Sec 2Contents6.18. 'To Feel Happy at the Prospect of Marriage'26.19 Revelation of secret love of the heroine76.19b. veri the dance by a priest possessed by Murugan:76.20. 'Elopement'106.21. 'Concerns Connected with Chastity'166.22. Return from the Elopement216.23. To Perform a Marriage Ceremony in the Hero's House'256.25. Varaital 'Wedding'27Karpu Post-Marital Love306.26. Newly Married Life306.27 Separation on account of courtesans -- p 197356.28 Separation for Study436.29. 'Separation for Defending the Country'436.30 Separation for Peace Mission between Enemy Kings436.31 Separation for Warfare446.32 Hero separating from the heroine in pursuit of wealth47

6.18. 'To Feel Happy at the Prospect of Marriage'6.18.1. Neither TP nor IA refers to this theme, which is mentioned for the first time in the colophons. For example, the colophon of Kur. 51 relates, "what the maid tells the heroine, who is disheartened at the delay of marriage, of the happy prospect of marriage." As we can understand from its context, the original meaning of the phrase (uaraitni mativu) appears, as pointed out by U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar, "being full of activities in preparation for utarriage." Hence the most appropriate rendering of it is 'To feel happy at the prospect of marriage" (TL), which is the sense in which the phrase is used in all the colophons.Nampi may have analysed the theme on the basis of these colophons; he classifies it into four sub-situations consisting of seven sub-themes. The term, malivu occurs in TP, but its meaning is "happiness of lovers in sexual union after marriage" (TP 231, 488) and hence it has nothing to do with the theme in question.6.18.2. Several poems describe the theme (Kur. 51, 146, 351, 389; Ak 70, 282; Airi. 230. 300). For example, Ain. 147 refers to the phase/subtheme of 'the hero offering (to the heroine's parents, according to tradition) a bride-price, which is designated by Nampi as the first phase. Therein the maid speaks to the heroine:The chieftain of the region where the womenwho cannot get the flowers of the natal in the sandycoast, desire its leaves,has given his very country as the bride-price.(tr. P. Jotitnuttu, AIN, p. 228)The original word for the bride-price in the translation is talai-vilai (the price of talai), which, according to U. V. Swarninatah Aiyar, is a vulgar word, signifying the bride-price along with mulai-vilai (lit. 'breast-price'). In According to Rm. Periakaruppan (personal communication to author), talai signifies the private parts of women.The 'bride-price' is currently referred to as mulai-vilai, of which the translator of Ain 147 states, When a young man proposes to his love, he should offer to the girl's mother the bride-money, signifying his thankfulness to her for bringing up his bride"(AIN, p. 228). TL, citing Gazetteer of the Tanjore District (I-73), gives the same explanation given under the item of breast-milk-wage.A poem, however, which is said by some critics to be Nar. 234, may signify that the original meaning of mulai-vilai is the price of the heroine's breasts unlike the definition of TL and Jotimuttu.In the poem, the [heroine's] foster-mother says to the heroine's mother, Considering the troubles the noble man (i.e. the hero) has undergone [for the bride-price] and the loftiness of your family, which seems to touch the sky, it would be good to give [to him] her mature breasts (varu-mulai) in return for his hill, where precious jewels are gathered; for, if you [properly] estimate her bride-price (ataiporul), even Urantai and Vanci ...would be too little [for her bride-price].The term mulai-vilai does not occur at all in the early texts. Talai-vilai occurs only once in the poem cited above (Ain. 147) (is this related to the late origin of Ain?). Anyhow, the theme concerning the 'bride-price' is rarely depicted in the poems[footnoteRef:1]. [1: In Ak. 280, the hero intends to offer his labour in order to win the favour of the heroine's father (see also Nar. 300, Ak. 90).]

Another phase of varaivu malivu is described in Kur. 146, in which the maid, feeling happy to see both the hero's and the heroine's relatives agree with their marriage, says to her[footnoteRef:2]: [2: M.S. Pillai and D.E. Ludden interpret the situation of the poem as "what her friend said to her, when his kinsmen had come to speak of their marriage and she was afraid her kinsmen would refuse" and translate lines 1-2 in the original as Are there not people in our town who unite those separated from one another. KT, p. 180). However, itaiccol kollo here is merely interrogative with no negative implications. Hence the poetic situation as interpreted by Pillai Ludden is entirely different from the original.]

Listen, my friend:Are there people in our townwho unite those separated from one another? [His] people [came] with [their walking] sticks, their white heads wrapped in cloth,say, "Good, it is good."[Our] people gathering here with them, say, "This is a big day".(tr. Author)ln Kur. 51, the maid tells the heroine about the prospect of marriage:I too like the manfrom where the cool black flowers of the thorny shrub scatter in the wind,like pearls off a broken string, and spread on the river bank, where people bathe.My mother wants [this marriage], and my father wants to give[you to him],and the whole village is talking about [you and] him.(tr. M.S. Pillai and D.E. Ludden, KT, p, 240)(N.B. the brackets were added by the author.)It is quite clear in the above translation that the speaker is the maid, but, in the original, either the heroine or the maid could be the speaker, since the objects are not mentioned in it (see brackets). If the speaker is the heroine, the translation of the relevant lines would be; "I too love the man from the maritime region", "my mother very much wants [him to marry me], "my father wants to give [me to him]", "the scandalous village is talking about [the matter] with him".The role of the parents, either of the heroine or of the maid, may give a clue as to which of them is the speaker in the poem. Either the heroine's real mother or her foster mother could be addressed by the speaker as "my mother", since the maid (even if she is the speaker) is the daughter of the heroine's foster mother[footnoteRef:3] who naturally wishes that the heroine will make a happy marriage just as much as her own mother does. Therefore, we cannot infer who the speaker is from my mother referred to in the poem. [3: However, almost none of the actual poems mention clearly that the maid is the daughter of the heroine's foster mother. Ak. 63 exceptionally refers to this: the speaker is the foster mother, since she calls the heroine's friend (i.e. the maid) "daughter"; "O you [my] daughter! I won't grieve over the fact that your friend has crossed the huge mountains with that man [and gone]]

My father, on the other hand, gives us a hint as to who the speaker is. Neither the character of the heroine's nor the maid's father has been so far investigated,127[footnoteRef:4] but the texts, if investigated, give a firm description of the maid's father. In some texts, (either the heroine or the maid) appears together with her parents, but most of them do not imply who she (the speaker) is.[footnoteRef:5] [4: Neither TP nor IA identifies the fathers as either the speaker or the listener. In TP 490, six kinds of speaker on the pre-marital stage are enumerated; that is, Brahmin, hero's friend, maid, foster mother, the hero, and the heroine. In addition to these six speakers. bard, dancer, virali (a kind of female dancer), courtesan, wise men and bystanders are enumerated as the twelve kinds of speaker on the post-marital stage (TP 491). On the other hand, the fathers along with the villagers, the neighbours, etc. are not allowed to be the speaker (TP 492). Fathers cannot be listeners since these twelve dramatis personae are identified as the listeners (TP 497).] [5: 128 Although, in the poems in which both I (either the heroine or the maid) and the parents appear, the identity of the speaker is not as clear as stated in the colophons, the heroine seems to be the speaker in Kur. 268 and Ak, 298, and the maid in Kur. 374, Nar. 295, Ak. 12, 240, 282, and Ain 6.]

Ak. 12 exceptionally indicates that 'I' (the speaker) is the maid, since the speaker says to the hero, "O man of a good hill country, if you come any more, she (i.e. the heroine) will not live.And the speaker (the maid) explains how her parents cherish the heroine; My mother loves her (i.e. the heroine) more than [her own] eyes. My father too, being impatient [to see her] set foot on the [cold] floor asks her, Hey little girl! Why are you going out, reddening [your] tiny feet?129 Here the maid's father is portrayed as one who takes just as much care of the heroine as her own father would. This description of the maid's father may help us to decide that the speaker in Kur. 51 is the maid, since her father act as if he were the heroine's father.Ak. 282 has the same motif as Kur. 51, i.e. the maid and her parents feeling happy at the prospect of the heroine's marriage and the rumour of the impending marriage spreading through the village. The poems dealing with this theme have a happy and joyful mood and hence contrast with a major part of kalavu poems, where sadness in love is dominant.

6.19 Revelation of secret love of the heroineMissing pages 162, 163and it, leaps as fastas a horse in a battlefielddown a long bamboo,to make it quiver.His love is unchanging:forever it is the muteas it was that day.But there are newcomers in town.(tr, M. S. Pillai and D. E. Luddin, KT, p. 171)According to the colophon of this poem, its situation is vrru varaivu marriyatu; i.e. 'the heroine causes the maid to make her relatives change their minds when they arrange marriage with a man other than the hero'. The phrase may have already been established when the colophon was written, since the same phrase occurs in TP 109:15 (most probably the colophon repeated TP's phrase). There is only one means by which the maid can possibly influence the heroine's relatives to change their minds regarding her marriage: that is, by the 'revelation'. Otherwise, the heroine has to resort to elopement in order to avoid the marriage arranged by her relatives (see 6.20.2).The above poem (Kur. 385) does not, however, suggest which of the two, 'revelation' or elopement, is the event subsequent to the theme of 'the marriage proposal by a man other than the hero'. Hence we may say that notumalar varaivu could be either a sub-phase of arattotu nilai or a sub-phase of utappkku.6.19b. veri the dance by a priest possessed by Murugan:TP 109, 113; IAC 14: AV 164, 166, 177; 14 occurrences in turais; cf. kalam in, TP 112:39.We may cite Sp. Manickam's remark as representative of the consensus amongst scholars which has been reached concerning the description of the dramatic episode of veri: "In the mean time the mother or the nurse feels distressed to see the heroine waning every day. Ignorant of the real cause of her emaciation the orthodox mother attributes it to the deity of the region, Murugan, and invites the officiating priest called 'velan' to cure the girl of the malady. In a place ritually decorated for the purpose, the vlan invokes the presence of Murugan by offering the red millet mixed with ram's blood and plays a spirited dance designated veriyattu'. He diagnoses the girl's sickness by means of kalanku (molucca beans) and say that she is possessed by the hill deity (Murugan). To ascribe her mental affliction to some other curious cause is unbearable and dishonourable to a chaste girl. This is an occasion for the heroine to show her resentment at the improper act and also to reveal her love-relation with a hero of her choice, in plain or suggestive terms" (TCL, p. 45).6.19b.l. According to TP, although the heroine (TP 109:23), the maid ( TP 112:39) and the foster mother (TP 113:3) make their 'speeches' in the context of the veri situation, it is only the maid who reveals the secret love of the heroine in relation to veri. Unlike Sp. Manickam's remark, TP does not refer to the 'revelation' by the heroine. IA, oddly enough, makes no reference to the theme veri. Nampi regards the arrangement of very as a cause of the 'revelation' by the maid (AV 177) and, at the same time, as a cause of vamivu kayital, the maid urging the hero to marry the heroine (AV 166).6.19b.2. Ilam. and Nacc. cite a number of texts as examples of some phases of the 'revelation' by the maid. For example, they quote Nar. 34 as the example of the maid's revelation to Murugan, or Ain. 250 below, as the example of her revelation to molucca-beans' (kalayiku).O you, unfailing Molucca-beans,he who has afflicted this lady'slovely breasts that bear the jewelsis the chieftain of our forest regionof the blossoming creeperswhere the young peacocks dance in the jungleof the blue mountain. This is the truthand not the manly and victorious Murukan.(tr. P. Jotimuttu, AIN, p. 29)In this poem, the 'revelation' by the maid seems evident. If so, to whom does she reveal the secret love of the heroine? If she reveals it, as if to molucca-beans, but actually to the foster mother and others who are in her presence, such manner of pronouncement is technically called "speech intended for one who is present but spoken as if to a third person" (TL). If the manner of pronouncement in the poem above is regarded as above, the manner in most of the texts treating the theme veri would be as above; that is, the maid (or the heroine) intends to speak to the heroine's relatives (especially mother) in her presence, but speaks as if to the other object (Nampi's opinion: AV 50, 175).The texts wherein the maid (or the heroine) appears to reveal theMissing pages 166, 167

6.20. 'Elopement'TP 39-45, 113, 141, 221; IAC 23; AV 54, 181, 182.6.20.0. More than 100 poems dealing with the theme of elopement may be classified into four groups:I. the poems treating the sub-phases before the actual elopement; II. the poems describing the eloping couple;III. the poems dealing with the mothers' bewilderment after the heroines elopement or with their pursuit of the eloping couple;IV. the poems other than I-III.We will investigate the poems of the third and the fourth group in 6.21 and 6.22-6.24 respectively, so will now consider the first and second group.Unlike the other themes (especially, some themes in the pre-marital phase), we have many texts which clearly describe the theme of elopement. Therefore, our investigation will be focused here on its causes and destination, which have never been discussed in depth.6.20.1. Nampi divides the theme into 8 sub-situations (vakai) consisting of 18 mini-themes (viri) (AV 181-2). The 8 sub-situations are:1) the maid giving instruction to elope to the hero (or the heroine);2) the hero (or heroine) not agreeing to elope;3) the maid causing the hero (or heroine) to agree to elope;4) the hero (or heroine) agreeing to elope;5) the actual elopement;6) the bystanders dissuading the eloping couple from going further;7) the hero or the bystanders praising the heroine;8) the bystanders encouraging the couple to tell of the nearness of the hero's village.IA does not, curiously enough, refer to the them, but, according to Nakkirar, it is implicitly referred to by IA 23, which runs, "[The heroines] speech is made after the secret love has been made known to the public" and he elaborates the theme of elopement under the aphorism (IAC 23).The theme is not treated in a specific strata in TP, but its segments are found in various sutras, such as TP 39-45, each of which enumerates the occasions when a character speaks about separation; i.e. TP 39 concerns the speeches made by the heroine's mother. TP 40 by the foster mother, TP 42 by the maid, TP 43 by the spectators, TP 44 by the hero and TP 45 by others. The sub-situations, (1) and (3) mentioned by Nampi, are found in TP 42, while sub-themes (2) and (7) are found in TP 44, and (6), (7), and (8) in TP 43.[footnoteRef:6] It should be noted here that TP makes a speaker-based analysis (i.e. it analyses how each dramatis persona speaks in variety of different situations/themes), while AV makes a theme-based analysis. [6: TP enumerates six speakers in the pre-marital stage (TP 490) and twelve in the post-marital (TP 491), and allots a separate sutra to each speaker to list the occasions on which he or she speaks, either in Kalaviyal (the chapter on pre-marital love) or in Karpiyal (on post-marital love) (see footnote 127 in 6.18). Nevertheless, TP allots special sutras (TP 39-45) to some speakers and enumerates the various speeches only concerning separation; hence doubt regarding the formulation of TP remains.]

The causes of elopement are mentioned in detail by TP 221; the heroine wants the hero to elope with her or otherwise to marry her, (a) when she wishes to be always with him, (b) when she fears separation, (c) when she fears gossip, and (d) when there are obstacles to their meeting. Nakkirar states that elopement is resorted to when the revelation of the secret love ends in failure (IAC 23). Nampi does not explicitly refer to its cause. but, according to the old anonymous commentary on AV and Tancaiektankovai 395 which is the illustrative text of the normative grammar, AV, it is the over-protection of the heroine. It appears to be the heroine who first refers to elopement in TP, while in AV, as shown above, it is the maid.Sp. Manickam writes. "It is an erroneous idea to hold that the elopement is the next step to be relied upon by the lovers, when arattotunirral fails to produce the desired effect'. (TCL, p. 54). This statement reveals that the current opinion among Tamil scholars concerning the reason for elopement is based on IA, and not TP.The old grammar, TP, makes no special mention of the destination of the eloping couple. In TP 43, those who saw the eloping couple mention "the proximity of the village and [the long distance] of their destination." They also speak, when they go to a distant place and return [from it]. Here TP implies the course of elopement (the 'village' distant place return), but it is still unclear because of the ambiguous usage of 'village' (which may have been properly interpreted by S.Ilakkuvanar as the couple's hometown TCS, p. 158). However, according to later theories, the direction is clear; that is, the heroine's village far-off place the hero's village. This opinion was first mentioned by Nakkitur (IAC 23). In the colophons of Ain. 203, 312, 391, and 400, return from elopement is termed utanpoy miltal, which is treated by Nampi (AV 191) as an independent situation termed mitci (see 6.22). Although AV does not refer to the destination of the eloping couple, Nampi may have regarded it as the hero's village, judging from Tancoiveirlankiivai 305, an illustrative text of AV, wherein the maid instructs the hero to elope with the heroine and go to his village.Thus, TP describes the theme as an incomplete episode, while later theoreticians deal with it as a complete story, beginning with the arrangements for the elopement and ending with the return to the hero's village.6.20.2. In Nar. 149, the maid, relating that she wanted the hero to elope with the heroine because of gossip, says to the heroine, O my friend, I was so distressed when mother, hearing the scandal cast [on you] by the women, took a small rod [to beat you]. Hence I desired your going (i.e. elopement) with the man from the seashore, who comes [to see you] at midnight in his lofty chariot with a swift horse whose mane emits sweeter fragrance than fresh flowers of the sea-shore grove. Some poems also refer to gossip as the cause/motive for the elopement (Kur. 232; Ak. 65, 95), which corresponds to the description of the grammars. In Kur. 262, the maid says:Let gossip rise in the village;let the streets whisper;and let that mother without justice,who torments unrelentingly,stay in her house alone!This is any decision:your thorn-like teeth that have eaten the nelli fruit should drink the water that stays in poolsmade by the steps of giant elephants.pools that look like divisions in fieldswhere sugarcane is planted;you should drink with himin a far away landat the foot of towering mountainsthat touch the sky.(tr. M. S. Pillai and D. E. Ludden, KT, p. 360)The actual texts, however, mention another reason for the elopement; that is a proposal by a man other than the hero. In Ak. 221., the maid says to the heroine, "Our people have performed the betrothal ceremony (vatuvai) [to a stranger]. So I wish that you would go through the hard desert with him. All these poems clearly tell that it is the maid, as mentioned in AV, who promotes the elopement. In Kur: 343, the maid induces the heroine to elope, saying, Friend, think of going away with the men of high mountains (see also Kur. 369). Then, she tells the hero of the heroine's agreement with the elopement (Ain. 254). In Nar. 10, as the hero is eloping with the heroine, the maid says to him, Protect this girl and don't leave her who trusts in your unfailing good words.Finally, the hero elopes with the heroine through an arid tract in full summer (Nar. 29, Ak. 105, 153, 189). However, practically no texts dealing with the elopement mention the couple's destination. We may cite Ain. 254 as a rare example wherein the destination is mentioned. In it, the maid, having arranged the elopement, says to the heroine:O young lady, who smells the lilypervaded by the fragrant smoke of the sandal wood cut down by the mountaineerand over whose bright forehead the bees are humming; the chieftain will take youand go to his hilly region.(tr. P.Jotimuttu., AIN, p. 31)Although the text itself does not explicitly mention the poetic situation, we can deduce its situation from the poems before or after it, because it does not seem to be a 'solitary stanza' (tanippatal, which, in 6.7.2, we discussed in relation to Ain. Chap. 18). All ten poems in Ain. Chap. 26, in which the above poem is included, begin with knt rak kuravaa (lit. mountain -- an inhabitant of the hill) and hence its heading is kuprakkuravan pattu'. Besides such a uniformity, all the stanzas of the decad seem to have a thematic interconnection with one another, as shown by the following gist of the poems.251. The maid says to the hero, she weeps even when she seed your hilly country [because of your absence]"252. The maid says to the heroine, "he has come back earlier [than he said he would] in autumn".253. (1) The maid says to the heroine, "if he marries [you], will my mother punish you? [No, she won't].(2) The heroine says to the maid, "if he marries [me], will my mother punish me?"255-257. The maid/the hero mentions the heroine's charms.258. The maid says, "if he marries [her] and if our people give [her to him], it is good."Judging from these poems, the most probable situation of Ain. 254 seems to be 'elopement'. Here again, it may be noted that, it is only in Ain. that we can find an, indication of the destination of the eloping couple, which is not mentioned by the earliest grammar (TP) but only by later ones (IAC, AV).As shown by AV and Taricarvijoankovai, the convention that the hero elopes with the heroine and that they go to his village was established in the medieval times. Some modern scholars reflect rather this later convention in their interpretation of the earliest texts. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, for example, translates Nan 271:3-4, wherein the mourning foster mother says after the heroine's elopement: "She left us sleeping in the large, cool house, being intoxicated by the false words of her lover and desirous to go to his distant land" (HT, p. 169). The italic part is expressed as distant land in the original. However, these interpretations seem incorrect, because no actual poem refers to the remoteness of the hero's village; on the contrary, Many poems suggest its proximity to the heroine's village as mentioned in 6.16.2.Thus, it may be said that the main motif of the elopement in TP and the earliest texts is to go to a far-off place by the desert path. This motif is discussed in the next section.Finally, it should be pointed out that elopement is traditionally regarded as the theme exclusively pertinent to palai tinai, but some poems dealing with the sub-phases which initiate it belong to neytal (e.g. Nar. 149) or kurinci (e.g. Kur. 343).

6.21. 'Concerns Connected with Chastity'AV 183, 189; cf. TP 44:5,6.21.0. The phrase occurs in the context, 'when the heroine's people overtake her accompanied by the hero in the desert, she, fearing that they will take her back, makes 'a disclosure concerning her chastity' (i.e. 'she is his and goes with him', according to Ilam.)" (TP 44:5). Nampi enlarges its content and formalizes it as a dependent situation (kilavi) consisting of 5 sub-themes (AV 183), which are:1) the foster mother's lamentation [after the heroine's elopement];2) lamentation of the heroine's own mother,3) the mother's bewilderment;4) the bystander's sympathy [for the mother(s));5) the foster-mother going in search [of the couple who have eloped].As mentioned in 6.20.0, many poems vividly describe elopement and its sub-events. Sub-theme (4), for example, is clearly mentioned by, for example, Ak. 165 and Ain. 382, and sub-theme (5) is depicted in the following poem (Kur. 44).My legs are weary and miss their steps;my eyes have searched and searchedand lost their luster.There are so many other couplesin this world:more than all the starsin the wide, dark sky.(tr. M. S.Pillai and D. E. Ludden, KT, p. 370)However, many texts treating the mother's lamentation after the heroine's elopement (which is relevant to sub-themes (1), (2) and (3)) do not make it clear who the 'mother' is, i.e. whether she is the heroine's mother or her foster mother. We shall therefore now focus our attention on investigating who the 'mother' is.We will start with the terminological explanation of tay, cevili-t-tay, and narray. Tay is the most current term denoting 'mother' not only in modern but in classical usage, though, in old usage, tay is often applied to the mother of a third person (t-ay, his/her mother) in contrast to yay (y-ap 'my mother') or nay (-y 'your mother'). We do not know the etymology of cevili 'foster mother' which occurs, seven times in the earliest texts (excluding late classical texts, such as Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai). On the other hand, the heroine's mother is called narray (lit. 'good mother', 'genuine mother'), which occurs only in TP (see footnote 146). Cevili and narray are applied exclusively to the 'heroine's mothers' (i.e. not, for example, to the 'hero's mothers'), five kinds of whom are later given.6.21.1. cevili pulampat 'the foster mother's lamentation' (the first sub-situation by AV) corresponds to the mini-events mentioned by TP; that is, "when the foster mother talks with the maid (i.e. her daughter) about the heroine's chastity, after having learned of her elopement", and "when she, who was left alone, perceives the heroine's mental strength" (TP 113, the sutra which enumerates 13 occasions when the foster mother speaks in the pre-marital course). It is noted here that the foster mother calls the heroine 'daughter'.TP assigns a separate sutra (TP 39) to lamentation of the heroine's mother (second theme by AV). AV may have adopted the phrase from the sutra, where the passage, pkiya tirattu (when [the heroine] has eloped) occurs (TP 39:7).There is a more current expression to denote these two themes; that is makal-pokkutal 'the mother's lamentation after the heroine's elopement'. It is noteworthy that the expression never occurs in the theoretical works although it occurs fairly frequently in the colophons and is used as the caption of the 38th chapter of Ain. In the colophons where the phrase makat pokkutal occurs, the following are given as subjects.a) Cevili: Kur. 84t, 144t, 356t, 378t; Ak. 7t, 17t, 89t, 117t, 145t, 153t, 189t, 321t, 369t, 385t, 397t.b) Narray: Ak. 35t, 195t.c) Tay: Kur. 396t; Nor. 29t, 279t; Ak 1St, 105t, 165t, 203t, 207t, 219t, 263t, 275t, 315t, 383t; cf. the caption of Airi. Chap. 38.In the case of (c), it is unclear whether tay signifies cevili or narray. This supports the description of TP 122; tay sometimes refers to the foster mother, since the secret (i.e. the heroine's clandestine love) is revealed to her.The expression 'the foster mother who unconsciously making the daughter go', exhibits that it is natural for the authors of the colophons that the foster mother calls the heroine 'daughter'.The third sub-theme by AV is mattni marqci 'the mother's bewilderment. Modern scholars generally regard manai as narray (the heroine's mother). However, as manai is used instead of cevili in some colophons, their authors may probably have thought that mapai denotes not only narriiy but ceviii. The original meaning of the phrase is probably to be bewildered in the house', since we have an expression in Ak. 189:12; the mother having known the elopement of her daughter) is bewildered in the house" (mapai maruptu irugtall). Nakkirar refers only to 'the foster mother's lamentation' and not to lamentation of the heroine's mother (IAC 23, pp. 125-6).Both in AV (see (5) and in TAC (TAC 23, pp. 126 ff.), it is only the foster mother who goes to the desert land to pursue the heroine eloping with the hero. On the other hand, it is either the 'mothers' (tifyar) or the heroine's people (tamar)' (her father and brothers, according to tradition) in TP. TP 40 runs, There are mothers who go themselves [in search of the couple] through the streets of well-guarded big cities or through deserts". According to Ilam tayar refers to foster mothers, because there are more than one cevili, and, according to Nacc., tayar is the real mother when she is going through the streets of cities, and the foster mother when she is going to deserts. Nacc. also states that tam is used since the mothers go to search for the couple even before the heroine's father and brothers become aware of her elopement.6.21.2. More than 50 poems deal with the mother's lamentation after the heroine's elopement. The toy ball reminds her of the heroine (kur. 396, Ak. 17, Ain. 377); she sorrowfully wonders whether the heroine thought of those who are left behind (Ain. 372); she, in agony, imprecates the mother of the youth who took the heroine with him (Nar 293, Ain. 373); though in distress, she worries over the heroine who went through arid tract on her tender feet (Nar. 29,. Ak. 105), and prays for her safety during the journey (Kur. 378, Ak. 15, Ain. 371). However, there is no decisive evidence in these poems as to whether the mother is the foster mother or the heroine's mother, Let us now examine Ain. 377.My daughter has gone in the arid trackwhere the elephant, longing for water and endeavouring, suffers and breathes hard like the musical pipe,leaving to us her ball, doll and the Molucca beans.(tr. P. Jotirauttai, AIN, p. 91)Here the appellation my daughter' apparently provides decisive evidence as to who the mother is. However, the heroine is often called "my daughter" by not only her own mother but also her foster mother, when they lament over her elopement (Nar. 66, 184, 198; Ak. 55, 117, 165, 219, 275, 397; Ain. 371-373, 377). In a few of these poems, such as Nar. 66 and An. 55, the heroine's mother seems to be the speaker. ln Ak. 397, on the other hand, the foster mother refers to the heroine, who has eloped, as 'my daughter; "I praised the innocence of my daughter. And (her mother, having realized her superior nature, performed (her) duty, which clearly reveals that the foster mother is also entitled to call the heroine "my daughter".In Nar. 198, a mother says to one who saw the heroine in the desert, "O man of great strength who has come from a distant place, she who a few days ago passed such a rough path in the groves where y trees grow and omai trees spread is my daughter. I will worship you at her father's village. According to the colophon, the speaker is the foster mother, probably because she calls the heroine's father "her father" instead of "my husband." However, she also says, "I brought her forth, so it is most likely that the speaker is the heroine's mother (although the commentator, undoubtedly influenced by the colophon, interprets the phrase as "I brought her up"). Thus the appellation of either "my daughter" or "her father" cannot be the decisive element im identifying the speaker.In a few texts, the speaker is clearly mentioned. For example, in Ak. 35, a mother lamenting after the heroine's elopement says, "she does not think even of me who brought her forth and has protected her," so she must be the heroine's mother. In Ak. 63, however, the speaker is obviously the foster mother, since she says to the 'daughter', "I do not worry over your (i.e. the maid's) friend (i.e. the heroine) who has eloped with the man. However, these texts are exceptional; many other poems do not mention whether the speaker is the heroine's mother or her foster mother. Thus, we may conclude, as stated by Rm. Perialcaruppan, that in the actual poems "both the own mother and the foster mother are treated alike with no discrimination" (TTCP, p. 180).Thus, it appears that the authors of the colophons are correct when they write mother who is left behind after the heroine's elopement with no mention of whether tay is cevili or narray. TP also refers to the fact, as already mentioned above, that these two mothers are treated alike in the akam conventions ("the foster mother is also called tay", TP 122) This again gives an idea of how close the description in TP is to the actual poems.Finally, there is the poet Kayarnarar who may have played an important role concerning the theme of makat pokkutal. He treats the theme in 14 out of the 23 poems ascribed to hint.'" This means that 30 per cent of the poems concerning makat plikkutai (about 50 poems describe it) were composed by the same poet. This may indicate that there were `specialist' poets who dealt with specific themes. Thanks to such poets, some themes may have, developed even during the classical ages. Kayaitianar's name is pseudonym. "The poet of the eye in the pool according to his kur 9. He lived around A.D.215-230, according to K. V. Zvelebil.6.22. Return from the Elopement

6.22.1. TP does not refer to this theme (see 6.20.1). IA makes no mention of the elopement itself. Nakkirar, on the other hand, describes it as follows; the mother who has heard of the heroine's return from the elopement says to the priest (velan), "Will he come to our big town [with the heroine] or will he go to his marriage house?"(IAC 23, p. 130). He cites Ak. 195 as an illustration of the situation. Therein, the foster mother tells vlan that the heroine's mother, in the hope that the heroine will return with the hero, has already decorated the house with flowers, so, she says, `O velan, let me know whether the hero will return to our house [with the heroine] or whether he will take her to his house.The situation described by Nakkirar is not referred to by others, so, most probably, he may have invented it himself on the basis of Ak. 195. However, the author's (Kayamanar's) motif may have been `the mother's lamenting over the heroine's elopement', but not `the return from the elopement', as interpreted by Nacc.; he cites the poem as an example either of `the lamentations of the heroine's mother' (TPN 36) or of `the foster mother's lamentations' (TPN 115:7-8).In the medieval era, the mini-situation referred to in the caption of Ain. Chap. 40 and by Nakkirar had been established as a separate situation, as mentioned by AV; it is further divided into 4 sub-situations consisting of 6 mini-themes.6.22.2. The heroine's return from elopement is referred to in some poems, such as Ak. 195 cited above, ten poems of the 40th decad of Ain.Ak. 203 and Nar 264. In Ak. 203, the mother, having become aware of the heroine's elopement, says, "Before [they reach] the small solitary village on the side of big mountains, I would like to go there along the small paths at the foot of the mountains and therein I would be such a hostess as makes them stay in a house fenced by swaying nocci trees with spreading branches and gives a feast to them. This poem and Ak. 195 (cited before) seem to represent the mental state of the mother who expects the heroine's return, and hence the phase may be a constituent of 'the mother's lamentation'. Nar. 264, on the other hand, describes the return journey from elopement (although nothing in the poem actually refers to elopement, the heroine travels only in the case of elopement in the akam conventions); therein the hero says to the heroine:O maid! The sun has faded out (by setting). On the bamboo-grown hillocks, the clear-toned bells, tied for adornment by the cowherds round the necks of cows, ring. Look over there! My nice little village is sighted! When the clouds, with their holes and rising on the right melt in showers, on such a morn and scene the blue, jewel-necked peacock magnificently spreads its beautiful plumes and dances!' So too, O maid, hasten thy steps so that thy flower-decked locks may be loosened and spread by the breeze that blows!(tr. R. Balakrishna Mudaliyar, The Golden Anthology, Vol. II p. 46) There are two colophons attached to it: the first (i.e. the older) relates, What the hero eloping with the heroine says in order to encourage her", and the second (the later), What the hero says to encourage the heroine, when he sees the village on their return after the elopement." These colophons shows exactly the historical change (development) in the interpretation of the poem: which is that its motif may originally have been, as mentioned by the first colophon, the hero's encouragement of the heroine during elopement, which is commonly described in all poems, such as Nar. 9, 76, 202, 264, and Ak. 99, 257, 261, and that later the theme was regarded as mitci (return from elopement), as described by the later colophon.The 40th decad of Airi., however, explicitly describes the theme of 'return from elopement.' The captions of the last three decads of palai poems in Ain. (i.e. Ain. 301-400) are:38 'the decad on the distress of the mother over the elopement of the daughter';39 'the decad on what was said in the desert land after the elopement';40 'the decad on the return from the elopement'. The actual poems of these decads describe the themes mentioned in the headings fairly well (see translations of Ain. 384-386 in 6.24.2 and Ain. 399-340 in 6.23.2). For example, in Ain. 392, the heroine, having returned from the elopement, says to the maid who feels unhappy on seeing the heroine's weariness from the journey:Don't you grieve, dear, looking at my arms that have lost the beauty of the bambooand at my forehead that has lost its reputed charms because of the burning sun. If you grieveit will give boundless troublesince I have come with the chieftainof the good mountainous country.(tr. P.Jotimuttu, AIN, p. 99)In the next poem (Ain. 393), the maid informs the heroine's mother of her return:O lady of tearful eyes, emaciated with grief over the abandonmentand hating and reviling Fate,your daughter has come as a delightto your sorrowing heart, preceded bythe youth of great strength and brilliant lance.(tr. P.Jotimuttu, AIN, p. 100)Other poems in the same decad also describe the heroine's return from elopement. If the stanzas in the decad were composed about the same time as the other earliest texts were, it is surprising that there are only ten poems of Ain dealing with the 'return from elopement', and certainly odd that TP makes no mention of the theme, which again rein-forces our hypothesis that Ain. (or at least, some parts of the collection) are of late origin.In conclusion, we are in a position to show which texts may have provided the material from which the later theoreticians (most probably, either colophon writers or Nakkirar) invented, reformed, and finalized the theme mitci:1. its primitive examples (Ak. 195, 203);2. its developed examples (Nat. 264);3. its finalized examples (Ain. 391-400).

6.23. To Perform a Marriage Ceremony in the Hero's House'AV 193-6; cf. TP 141, IAC 23 (p. 130).6.23.1. TP 141 (TP Karpiyal 2) says, "There is a marriage ceremony (karanam) even when there are no relatives to give [the heroine] away, and [the young couple] resort to elopement." This means that although elopement is considered as a kind of marriage, the marriage ceremony is still necessary. Varaital in the above heading is the formal marriage ceremony. However. TP does not refer to the place where the ceremony takes place.[footnoteRef:7] [7: 16 Rm. Periakaruppan, citing TP 141, states, the eloped heroine may marry the hero in his village", but the actual sutra does not even suggest that this may happen. As is often the case with Tamil scholars, he 'reads' the later theories into the original of TP.]

According to Nakkirar, the theme is as follows: the heroine's mother who has heard that the hero plans to celebrate the wedding in his village says, "Even if [he] performs the ceremony of the removal [of the anklets in his house], he would hold a marriage ceremony in our house, wouldn't he. AV enlarges the content mentioned by Nakkitar: the maid when asked by the foster mother tells her that the marriage ceremony has been performed in the hero's village; the foster mother informs the heroine's mother of it; later, the hero comes to the heroine's village to tell her relatives about it etc. (AV 194).6.23.2. Nakkirar cites Ain. 399a stanza in Ain. Chap. 40 'Martitarneup pattu (the decad on the return from elopement)as an illustration of the theme. In it, the heroine's mother says:What if you said to the mother of the youth, an adept in lying, of victorious lanceand of spotless, bright anklets on feet,'Even though you perform the ceremonyof the removal of the anklets in your house.[footnoteRef:8] [8: Lit `to remove the anklets'; this is later termed the ceremony to remove the anklets, which is defined by TL as "Ancient ceremony preliminary to marriage, probably consisting in removing the anklets of a bride". Neither TP nor IA nor IAC nor AV refers to the ceremony. Ain 399 is the only example, among the classical texts, which mentions it. In a few texts, the foster mother worries over the heroine walking through the desert paths.]

Missing Pages 183, 184, 185

6.25. Varaital 'Wedding'AV 199; cf. TP 140-143, 144:1-3, IAC 236.25.1. TP states that married life should be preceded by ceremonies; TP 140 runs, "karpu is said to be that a man worthy of taking [a woman] receives [her] when those [who are] worthy of giving her [to him] give her [to him] with ceremonies." However, it makes no mention as to what the ceremonies are. Neither Ilam. nor Nacc. explains them. Nampi, on the other h.and, states that the wedding ceremony is performed in the presence of Brahmins (antanar) and noble people, and that during it the hero bestows precious ornaments on the heroine (AV 199).Among modern scholars, P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri writes, "Kararam stands for homa done in fire", and S. Ilakkuvanar explains, "Today karanam' means one who is keeping registers of lands in the village and town. So it is to be understood that the word might have meant registration during the time of Tholkippiyar and the marriage ceremony included the registration as a main part of the function. Some others regard the 'removal of the anklets' as a premarital ritual, and the 'wearing of flowers' or the 'wearing tali (a marriage symbol)[footnoteRef:9] as parts of the ceremony. [9: According to K. V. Zvelebil, the tali is the central piece of a neck ornament solemnly tied by the bridegroom around the bride's neck as marriage badge; its shape, type, and symbolism is connected with the particular religious community and sect of the families in question (LCAP, p. 63).]

Although TP does not refer to what the wedding ceremonies are, a careful reading of the initial sutras of TP Karpiyal (chapter on married love) enables us to regard them as Brahmanic rites. The following is their essence:TP 140 (Karpiyal 1): karpu is said to be that, a man worthy of taking [a woman] receives [her] when those [who are] worthy of giving her [to him] give her [to him] with ceremonies;TP 141 (K. 2): there is karanam even when there are no men who give [a woman], [such as] when she elopes;TP 142 (K. 3): there was a time when the karanam associated with the upper three [clauses of people, i.e. varnas?) began to be adopted by the low[-est class];TP 143 (K. 4): they say that karanam was inseparable [from marriage] aiyar (sages or Brahmins?) after falsehood and error appeared (in the relation of the lovers).(In the subsequent TP 144-153, the contents of the speech by each dramatis personathe hero, the heroine, the maid, courtesan, intermediary, the faster mother and the wise manare given.)It is possible to detect Aryan influence in these siltras, although there are some points to be argued; for example, the meaning of aiyar, or poy (lit. 'falsehood, lie') or valu (lit. 'error'). If an Aryan influence is admitted in these strns, then karanam signifies Brahmanic rites (and the 'upper three' signifies upper three varnas).Tol. formulates a definition of kalavu in the opening sutra of Kalaiviyal (TP 89) and states, "kalavu is the gandharva type marriage among the eight kinds of marriage mentioned in the Vedas. This means that kalavu itself is a kind of marriage. if so, what is the meaning of the karpu marriage introduced with ceremonies? The answer to this question will become apparent when we investigate the characteristics of gandharva marriage below.The remarks about it vary among Sanskrit works. L. Sternback lists the following characteristics of gandharva marriage as portrayed in various works: 'This form of marriage was a voluntary (or spontaneous) union of a loving (willing) maiden with her lover (bridegroom) (Kamasutra 26, among others.); 'the mutual consent or reciprocal attachment was the essentiale negotii of this form of marriage, according to Y." ( Yerjriavotkyasmrti 1.61); "this form of marriage took place through love, or that it sprang from desire and had sexual intercourse for its purpose" (Miinavadharmaitistra 3.32); "the lover had to take a girl of equal caste" (Vdsilthadharmaidstra 1.33). "[footnoteRef:10] To these characteristics, Sternback adds one very important characteristic of gdndharva marriage; 'it is [10: Sternback, L., Juridical Studies in Ancient Indian Law, pi. 1, pp. 378-9.]

Missing pages 188, 189 the wedding feast is served (86:1-2, 136:1-2); the kettle drum (panai) and the marriage drum (mama mulavu) roared (136:7); the relatives of the bride put a white thread on her (136:14); the women (four married women who have borne sons, according to 86:11-2) give the bride a bridal bath (136:8).It is evident that no Brahmanic rite is referred to in these earliest texts. The absence of any Brahmanic rite in the earliest texts is striking, because, as mentioned by K. K. Pillay, "soon the Aryan influence becomes noticeable, for in the Kalittogai (69:3-5, the author) the reference to the Brahmin priest appears, and there is also the mention of the bride and bridegroom circumambulating the sacrificial fire. He continues, "It is, however, still later, in the time of Cilappatikaram (I:52-3) that the Brahxzrauical rites and ceremonies become more fully adopted?"None of the earliest literature, such as Ak. 86 and 136, makes any mention of the Brahmanical rite, but late classical texts such as Kal. or Cilappatikaram do. This may suggest that stras of TP, such as TP 89 (which defines katavu as the gndharva-type marriage) and 140-144 (which refer to the necessity of Brahmanical rites), are of late origin; most probably their date may be somewhat later than the earliest texts (4th-6th Century A.D.?), when late classical texts such as Kal or Cilappatikiiraam had been composed.We will investigate the interconnection between kalavu (pre-marital. love) and karpu (married life), i.e. whether or not karpu should be preceded by the kalavu course, in the next section.

Karpu Post-Marital Love6.26. Newly Married LifeTP 148:1-3, IAC 53 (p. 195), AV 202-3; cf. IA 15, Kur. 167t, 1781, 193t, 201t, 228t, 242t, Nar. 266t(2), 283t(2), AM. 401t-410t.6.26.0. Hereafter, all themes concern post-marital love (karpu). We shall first investigate the relationship between kalavu and karpu. According to K. V. Zvelebil, three models of marriage are indicated by the earliest accounts of wedded life of ancient Tamils (LCAP, p. 61). They are:a) Kalavu karpu; i.e. spontaneous love-affair and courtship leading to marriage;b) winning the hand of the bride through the display of physical strength during bull-baiting festivals; marriage specific for the mullai tinai[footnoteRef:11] [11: Model b is technically termed eru-kal (capture of the bull), which is described in Kal 101-107 (mullai poems).]

c) arranged (or semi-arranged) marriage, wherein the marriage is settled by the relatives with or without paying the bride-price.We can accept these models of marriage as models of the actual society of ancient Tamil. In the world of pure akam literature, however, there is only one model of marriage, i.e. (kalavu karpu), although it exhibits a complex structure.[footnoteRef:12] [12: Some authors confuse the conventions to be found in the world of literature with the customs to be found in actual society. Sp. Manickam's remark concerning marriage is a good example of this. He states, "To hold or advocate the view that every karpu life should be preceded by the kalavu course, and that kalavu is the one and only means to be gone through for marriage is un-Tamilian. Karpu [happens] through the course of kalavu-- this suttiram of Iraiyanar Akapporul is wholly untrue, as it does not reflect the real view of society" (TCL, p. 87). He has entirely confused the conventions in the world of literature with the customs to be found in the actual society. IA states the norm concerning marriage as it should be followed in literary compositions, but does not refer to marriages in the actual society.]

6.26.1. The erudite works clearly state that the pattern (kalavu karpu) is the only model of marriage in literature. TP 138 (the penultimate sutra of TP Kaiaviyal) runs, "there are two types of marriage; one performed after the lovers' secret relationship becomes known to the public, and another before it." This means that in both types (i.e. in all marriages), karpu is regarded as the course preceded by kalavu. TP 138 is repeated verbatim in IA 24 and AV 42, and hence it is proved that the later grammarians also hold TP' s opinion that karpu is preceded by kalavu. Nampi regards elopement as marriage performed after the secret lave has been made known to the public (AV 44).The author of Tol defines kalavu in the initial sutra of KaIaviyal (TP 89) as the gandharva type of marriage which is accomplished only when the formal marriage rite is performed (see 6.25.2). Hence, he would have expected that the marriage ceremony would, in due course, occur when he gave a definition of kalavu. He also refers to the course kalavu+karanam.This course is referred to by the theoreticians in the treatment of this theme of newly married life. Nampi divides the theme into 10 mini-themes (AV 203), which indicates that he considers karpu life to be preceded by the kalavu course. The mini-themes (1)-(5) are: in the marriage house (1) the hero praises the maid in the presence of the heroine, saying, "You have helped us a lot"; (2) the maid in turn praises the hero; (3-5) the maid asks the hero or heroine whether he (or she) was afflicted [with love] during the kalavu course.These themes were not invented by Nampi, since they are referred to by TP 144 and 148, which list the speeches made by the hero (144) or by the maid (148) in the karpu course. TP 144 starts with the hero's speeches after the marriage ceremony which correspond to the first mini-theme mentioned by Nampi. TP 148 also starts with the following two speeches by the maid: the maid says, '(1) When (the husband) speaks appreciative words on careful consideration after their great object (marriage) of rare achievement has been accomplished, (2) when she tells him that their sufferings are over. Here it is evident that the 'sufferings' mentioned in (2) are those of the kalavu relationship and hence correspond to the AV's mini-themes (2)-(4).Some colophons give the view that the kalavu course precedes karpu: i.e. that after marriage, the hero asks the maid how she felt when he did not intend to marry the heroine but visited her frequently (turais of Ain. 6-10); that the heroine is grieved about the hero who has been on good terms with her since the days of their secret love, but now enjoys extra-marital love (turais of Ain. 22-3); that the hero is sad because of the heroine's sulkiness, and remembers that she used to go bathing with him in their unmarried days (turais of Ain 72-4). Other colophons mention the theme of the hero speaking to his heart which insists on the separation for wealth, although he has done it previously (turais of Nar. 3, 62; Ak. 337, 353). Here be once went in pursuit of wealth and hence these colophons also suggest the course from kalavu to karpu. Thus, the pattern (kalavu karpu) is supported by all theoreticians.As mentioned above, there are two major types in the pattern: kalavu (secret love between lovers) which is known to the public before marriage and kalavu which is not known to it, In the latter case (marriage performed before the course of secret love is made known to the public), the marriage is apparently performed by the hands of the heroine's relatives; this is sweated by TP 488, which says, "[themes under karpu are] lovers' secret relationship becoming known to all, winning the heroine through her relatives .."One should not regard winning the heroine through her relatives as an actual 'arranged marriage. [footnoteRef:13] If the arranged marriage occurs within the akam framework, it signifies 'marriage with a stranger arranged by the heroine's relatives. However, as mentioned before (especially in 6.14-6.18), it is the hero who is selected as bridegroom by her relatives. [13: Sp. Manickam cites TP 138 and 488 as evidence that TP refers to the arranged marriage in actual society. However, it is to the arranged marriage within the akam framework that they refer.]

It should be noted that the heroine's relatives do not acknowledge her secret relationship with the hero, i.e. they do not admit her free choice concerning her husband in the case of the "tatnarir perutai' type of marriage, since the marriage is performed before the secret love between the lovers is known to the public, i.e. the hero is still a stranger (noturnalar) to her relatives and other people, such as villagers. Hence the marriage has a dual structure: for the heroine's relatives and the public, it is a 'fully arranged' one; while for the hero and the heroine, it is a 'pseudo-arranged marriage'.As to the marriage which is performed after kalavu (secret love between lovers) is known to the public, neither TP nor IA refers to its contents. According to Nakkirar, the marriage is the result of 'revelation of secret love' (IA C 24). Nakkirar's view seems to coincide with what TP and IA meant by the term `vefippatta [pin] varaite (TP 112, IA 29). If the 'revelation does not effect the arrangement of the marriage by the heroine's relatives, Nakkirar states, lovers elope (see 6.21.1). Nampi categorizes 'elopement' into "velippaya [pinrail naraital' (AV44).Thus, married life (karpu) for lover is always preceded by kalavu (although they sometimes resort to 'undesirable' means, such as 'revelation of their secret love' and 'elopement'); while for other people, including the women's relatives, most marriages are 'fully arranged' ones, and some others result from unusual means (i.e. 'revelation' and 'elopement').6.26.2. The majority of the earliest texts dealing with marital life. (karpu) do not indicate whether it has been preceded by the clandestine relationship (kalavu). No poems suggest that married life starts with the arranged marriage, and that 'revelation' results in permission of marriage by the heroine's relatives (see 6.19). However, some poems imply that karpu is preceded by kalavu; for example, in the texts cited in 6.18.2, it is always the hero who is selected as the bridegroom by the heroine's relatives, who are ignorant of the fact that he is the man with whom she has had a secret relationship and believe that he is a stranger.Kur. 178 refers to the (kalavu karpu) pattern, since the maid says to the hero (who is now the heroine's husband), "You must have suffered much (in those days) when it was difficult for you to see us (i.e. during kalavu course)":You have noteven nowceased to quiver when you liebetween her breasts,like someone craving waterwhile plucking lilies, with roundand tubular stems, supporting flowersin a cool, clean field,full of ayirai fish:you must have suffered greatlyin those wretched dayswhen we were as hard to seeas a third-day crescent moonis to worship.I suffer to think of it.(tr. M.S. Pillai and D.E. Ludden, KT, p. 247)According to the poem's colophon, it describes the maid saying to the hero, "You must have suffered during the days of secret relationship" (cf. TP 148:3), when she visited the marriage house. As the sameMissing pages 195, 196

6.27 Separation on account of courtesans -- p 197Missing pages 197, 198speakers. As already mentioned, TP allots a specific sutra to each of the 'speakers', in which it deals with the various situations when the speaker makes his speech. There is only one sutra allotted to the 'parattai' in the chapter dealing with post-marital love, that is TP 149 or TP Karpiyal 10. In it, the "parattai' is mentioned as kamakkilattiyar, so the kamakkilattiyar must he synonymous with parattai in TP 491.Second, TP 16 states that the uripporuI pertinent to marutam tinai tital (the heroine's sulky mood in response to the hero forsaking her and seeking the parattail) and its aspects such as pulavi (feigned quarrel between the heroine and the hero) and their reconciliation referred to in TP 488, which summarizes the main aspects of marital love (karpu). Utal and its aspects are described in TP 44:22-24 (in which the 'parattai' is mentioned as parattai), in TP 145:11-42 (the 'parattai' is called parattai, keimakkilatti, kiimakkilattiyar, erikaiyar and kiital erikaiyar), in TP 231 ('she' is referred to as parattaiyar), etc. Judging from the contents of these sutras, it seems that they do not manifest situations which vary according to different types of women, but rather represent the various aspects of utal arising because of a certain woman. Hence we may infer from the contents that all these expressions are synonymous.Thus TP does not refer to various types of 'parattai' by nominally different appellations. This indicates that the rendering by many scholars of kamakkilatti (in TP 145 and other places) as concubine is incorrect. When they interpret the term as concubine, they disregard not only the entire context of TP mentioned above, but also the terminology adopted by TP. Although its etymology and actual usage in later periods suggests that the term kilatti denotes housewife, TP may not have used the word in that sense, since it uses the term to signify the heroine in the pre-marital stage (kalavu) (in TP 90, 105, 111, 116 and 121). This may imply that the same term, used about 25 times in the places related to the marital phases, also indicates simply the 'heroine', but not a housewife. In this connection, it should be noted that TP 114 refers to the hero of the pre-marital stage as kamakkilavan (certainly not as a 'second-husband'). IA also refers to the heroine of the pre-marital stage as kilatti (IA 21), kilavi (IA 6, 13) and Arilaval (IA 8, 10). We mentioned in Chap. 3 that nearly half the colophons refer to the hero and the heroine as kilavan and kilatti (or their variant forms) respectively, without discriminating between those of the pre-marital stage and those of the marital stage.At least in one poem (Ak. 275), the pre-marital heroine is called kilatti; in it the eloping heroine is addressed by the mother as "kilatti of the wealthy house". The appropriate rendering of kilatti here may be 'daughter' (certainly not 'housewife').What TP means by the term "parattai' is to some extent inferred by its context. The 'parattai shows affection for the hero's son ( TP 145:18-9); she exhibits jealousy of the heroine ( TP 149). The heroine, on the other hand, shows jealousy of the 'parattai' (TP 44, 149, 229, etc.). Although they display hatred for one another, they sometimes sympathize with each other with regard to each other's miserable situation in relation to the hero's love (TP 149, 231). On the basis of these descriptions, we cannot imagine that the 'parattai' in TP is to be regarded as harlot; she may be either understood to be a courtesan or concubine, or a courtesan and concubine at the same time. On the other hand, TP refers to the hero's behaviour in seeking the company of the 'parattai' as wicked/cruel behaviour' ( TP 145:28, 30 and others), 'uncontrolled behaviour' (TA 148:6) and 'dishonoured behaviour' (TA 148:14). Hence, the most probable meaning of "parattai' in TP is courtesan.IA refers to the 'parattai' in a few places (IA 35, 40, 42-44), but does not explain what she is Nakkirar paraphrases parattai as 'prostitutes' (lit. 'common women'), and says that the hero parts from the heroine with the intention of listening to songs and watching dancing (IAC 36, pp. 160-1).TA 220 mentions that the theme occurs in the same region ('there is no change of place'); according to Ilam., it signifies 'within the town where the hero lives'. This phrase is repeated verbatim by IA 42. Later, Nampi classifies the three locations where the 'parattai' lives; they are 'near [the hero's] house', 'the street nearby and 'outside [the hero's] town' (puranakar) (AV 63-66).6.27.2. Concerning the locations where the 'parattai' is to be found, some texts suggest that she lives near the hero and heroine's house. For example, in Ak. 56, the panan proceeds to the house of the "parattai' (putuvor, lit. 'fresh person') in order to arrange a tryst between her and the hero: on the way he encounters a cow in rage, which has recently given birth, and in avoiding its attack, accidentally enters the maid's house, who says to him; "This is not the house [you intend to visit]; that is the one." Some other texts imply that the 'parattai' dwells in a slightly remote place, classified by Nampi as puranakar. For example, see the following Kur. 45:He arose in the morning,prepared his speeding chariot,and rode offto embrace that bright-jewelled woman.Nowthe mother of his little songreets the man from the wealthy town,saying he is bright;and her heart is whirling in confusion:it is really miserableto be born a woman.(tr. M. S. Pillai and D. E. Ludden, KT, p. 275)If the place that the hero intends to visit is near his home, it is unnecessary for him to use the speedy chariot (the same motif is found in Ak. 66 and 146). From this type of text, we may conjure up the image of the hero dwelling in a village, such as "the village where valai fish in the pond catch with their mouths the ripe mangoes as they fall from the trees on the edge of the field" (Kur. 8); which seems quite fertile and self-sufficient (cf. Kur. 164) (this signifies metaphorically that the heroine thinks that it is unnecessary for the hero to seek the `parattai); however, the hero goes to the town which lies on the edge of a big river and 'plays with the 'parattai(s)' in the water" (Kur. 80, Ak. 166). Thus, the analysis by Nampi concerning the locations of the parattai' seems sound.Let us now investigate the core of the problem; i.e. the sort of woman that the parattai is. Although many modern scholars inappropriately interpret the parattai as being simply `harlot(s) or 'prostitute(s)', it does not seem probable that she is simply a harlot. We have several texts in which the 'parattai' expresses rivalry with the heroine (e.g. Kur. 80), and in which she is in a sulky mood when the hero chases other `parattais' (Ak. 186) and she sometimes even rebukes him when he does not look after her (Ak. 376). She has a genuine love for the hero (Nan 216) and shows affection for his son (Ak. 16). Such a woman can hardly be a harlot who gives herself to a unrestricted number of men.[footnoteRef:14] [14: The fact that the 'parattai in the classical akam literature is not a harlot does not necessarily mean that there were no harlots in the actual society of the classical period. Vilai nalap penfir, lit. 'women having charms to sell', in Pur. 365:8 and potumakalir, 'common public women'. in Kai. 101:48-50 may designate a kind of prostitute who corresponds to the ciripparalgai mentioned by later savants. One should not mix actual historical traditions with the literary convention.]

Many texts dealing with the theme in question suggest that the 'parattai' of classical akam literature is a courtesan. In Ak. 316, the heroine grieves for the hero's behaviour, saying to the maid, "He brings in [his] chariot women wearing jewelry on their thin arms, ...and they offer [themselves to him] again and again. How can I bear such profligacy? Just as in this text, the `parattais' appear as a group in several other poems (Kur. 45, 80; Nar. 320, 380; Ak. 56, 146, 186, 206, 316; Ain. 32). Some texts imply that there were streets of parattais', which were different from the street in which the heroine lived (cf. Nat. 170, 350; Ak. 146). In Kur. 258, the maid, having heard of the hero's affair with the parattai', says to him, "Don't come to our street". In Ak. 76, the 'parattai' speaks of 'our street'. In the house of the `parattai' in such a street, "the mulavu drum resounds" (Ak. 66). The texts such as Ak. 76 and 176 imply that the parattai' may have frequently been skilled in music and dance? 'She' is described as the woman/women wearing jewelry (Kur. 45: also Kur. 295; Nat. 30, 40, 320; AL. 146, 206; etc.) and of incomparable beauty (Nar. 170: also Nar. 320, 390; Ak. 116). Taking all these descriptions into account, it seems that the parattai' described in the pure akam literature of the classical period is a courtesan rather than a concubine.On the other hand, we have several texts which appear to refer to concubinage. Ak. 16 may be cited as such an example; in it the heroine says the following to the hero (i.e. her husband):His palms as redas the petals of a lotusshowing its pollen-covered filaments as it blooms in stagnant water where others live,his pretty mouth red as coral,his unclear words delightful,our gold-bangled son whom anyone would love was playing in the street with his toy chariot. When she saw that he was alone,that woman with her bright teeth approached and, as no one was looking,thinking how like his father he wasshe took him to her young breastsadorned with ornaments and heavy with gold and said happily, Come, my life.I saw her standing there.I did not leave but said,"Beautiful woman, don't be shy.You are his mother too."And quickly I embraced her.Seeing her then as she stood ashamed,looking down as if she were a thiefand scratching the ground with her toe,how, my lord, could I not love her?who was like the goddess of chastityfull of power in the heavens,who was like the mother of your son.(tr. G. Hart, PTA, p. 109)This poem is quoted by the commentators as an illustration of TP 145:18-9, which runs, "[the heroine speaks] when kmakkilatti embraces the heroine's son and is delighted by playing with him." As mentioned above, this kamakkilatti is generally interpreted as concubine (although it is probably incorrect); that is, scholars generally interpret the `parattai' in the text as a concubine. On the other hand, the translator states, "the woman described in the poem is the courtesan, whom the husband visits" (ibid.).An investigation into the descriptions of the hero in relation to the theme of parattaiyir pirivu would help to interpret the situation of poems such as Ak. 16. The heroine and the maid often refer to the hero as either a. `villainous' man (Kur. 10; Ain. 11, 12) or as a 'non-virtuous man' (aratxil Ain. 118). These are not words of abuse uttered by women out of jealousy, but he apparently truly deserves to be so called, since he seems so profligate and is chasing after new women (Ak. 56, Ain. 118: also Nar. 80, Ak. 316, Ain. 24, 61). In Nar. 180, the heroine grieves, the man does not come to our house, [being] in quest of many women, the heroine says to her husband, You desire to go after good [women] one after another and have union with them. In Ain. 24, she mentions her husband's profligacy as follows:Spotted crabs whose mothers die bearing them and crocodiles that eat their younglive in his town.Has he come now?Why does he embrace womenso their gold bangles jingle,use up their loveliness,and leave?(tr. G. Hart, PTA, p. 19)The hero is inconstant in love not only for his wife but also for the `parattai'. In Ak. 186, the 'parattai' grieves over the hero's faithlessness, saying, the man [of the village ...], having embraced [my] cold (i.e. pleasant), fragrant shoulders emitting sandal fragrance, is now at the place of yet another new wornan.The profligate, unfaithful nature of the hero is referred to by the term parattaimai (a derivative of paruttai) in Ak. 316 (see above translation) and Ak. 336. The words of the heroine in Ain 84 may paraphrase the parattai-tnai (parattai, in the original); she says, your tainted bossom which many [women] embrace and enjoy." Because of his parottaimai, he is called parattan (a man 'having' porattaimai) in Ak. 146.The fact that the hero in the texts treating parattaiyir pirivu is described as a profligate man, and that the profligacy is mentioned as parattairnai (TPN 158, 223) or simply as parattai (Ain. 84) may signify that the term parattai in the early love poetry itself is related to profligacy; that is, parattai connotes 'profligate wornan'. If so, the most appropriate rendering of parattai is courtesan.Thus, all considerations of this subject point to the fact that the 'parattai' in the pure akam literature of the classical period was a courtesan , although this does not prohibit us from considering that the 'parattai' is sometimes a courtesan and at the same time the hero's concubine and may have been considered by the heroine and the maid, and probably by society to be profligate, as implied in Nar. 170, 320, 380 and Ak. 316. In many contexts, on the other hand, she reveals her fidelity to the hero. This may be interpreted as follows: first, the parattai' could not be described as a woman unfaithful to the hero since, if so, she would be a harlot; next, the most important motif of the texts dealing with parattaiyir pirivu may have been the men's profligacy and the women's grief, and hence the faithfulness of the "parattai" to the hero makes his faithlessness more conspicuous."It is really miserableto be born a woman" (Kur. 45:5).

6.28 Separation for StudyMissing pages 205, 206'reciting Brahmins').6.28.2. In spite of the full description of the theme by the grammarians (see Chart 19), not a single poem deals with it. We may infer that the author of Tol. (all later grammars seem to have followed him) most probably introduced it as one of the separations, because of the actual custom in the society; or alternatively he may have been influenced by Brahmanism, or, have volunteered to 'accept' the Brahmanical custom (i.e. that so-called Sanskritization has taken place). The correspondence between TP 27 and Manavadharmasatra 2.28 in regard to the period of the separation seems to indicate that the final hypothesis is the most probable.6.29. 'Separation for Defending the Country'IA 35, 36;. IAC 36; AV 62. 72, 73, 74, 201; cf. TP 27, 30, 187.6.29.1. According to Nakkirar, kaval is to defend one's own country against the enemy (IAC 35, p. 158); he also calls it natukrittai (IAC 36, p. 161). Nampi classifies kaval into natukaval and arappurayikiival (AV 72); he may have adopted Nakkirar's idea concerning the former and, as for the latter (TL gives definition of arappurarikeival as 'protection of endowments of land for religious and social charities"), got a hint from TP 30.There is no occurrence of the term ktivar pirivu in TP, but its theme may be indicated by the term of pakai-pirivu 'separation for warfare' (TP 27) or vEntu vifu tolii 'works under the king's order' (TI' 626).6.29.2. The actual texts dealing with the theme will be investigated in 6.31.6.30 Separation for Peace Mission between Enemy KingsMissing pages 209

6.31 Separation for WarfareMissing pages 210, 211Ain. 426), and Ain. 327. We may cite Ain. 429 as an example of the hero's departure for battle:O lady of profuse, black hair,if you give up becoming sallow, we will gladly go to conquer the enemy of the kingof the ignorant elephantry which destroyedthe fortifications of the enemiestogether with their victory banner.(tr. P. Jotirnuttu, AIN, p. 121)No mutal (basic entities, such as place, season, and time) or karu (characteristic features of a region, i.e. flora and fauna) are interwoven in the text. Although this is included in the mullai part of Ain., it seems odd to those who are familiar with akam poetry that mullai song deals with separation (or, more accurately, the situation of the hero about to depart), because almost all mullai poems treat the hero's return or the heroine awaiting him. That is why the author of the colophon of a preceding poem (Ain. 426) which, like Ain. 427-8, describes the same situation as Ain. 429, may, as a compensation for such oddness, have given us a new situation which is not to be found in the colophons of other anthologies (i.e. Kur., Nar., and Ak.): When the hero, who is a commander of the king's army, and who came back home after finishing his services, stays with the heroine, he comforts her who worries whether he will, leave [her] again.Such being the case, we shall, for the present, leave these texts of Ain. outside our consideration; then, no poem deals with the situation of the hero about to part from the heroine for reasons of war. We shall now consider which situations concerning uinaivayir pirivu are dealt with in the poems: they describe the hero who is in encampment (Nan 18, 341; Ak. 24, 84, etc.), or the hero who has performed his duties and is going back to the heroine (e.g. Nar. 161, Ak. 54); these themes correspond to the sub-themes (6)-(9) mentioned by AV.No critics have so far directed their attention to the striking difference between 'separation for war' and 'separation for wealth' (dealt with in the next section). Many texts concerning the latter theme deal with the situations before departure or the hero's 'going-journey', while no poems related to the former treat them. In the earliest akam conventions, 'to acquire wealth' may have been regarded as a personal or private (akam) affair, especially for the heroine, so she (or the hero) can expose her (or his) personal feelings, such as loneliness, sufferings due to separation (e.g. Kur. 151; Nat. 366); the heroine often wonders whether she or wealth is more important for the hero (e.g. Kur. 174, 395). 'To go to war', on the other hand, may have been considered as a public (puram) duty' in which there was no room for personal sentiment; if the heroine expressed her personal sentiment, it would have been `worry' of the hero who would engage in battles (cf. 6.32.2); that emotion should have been classified as puram genre.The hero can rejoin his private world (akam) after having finished his public duties (puram), or we may say that the hero's return from the battle field is a metaphor for his return from the public (puram) to the private world (akam). Hence, the poems concerning separation for war focus their descriptions on the theme termed the hero's accomplishing his works (Nar 161; Ak. 354, 384; Ain. 482, 483, 498, 500).Thus, the description of the theme in IA C and AV is incorrect, because they describe it as if there are sub-phases before the separation for reasons of war.Whether or not the theme in question is related only to karpu (marital life), Nar. 161 clearly refers to it. In it, the hero, on the way back home says, "[Our] king has concluded his difficult task (i.e. warfare). ... Have the birds (crows, according to a commentator) told of our return to the woman whose mound of venus is covered with beauty spots and whose words are sweet and who tells [my] son [in order to console him] a story of a stranger (being his father). In Ain. 442, the hero expects that "the mother of the son will gladly receive a guest (i.e. the hero), if the terrible task of the king is allayed. However, the majority of the texts concerning the theme suggest neither a karpu nor a kalavu situation.We shall now return to the poems of Ain. which we have so far excluded from our consideration. No single stanza of the decad (Ain. Chap. 43, i.e. Ain. 421-430) mentions regional background, such as mullai or pillai or kurinci, or what ldnd of separation is meant (e.g. for wealth, or for war). However, the decad as a whole is concerned with the theme of the hero, who has lived a married life (karpu) in theMissing pages 214

6.32 Hero separating from the heroine in pursuit of wealthMissing page 215216CHAPTER SIXHowever, the majority do not even give a hint of separation and only a few texts refer to it (Kur. 134, 225, 236; Nar. 183; Ain. 183, 226, 239; and others). We may cite Kur. 134, whose colophon states that therein the heroine, who is in distress when the hero has gone in search of wealth before marriage, says to the maid:Listen, my friend,and prosper!Our man is from mountains,obstacles to travel: therea waterfall slithers down the slopes,like a snake-- and drops quicklyto make rocks bang together;and it, hits the flowered and swaying limbsof the long-trunked venkai tree,growing among the stones,to make them barren.The love we mingled with him"'is good,as long as he never goes away.(tr. M. S. Pillai, and D. E. Ludden. KT, p. 1St)The mountainous landscape (kurinci) in it is significant, since 'separation' is traditionally regarded as a main-situation of palai poetry. Nar. 183 is also said by the colophon to deal with separation for wealth before marriage; in the actual text, the maid says to the hero: "the salt merchants cross the long roads taking the families who dislike to be left behind. But, seashore man, you don't even consider that she will not live long [if you go through the paths, leaving her behind].Thus, the texts which are said by their colophons to treat 'separation for wealth before marriage' are distinguished by their kurinci or neytal background:separation + kurinci/neytal background(sometimes, along with the reference of plai).The poems, on the other hand, which are said by their colophons to describe 'separation for wealth after marriage', have the following characteristic in common:separation + palai/mullai landscape.Let us take Kur. 16 as an example; its colophon says that the maid encourages the heroine, who is sad after the hero (her husband) had gone looking for wealth, and says:Will he not really think of uswhen he passes the chimps of milk-hedge with their fragrant trunksand hears the red legged lizard callto his matein cluckings that sound likethe highway robber's fingernailtesting the point of his iron arrow,will he not really think of us, friend?(tr. A. K. Ramanuian, IL, p. 26)If we examine the above formulae from the point of view of the division between kalavu and karpu, we may notice another formula devised by the colophons (which is followed by the medieval commentators) as follows:kurinci, neytal. kalavupalai . kalavu/karpumullai . karpuThus, if the sequence of events regarding separation for wealth either before or after marriage, as maintained by Nampi, is present, the expected route of 'separation for wealth before marriage' should be formulated as follows:Model 1 kurinci/neytal palaikurinci/neytal palaiAnd 'separation for wealth after marriage' is to be formulated as Model IIModel II mullai (marutam) palaimullai (marutam) palaiAs is shown in these models, it is advantageous to regard 'separation for wealth' as a theme consisting of two main-phases, i.e. `going-journey' and 'return-journey', since all actual texts dealing with `separation for wealth' describe either of the two phases (no poem describes the hero who stays in a location to acquire wealth). In contrast, regarding the theme of 'separation for war', there are some texts which portray the hero as staying in a location (i.e. war-camp); for example, the hero In encampment' thinks about the heroine left behind (Nar. 341; Ak. 24, 84), or the heroine left behind thinks (N.B. 'thinks', and not 'worries') about the hero in encampment (Nor. 18; Ak. 246).We can collect several important mini-situations from the actualMissing pages 218, 219