the Moon, and the Sun

An understanding of tides and their patterns necessarily involves the Moon, the primary tide-causing force, and the Sun, the secondary tide-causing force.

The orbit of the Moon around the Earth takes 27.32 days, what is called the sidereal month.

During the Moon’s orbit, the Earth is also moving around the Sun. It takes an additional 2.21 days for the Moon to return to its starting alignment with the Earth and Sun. This period is called the synodic month.

An understanding of tides and their patterns necessarily involves the Moon, the primary tide-causing force, and the Sun, the secondary tide-causing force.

The orbit of the Moon around the Earth takes 27.32 days, what is called the sidereal month.

During the Moon’s orbit, the Earth is also moving around the Sun. It takes an additional 2.21 days for the Moon to return to its starting alignment with the Earth and Sun. This period is called the synodic month.



Figure 11-6



Tides and the Position of the Moon and the Sun

Tides and the Position of the Moon and the Sun

The alignment of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun, affects the heights of the high and low tides. Because the alignment of these three bodies changes on a synodic and annual cycle, tides vary on a synodic and annual cycle.

The synodic cycle varies with the familiar phases of the Moon, so we start there...

The alignment of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun, affects the heights of the high and low tides. Because the alignment of these three bodies changes on a synodic and annual cycle, tides vary on a synodic and annual cycle.

The synodic cycle varies with the familiar phases of the Moon, so we start there...

full moonfull moon

waxing gibbouswaxing gibbous

first quarterfirst quarter

third quarterthird quarter

new moon = no moonnew moon = no moon

full moonfull moon

waxing crescentwaxing crescent

waning gibbouswaning gibbous

waning crescentwaning crescent



Spring TidesSpring Tides

When the Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned, the gravitational forces that cause tides have their maximum effect. This results in extreme high tides and extreme low tides, i.e., extreme tidal range.

When are the Moon, Earth, and Sun aligned? When the Moon is new and full.

Tides produced when the Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned are called spring tides (so named because the tides appear to “spring up” during the tidal period).

When the Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned, the gravitational forces that cause tides have their maximum effect. This results in extreme high tides and extreme low tides, i.e., extreme tidal range.

When are the Moon, Earth, and Sun aligned? When the Moon is new and full.

Tides produced when the Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned are called spring tides (so named because the tides appear to “spring up” during the tidal period).



Neap TidesNeap Tides

When the Moon, Earth, and Sun are at a 90-degree angle to each other, the gravitational forces that cause tides have their minimum effect. This results in less of a difference in the heights of the high and low tides, i.e., minimal tidal range.

When are the Moon, Earth, and Sun aligned? When the Moon is at its first and third quarter.

Tides produced when the Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned are called neap tides.

When the Moon, Earth, and Sun are at a 90-degree angle to each other, the gravitational forces that cause tides have their minimum effect. This results in less of a difference in the heights of the high and low tides, i.e., minimal tidal range.

When are the Moon, Earth, and Sun aligned? When the Moon is at its first and third quarter.

Tides produced when the Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned are called neap tides.

Figure 11-8



DeclinationDeclination

Another influence on tides is the position of the Moon relative to the equator. When the orbit of the Moon takes it above or below the equator, the highest tides will follow. The angle of the Moon’s orbit with respect to the equator is called declination. The Moon’s plane of orbit is about 5 degrees relative to the equator. That means the Moon orbits above and below the equator each month.

Declination causes different tide heights at different locations on Earth in a given tidal period. It also helps explain the occurrence of diurnal tides.

Another influence on tides is the position of the Moon relative to the equator. When the orbit of the Moon takes it above or below the equator, the highest tides will follow. The angle of the Moon’s orbit with respect to the equator is called declination. The Moon’s plane of orbit is about 5 degrees relative to the equator. That means the Moon orbits above and below the equator each month.

Declination causes different tide heights at different locations on Earth in a given tidal period. It also helps explain the occurrence of diurnal tides.



Figure 11-9



Tidal CurrentsTidal Currents

Tidal forces cause flows of water that we observe as tides. These flows of water are called tidal currents.

In coastal waters, tidal currents are often observed in inlets or similarly restricted openings between the ocean and coastal waterways or estuaries. Tidal currents that flow landwards and cause a rising tide are called flood tides. Tidal currents that flow oceanwards and cause a falling tide are called ebb tides. Periods of time between flood and ebb tides whe tidal currents appear motionless are called slack tides.

Tidal forces cause flows of water that we observe as tides. These flows of water are called tidal currents.

In coastal waters, tidal currents are often observed in inlets or similarly restricted openings between the ocean and coastal waterways or estuaries. Tidal currents that flow landwards and cause a rising tide are called flood tides. Tidal currents that flow oceanwards and cause a falling tide are called ebb tides. Periods of time between flood and ebb tides whe tidal currents appear motionless are called slack tides.




What are tides?

What causes tides?


What are tides?

What causes tides?





2. True or false - The Moon has twice the effect on tides as the Sun.

a) true

b) false

2. True or false - The Moon has twice the effect on tides as the Sun.

a) true

b) false



Some Facts About Tide-Causing Forces

Some Facts About Tide-Causing Forces

An understanding of the cause of tides is not essential to understanding their patterns and behaviors. Nonetheless, an understanding of the cause of tides is essential for avoiding common misconceptions about tides.

Ocean tides are not caused by the pull of the Moon and Sun. Gravity is important because it generates the forces that cause tides. But the gravity of the Moon is not lifting water off the face of the Earth and causing the tides.. That’s simply wrong!

An understanding of the cause of tides is not essential to understanding their patterns and behaviors. Nonetheless, an understanding of the cause of tides is essential for avoiding common misconceptions about tides.

Ocean tides are not caused by the pull of the Moon and Sun. Gravity is important because it generates the forces that cause tides. But the gravity of the Moon is not lifting water off the face of the Earth and causing the tides.. That’s simply wrong!



More Facts About Tide-Causing Forces

More Facts About Tide-Causing Forces

The tide-causing forces result from differences in gravity at different points on Earth’s surface. It is the differences in gravity that causes the tidal forces.

The strongest tidal forces act tangentially (essentially, horizontal) to Earth’s surface. It is these tangential forces that cause horizontal movements of the ocean, i.e., the tidal currents.

Vertical tidal forces are incredibly small; the vertical pull of the Moon might reduce the weight of an object by 0.000035%, less than your weight loss if you removed your shoes, less than the weight loss of a seagull taking flight from a ship!

The tide-causing forces result from differences in gravity at different points on Earth’s surface. It is the differences in gravity that causes the tidal forces.

The strongest tidal forces act tangentially (essentially, horizontal) to Earth’s surface. It is these tangential forces that cause horizontal movements of the ocean, i.e., the tidal currents.

Vertical tidal forces are incredibly small; the vertical pull of the Moon might reduce the weight of an object by 0.000035%, less than your weight loss if you removed your shoes, less than the weight loss of a seagull taking flight from a ship!



Still More About Tide-Causing Forces

Still More About Tide-Causing Forces

Other planetary bodies, such as Mars, the stars, and an occasional comet, have a negligible effect on tides.

Tides would occur even if the Moon, Earth, and Sun were motionless, an admittedly impossible situation. The point is that tides are produced by gravity, not planetary motions.

And just to reiterate: Tidal forces cause water to move across the face of our planet. It is these horizontal movements of water that are perceived as a vertical rise and fall of sea level. i.e., the tides.

Other planetary bodies, such as Mars, the stars, and an occasional comet, have a negligible effect on tides.

Tides would occur even if the Moon, Earth, and Sun were motionless, an admittedly impossible situation. The point is that tides are produced by gravity, not planetary motions.

And just to reiterate: Tidal forces cause water to move across the face of our planet. It is these horizontal movements of water that are perceived as a vertical rise and fall of sea level. i.e., the tides.



Figure 11-11

Illustration of the gravitational forces of the Moon on Earth. Note that these are not the tidal forces. The Sun exerts a similar effect albeit one that is 50% weaker.



Figure 11-12

Illustration of the tidal forces of the Moon on Earth. Tidal forces result from differences in gravity such that the direction of the force is reversed on the side opposite the Moon. As a result, water flows in two directions: towards a point beneath the Moon and towards a point on the opposite side of the Moon.

Figure 11-13



Illustration of the horizontal component of the tidal forces, the cause of tidal currents.



The Equilibrium Model of TidesThe Equilibrium Model of Tides

The text and illustrations on the causes of tides provide a simple model for explaining the existence of ocean tides. This model of tides assumes that Earth is completely covered by water, that the gravitational forces of the Moon, Earth and Sun are in static equilibrium, and that frictional effects with the seafloor are negligible. This model is called the equilibrium theory of the tides.

The text and illustrations on the causes of tides provide a simple model for explaining the existence of ocean tides. This model of tides assumes that Earth is completely covered by water, that the gravitational forces of the Moon, Earth and Sun are in static equilibrium, and that frictional effects with the seafloor are negligible. This model is called the equilibrium theory of the tides.



Figure 11-1

In the equilibrium model, tidal forces create two bulges of water, one facing towards the Moon and the other facing away from the Moon. As Earth rotates on its axis beneath the tidal bulges, locations on Earth’s surface experience high and low tides.



Dynamical Model of the TidesDynamical Model of the Tides

A more realistic (and more complex) model of the tides includes the effects of continents and frictional forces with ocean basins. This model, called the dynamical theory of the tides, views tides as a rotary wave that propagates in a circular fashion within the ocean basins. The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun supply energy to the rotary waves in periodic pulses.

A more realistic (and more complex) model of the tides includes the effects of continents and frictional forces with ocean basins. This model, called the dynamical theory of the tides, views tides as a rotary wave that propagates in a circular fashion within the ocean basins. The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun supply energy to the rotary waves in periodic pulses.

In dynamical theory, the Moon and Sun “pulse” the tides like two players on a tetherball.

moonmoon sunsun



Figure 11-2

The dynamical model treats tides as waves rotating in the ocean basins.



Dynamical Theory of the TidesDynamical Theory of the Tides

Tidal forces supply energy to the tides.

Tidal forces set up a natural resonance, a periodic oscillation of rotary waves. These waves are called tidal waves (not to be confused with tsunami).

Tidal waves have fixed periods (12 hours and 25 minutes for semidiurnal tides) and long wavelengths, meaning they act like a shallow water wave whose speed is controlled by water depth.

Tidal forces supply energy to the tides.

Tidal forces set up a natural resonance, a periodic oscillation of rotary waves. These waves are called tidal waves (not to be confused with tsunami).

Tidal waves have fixed periods (12 hours and 25 minutes for semidiurnal tides) and long wavelengths, meaning they act like a shallow water wave whose speed is controlled by water depth.



Tidal waves rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, analogous to a wave that rotates in a glass of water that is tilted back and forth.

Figure 11-14



Tidal waves, a kind of standing wave, rotate around a node called an amphidromic point. The time of one rotation is one tidal period. The location of the crest from the amphidromic point to the shoreline can be expressed as co-tidal lines, places where the phase of the tide is the same. The range of tides as the wave rotates can be expressed as co-range lines, places where the range of tides is similar. The net result of co-tidal and co-range lines is a “spider-web-like” diagram that represents the motions and heights of tides in a basin.

Figure 11-14



Tidal waves are a kind of Kelvin wave that propagates eastwards along the equator and counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Figure 11-15



Figure 11-16

Tide heights across the world ocean are represented as color contours. The lunar component of the tides is shown here.



Figure 11-16

Tide phases across the world ocean are represented as color contours. The lunar component of the tides is shown here.




What are tides?

What causes tides?


What are tides?

What causes tides?





3. True or false - Global warming of the world ocean is partly responsible for sea level rise.

a) true

b) false

3. True or false - Global warming of the world ocean is partly responsible for sea level rise.

a) true

b) false



Theoretical Sea LevelTheoretical Sea Level

The average height of the surface of the ocean above the seafloor defines sea level. In reality, waves, tides, storms, pressure gradients, and other oceanographic and meteorological factors will alter sea level.

The theoretical surface of the ocean in the absence of any disturbing forces is defined by Earth’s geoid, the equipotential surface of Earth’s gravitational field. The geoid varies according to the masses of Earth’s crustal features; mountains aboveground and underwater generate a stronger gravitational field than a flatland. The geoid defines surfaces that are perpendicular to the gravitational field. Thus, the geoid is not flat!

The average height of the surface of the ocean above the seafloor defines sea level. In reality, waves, tides, storms, pressure gradients, and other oceanographic and meteorological factors will alter sea level.

The theoretical surface of the ocean in the absence of any disturbing forces is defined by Earth’s geoid, the equipotential surface of Earth’s gravitational field. The geoid varies according to the masses of Earth’s crustal features; mountains aboveground and underwater generate a stronger gravitational field than a flatland. The geoid defines surfaces that are perpendicular to the gravitational field. Thus, the geoid is not flat!



Figure 11-17

Despite common perception (perhaps based on globes), Earth’s surface is far from flat. In fact, it is quite lumpy. Mass differences within Earth’s crust generate different gravitational forces and so, as a result, Earth’s geoid is not smooth or even perfectly elliptical. Theoretically, the ocean at rest should conform to Earth’s geoid. The geoid is defined as mean sea level.



“Practical” Sea Level“Practical” Sea Level

To keep track of differences in sea level at a single location and to be able to compare changes in sea level over spatial and temporal scales, a consistent system for measuring sea level was needed. Humboldt’s tide gauge benchmarks--measuring sea level relative to a fixed benchmark on the shore-- remains in use today. Satellites measure sea level relative to the reference ellipsoid, the geometric form that most closely matches Earth’s shape. NOAA uses the 19-year average of the mean low or mean low low water at a location. This period of time, called the National Tidal Datum Epoch corresponds to the lunar node, which repeats every 18.6 years, and causes annual variations in tides.

To keep track of differences in sea level at a single location and to be able to compare changes in sea level over spatial and temporal scales, a consistent system for measuring sea level was needed. Humboldt’s tide gauge benchmarks--measuring sea level relative to a fixed benchmark on the shore-- remains in use today. Satellites measure sea level relative to the reference ellipsoid, the geometric form that most closely matches Earth’s shape. NOAA uses the 19-year average of the mean low or mean low low water at a location. This period of time, called the National Tidal Datum Epoch corresponds to the lunar node, which repeats every 18.6 years, and causes annual variations in tides.



Figure 11-18

NOAA’s DART system (Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami) uses pressure sensors mounted on the seafloor to record changes in sea surface height (e.g., tides) and to detect tsunami. The DART system, now deployed in all three major ocean basins, is the only system for early warning of tsunami. See the animation at http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/Jpg/DART-II_05x.swf

http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/Jpg/DART-II_05x.swf

http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/Jpg/DART-II_05x.swf



http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/



Sea-Level Rise and Global WarmingSea-Level Rise and Global Warming

Changes in sea level have occurred throughout geologic time. The last major change occurred during the last Ice Age (~20,000 years ago), when sea level was about 200 m (393 feet) lower than today. Since that time, sea level has slowly risen.

In recent decades, the rate of sea level rise has accelerated. There is strong evidence that human caused global warming is responsible.

Changes in sea level have occurred throughout geologic time. The last major change occurred during the last Ice Age (~20,000 years ago), when sea level was about 200 m (393 feet) lower than today. Since that time, sea level has slowly risen.

In recent decades, the rate of sea level rise has accelerated. There is strong evidence that human caused global warming is responsible.



Figure 11-19

The average rate of rise of sea level is about 2 mm per year, although there are great uncertainties in its measurement. Some studies suggest the rate of sea level rise is accelerating (Church and White, 2006).



Causes of Sea Level VariabilityCauses of Sea Level Variability

Global isostatic adjustment, or GIA, the uplift or subsidence of Earth’s crust in response to disappearance of glaciers, plate tectonics, and other processes.

Eustatic change, the melting of glaciers and land-ice that increase the mass of water in the world ocean (also includes processes that cause the world ocean to lose water)

Steric change, expansion or contraction of seawater as a result of heating or cooling, respectively.

Global isostatic adjustment, or GIA, the uplift or subsidence of Earth’s crust in response to disappearance of glaciers, plate tectonics, and other processes.

Eustatic change, the melting of glaciers and land-ice that increase the mass of water in the world ocean (also includes processes that cause the world ocean to lose water)

Steric change, expansion or contraction of seawater as a result of heating or cooling, respectively.



Figure 11-20

A number of different processes can change sea level over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Simultaneous movements of Earth’s crust along with changes in sea level complicate efforts to determine human contributions to sea level rise.



tide gauges

satellite altimetry

IPCC projections

A study published in Science in May 4, 2007, compared recent tide gauge (red) and satellite altimetry (blue) observations to projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), shown as dashed lines and gray shading. The observations fall at the high end of IPCC’s model predictions, suggesting that the rate of rise of sea level is greater than expected.



Future Sea Level Rise?Future Sea Level Rise?

The IPCC predicts a sea level rise from 9 to 59 cm (3.5 - 23 inches) by 2100.

Church and White (2006) predict a sea level rise of 30 cm (~12 inches) by 2100.

While these amounts seem modest, for regions at or below sea level, even a modest rise will have negative consequences.

Continued research and a longer satellite record will help narrow the uncertainty.

The IPCC predicts a sea level rise from 9 to 59 cm (3.5 - 23 inches) by 2100.

Church and White (2006) predict a sea level rise of 30 cm (~12 inches) by 2100.

While these amounts seem modest, for regions at or below sea level, even a modest rise will have negative consequences.

Continued research and a longer satellite record will help narrow the uncertainty.



Quick ReviewQuick Review

4. True or false - The pull of the moon and sun on the world ocean causes it to rise and fall.

a) true

b) false

4. True or false - The pull of the moon and sun on the world ocean causes it to rise and fall.

a) true

b) false




5. The west coast of the US experiences.

a) diurnal tides

b) semidiurnal tides

c) mixed semidiurnal tides

5. The west coast of the US experiences.

a) diurnal tides

b) semidiurnal tides

c) mixed semidiurnal tides




6. What time is the high low tide on July 1, 2007, as shown on the tide chart here? Each small tick = 1 hour

a) about 5 am

b) about 11 am

c) about 5 pm

d) about 11 pm

6. What time is the high low tide on July 1, 2007, as shown on the tide chart here? Each small tick = 1 hour

a) about 5 am

b) about 11 am

c) about 5 pm

d) about 11 pm




7. What kind of tidal range can we expect a week after a full or new moon?

a) a maximal range

b) a minimal range

7. What kind of tidal range can we expect a week after a full or new moon?

a) a maximal range

b) a minimal range




8. What is the position of the Moon, Earth, and Sun during spring tides?

a) they are in a line

b) they are at a 90-degree angle to each other

c) It depends on the month of spring in question

8. What is the position of the Moon, Earth, and Sun during spring tides?

a) they are in a line

b) they are at a 90-degree angle to each other

c) It depends on the month of spring in question



For Further ExplorationFor Further Exploration

Check out Exploration Activity 11-1, Exploring Sea Level Through Concept Mapping and Data Investigation.

Check out the resources for this chapter at www.mhhe.com/chamberlin1e

Watch “Blue Planet: Tidal Seas”, an excellent video on marine life in the intertidal.

Check out Exploration Activity 11-1, Exploring Sea Level Through Concept Mapping and Data Investigation.

Check out the resources for this chapter at www.mhhe.com/chamberlin1e

Watch “Blue Planet: Tidal Seas”, an excellent video on marine life in the intertidal.

11 ocean tides and sea level. chamberlin and dickey, 2008 exploring the world ocean questions to...

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complete theory of tides

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