10 fighter aircraft avionics - part iii

Fighter Aircraft AvionicsPart III

SOLO HERMELIN

Updated: 04.04.13

1

Table of Content

SOLO Fighter Aircraft Avionics

2

Introduction

Jet Fighter Generations

Second Generation (1950-1965)Third Generation (1965-1975)

First generation (1945-1955)

Fourth Generation (1970-2010)

4.5 Generation

Fifth Generation (1995 - 2025) Aircraft Avionics

Third Generation Avionics

Fourth Generation Avionics

4.5 Generation AvionicsFifth Generation Avionics

Cockpit Displays

Communication (internal and external)Data Entry and Control

Flight Control

Fighter Aircraft Avionics I

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Table of Content (continue – 1)

SOLO Fighter Aircraft Avionics

Aircraft Propulsion System

Aircraft Flight Performance

Navigation

Earth Atmosphere

Flight Instruments

Power Generation SystemEnvironmental Control System

Aircraft Aerodynamics

Fuel System

Jet Engine

Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing (VSTOL)

Engine Control System

Flight Management System

Aircraft Flight Control

Aircraft Flight Control Surfaces

Aircraft Flight Control Examples

Fighter

Aircraft

Avionics

II


























Table of Content (continue – 2)

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4

Fighter Aircraft Avionics

Equations of Motion of an Air Vehicle in Ellipsoidal Earth Atmosphere

Fighter Aircraft Weapon System

References

Safety Procedures

Tracking Systems

Aircraft Sensors

Airborne Radars

Infrared/Optical Systems

Electronic Warfare

Air-to-Ground Missions

BombsAir-to-Surface Missiles (ASM) or Air-to-Ground Missiles (AGM)

Fighter Aircraft Weapon Examples

Air-to-Air Missiles (AAM)

Fighter Gun

Avionics IV












Continue fromFighter Aircraft Avionics

Part II

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Drag

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Drag

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Drag

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In combat, a pilot is faced with a variety of limiting factors. Some limitations are constant, such as gravity, drag, and thrust-to-weight ratio. Other limitations vary with speed and altitude, such as turn radius, turn rate, and the specific energy of the aircraft. The fighter pilot uses Basic Fighter Maneuvers (BFM) to turn these limitations into tactical advantages. A faster, heavier aircraft may not be able to evade a more maneuverable aircraft in a turning battle, but can often choose to break off the fight and escape by diving or using its thrust to provide a speed advantage. A lighter, more maneuverable aircraft can not usually choose to escape, but must use its smaller turning radius at higher speeds to evade the attacker's guns, and to try to circle around behind the attacker.[13]

BFM are a constant series of trade-offs between these limitations to conserve the specific energy state of the aircraft. Even if there is no great difference between the energy states of combating aircraft, there will be as soon as the attacker accelerates to catch up with the defender. Instead of applying thrust, a pilot may use gravity to provide a sudden increase in kinetic energy (speed), by diving, at a cost in the potential energy that was stored in the form of altitude. Similarly, by climbing the pilot can use gravity to provide a decrease in speed, conserving the aircraft's kinetic energy by changing it into altitude. This can help an attacker to prevent an overshoot, while keeping the energy available in case one does occur

Energy Management

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14


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Navigation SOLO

I

Ecuator

1R

2R11,

Ex

Ey

Ez

1

222 ,

,

12 TrajectoryGreat Circcle

1 2

0

Flight on Earth Great Circles

The Shortest Flight Path between two points 1 and 2 on the Earth is on the Great Circles (centered at Earth Center) passing through those points.

1

2111 ,, R

222 ,, R

The Great Circle Distance between two points 1 and 2 is ρ.The average Radius on the Great Circle is a = (R1+R2)/2

a

R – radiusϕ - Latitudeλ - Longitude

kmNmNma 852.11deg/76.60/

20

Spherical TrigonometrySOLO

Assume three points on a unit radius sphere, defined by the vectors

CBA 1,1,1

A1

B1

C1

B

a

bc

C

A

Laws of Cosines for Spherical Triangle Sides

ab

abc

ca

cab

bc

bca

ˆsinˆsin

ˆcosˆcosˆcosˆcos

ˆsinˆsin


ˆsinˆsin


Law of Sines for Spherical Triangle Sides.

cba

abccba

cba ˆsinˆsinˆsin

ˆcosˆcosˆcos2ˆcosˆcosˆcos1

ˆsin

ˆsinˆsin

ˆsinˆsin

ˆsin 222

The three great circles passing trough those three points define a spherical triangle with

CBA ,,- three spherical triangle

verticescba ˆ,ˆˆ -three spherical triangle side angles

ˆ,ˆˆ - three spherical triangle angles defined by the angles between the tangents to the great circles at the vertices.

21

SOLO

Assume three points on a unit radius sphere, defined by the vectors

CBA 1,1,1

A1

B1

C1

B

a

bc

C

A

Laws of Cosines for Spherical Triangle Sides

The three great circles passing trough those three points define a spherical triangle with

CBA ,,- three spherical triangle

verticescba ˆ,ˆˆ -three spherical triangle side angles

ˆ,ˆˆ - three spherical triangle angles defined by the angles between the tangents to the great circles at the vertices.

ˆsinˆsin


ˆsinˆsin


ˆsinˆsin


c

b

a

Spherical Trigonometry

22

Flow of Air Data to Key Avionics Sub-systems

AirDataSystem

Multi-Function Display

FlightInstrumentSystem

NavigationSystem

FlightManagementSystem

FlightControlSystem

AutopilotSystem

WeaponSystem

HUD HMD

AVIONICS DATA BUS

Infrared/OpticSensors

RadarSelf-Defense

System

Aircraft AvionicsNavigation

See “Navigation Systems” PDF for a detailed presentation.

23

Navigation SOLO

I

Ecuator

1R

2R11,

Ex

Ey

Ez

1

222 ,

,


1 2

0

1

2


1

2111 ,, R

222 ,, R

The Great Circle Distance between two points 1 and 2 is ρ.

a


212121 cos90sin90sin90cos90cos

/coscos

a

From the Law of Cosines for Spherical Triangles

or

212121 coscoscossinsin/cos a

2121211 coscoscossinsincos a

The Initial Heading Angle ψ0 can be obtained using theLaw of Cosines for Spherical Triangles as follows

a

a

/sincos

/cossinsincos

1

120

2222

22221

coscoscossinsin1cos

coscoscossinsinsinsincos

The Heading Angle ψ from the Present Position (R,ϕ,λ) to Destination Point (R2,ϕ2,λ2)

24

Navigation SOLO

I

Ecuator

1R

2R11,

Ex

Ey

Ez

1

222 ,

,


1 2

0

1

2


The Distance on the Great Circle between two points 1 and 2 is ρ.

1

2111 ,, R

222 ,, RR – radiusϕ - Latitudeλ - Longitude

The Time required to travel along the Great Circle between points 1 and 2 is given by

22

2121211 coscoscossinsincos

yxHoriz

HorizHoriz

VVV

V

a

Vt

2121211 coscoscossinsincos a

25

Navigation SOLO

I

Ecuator

1R

2R

Ex

Ey

Ez

1

2

TrajectoryGreat Circcle

1 2

1R

2R1

2

O

A

B

Ca

b

c

c

Earth Center

North Pole

A

B'B90

P


1

2111 ,, R

222 ,, R

If the Aircraft flies with an Heading Error Δψ we want to calculate the Down Range Error Xd and Cross Range Error Yd, in the Spherical Triangle APB.


Using the Law of Cosines for Spherical Triangle APB we have

aaYd /sin

90sin

/sin

sin

2/sin/sin

/cos/cos/cos0ˆcos 21

90ˆ RRa

aYaX

aYaXaP

dd

ddP

Using the Law of Sines for Spherical Triangle APB we have

aY

aaX

dd /cos

/coscos 1

sin/sinsin 1 aaYd

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Navigation

Methods of Navigation

• Dead Reckoning (e.g. Inertial Navigation)

• Externally Dependent (e.g. GPS)

• Database Matching (e.g Celestial Navigation, or Terrain Referenced Navigation)

See “Navigation Systems.ppt” fora detailed description

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Navigation

Dead Reckoning Navigation

Inertial rotation sensors classification:

Rotation sensorsRotation sensors

GyroscopicGyroscopic

Rate GyrosRate GyrosFree GyrosFree Gyros

Non-GyroscopicNon-Gyroscopic

Vibration Sensors

Vibration Sensors

Rate SensorsRate Sensors Angular accelerometers

Angular accelerometers

DTGDTG RGRGRIGRIGRVGRVG General purpose

General purpose MHDMHDOptic

Sensors

Optic Sensors

RLGRLG IOGIOGFOGFOG Silicon(MEMS)

Silicon(MEMS)

HRGHRG Tuning Fork

Tuning Fork

QuartzQuartz CeramicCeramic

Navigation

28

Rate gyro DTG – Dynamically Tuned Gyro

Flex Inversion Cardan joint

30

31

Main Components of a DTG

Transverse Cut of a DTG

Rate gyro DTG – Dynamically Tuned Gyro

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NavigationInertial Navigation Systems

(a) Strapdown

There are two way to attach the Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) to the platform:1.IMU on Gimbals that keeps it Leveled to Earth Surface (the old type)2.IMU strap to the Aircraft Body (Strapdown) (the modern way)

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35

SOLO

LBL

a

BBA

BCG gCT

mF

ma

B

11 BCG

TBL

LCG aCa

BL

LIL

BIBBLBL qqq

2

1

2

1 TBL IqIqC

3434

BCGa

LCGa

Ba

BLC

BLC

s

1 BLqBLq

BLC

s

1 L

ELL

EL

LLCG

LE VRaV

2 s

1 L

EV L

EV

LCGa

BLC

LMR

LEV

LE

BL

BE VCV

MV

BIB

IMU

Rate GyrosCompensation

AccelerometersCompensation

Rate Gyros

Accelerometers Lg

Strapdown Algorithm (Vector Notation)

Navigation

36

SOLO

IMU

B

B

B

r

q

p

4

3

2

1

0

0

0

0

2

1

4

3

2

1

BL

BL

BL

BL

DownDownBEastEastBNorthNorthB

DownDownBNorthNorthBEastEastB

EastEastBNorthNorthBDownDownB

NorthNorthBEastEastBDownDownB

BL

BL

BL

BL

q

q

q

q

rqp

rpq

qpr

pqr

q

q

q

q

s

1

4

3

2

1

BL

BL

BL

BL

q

q

q

q

4

3

2

1

BL

BL

BL

BL

q

q

q

q

g

C

C

C

T

T

T

mF

F

F

ma

a

a

BL

BL

BL

a

zB

yB

xB

zBA

yBA

xBA

zB

yB

xB

B

3,3

3,2

3,111

zB

yB

xB

a

a

a

zB

yB

xB

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

Down

East

North

a

a

a

CCC

CCC

CCC

a

a

a

3,33,23,1

2,32,22,1

1,31,21,1

Down

East

North

a

a

a

BLC

BLC

4

3

2

1

*

1

4

3

2

1

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

q

q

q

q

qq

q

q

q

q 4

3

2

1

BL

BL

BL

BL

q

q

q

qB

LC

321

412

143

234

3412

2143

1234

BLBLBL

BLBIBL

BLBLBL

BLBLBL

BLBLBLBL

BLBLBLBL

BLBLBLBLB

L

qqq

qqq

qqq

qqq

qqqq

qqqq

qqqq

C

43

2

1

BL

BL

BL

BL

q

q

q

q

Down

East

North

a

a

a

DownW

EastW

NorthW

NorthNorthEastEast

NorthNorthDownDown

EastEastDownDown

Down

East

North

DownE

EastE

NorthE

V

V

V

Lat

Lat

HR

a

a

a

V

V

V

022

202

220

sin

0

cos2

_

_

_

s

1

DownE

EastE

NorthE

V

V

V

cos0sin

sinsincossincos

cossinsincoscosW

BC

WBC

s

1

H

Long

Lat

H

Long

Lat

DownE

p

EastE

m

NorthE

Vtd

Hd

LatHR

V

td

Longd

HR

V

td

Latd

cos

w

v

u

DownM

EastM

NorthM

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

BL

V

V

V

CCC

CCC

CCC

w

v

u

_

_

_

3,32,31,3

3,22,21,2

3,12,11,1

DownW

EastW

NorthW

DownE

EastE

NorthE

DownM

EastM

NorthM

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

V

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

DownM

EastM

NorthM

V

V

V

DownE

EastE

NorthE

V

V

V

M

M

Vv

uw

wvuV

/sin

/tan1

1

222

MV

DownE

EastE

NorthE

V

V

V

DownE

EastE

NorthE

V

V

V

LatHR

V

HR

V

HR

V

EastE

NorthE

EastE

Down

East

North

tan0

0

0

Down

East

North

Down

East

NorthW

L

zW

yW

xW

C

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

zW

yW

xW

*

*

*

1

zW

yW

xW

zW

yW

xW

zW

yW

xW

WLC

Lat

Lat

Down

East

North

sin

0

cos

Down

East

North

Down

East

NorthW

L

zW

yW

xW

C *

*

*

*

*

*

*

zW

yW

xW

*

*

*

1

zW

yW

xW

zW

yW

xW

zW

yW

xW

WLC

Lat

Rate GyrosCompensation

Accelerometers

Compensation

Rate Gyros

Accelerometers

Strapdown Algorithm

Navigation

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Gyrocompass

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NavigationRadar Altimeter

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NavigationExternally Navigation Add Systems

eLORAN LORAN - C

Global Navigation Satelite System (GNSS)

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) SystemData Base Matching

Terrain Referenced Navigation (TRN)

Navigation Multi-Sensor Integration

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

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NavigationGlobal Navigation Satelite System (GNSS)

Satellites of theGPS

GLONASS and GALILEOSystems

Four Satellite Navigation Systems have been designed to give three dimensionalPosition, Velocity and Time data almost enywhere in the world with an accuracy of a few meters• The Global Positioning System, GPS (USA)• The Global Navigation Satellite System , GLONASS (Rusia)• GALILEO (European Union)• COMPASS (China)They all uses the Time of Arrival (range determination) Radio Navigation Systems.

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Differential GPS Systems (DGPS)

Differential GPS Systems (DGPS) techniques are based on installing one or more Reference Receivers at known locations and the measured and known ranges to the Satellites are broadcast to the other GPS Users in the vicinity. This removes much of the Ranging Errors caused by atmospheric conditions (locally) and Satellite Orbits and Clock Errors (globally).

Global Positioning System (GPS)

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Navigation

A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N, changes with time

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on display at the Air Force Space & Missile Museum

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include:• the time the message was transmitted• satellite position at time of message transmission

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GPS_monitor_station.jpg

Satellite Position

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Navigation

GZ

GX

GYEquatorial

Plane

Y

Z

X

AscendingNode

Satellite Orbit

PeriapsisDirection

Vernal EquinoxDirection

i

N1

A sixth element is required to determine the position of the satellite along the orbit at a given time.

1. a semi-major axis – a constant defining the size of the conic orbit.

2. e, eccentricity – a constant defining the shape of the conic orbit.

3. i, inclination – the angle between Ze and the specific angular momentum of the orbit vrh

4. Ω, longitude of the ascending node – the angle, in the Equatorial Plane, between the unit vector and the point where the satellite crosses trough the Equatorial Plane in a northerly direction

(ascending node) measured counterclockwise where viewed from the northern hemisphere.

5. ω, argument of periapsis – the angle, in the plane of satellite’s orbit, between ascending node and the periapsis point, measured in the direction of the satellite’s motion.

6. T, time of periapsis passage – the time when the satellite was at the periapsis.

GPS Broadcast Ephemerides

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Navigation


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Navigation

uur

ur

y

x

q ellipse

ellipse

Orbit

0

sin

cos

0

210

cos

sin

0e

anue

u

y

x

q ellipse

ellipse

Orbit

Orbit

oecoec ttt

0

sin

cos

0

313 ur

ur

iy

x

C

z

y

x

ellipse

ellipse

G

G

u

48


SOLO Navigation

Global Positioning System

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Navigation

- x, y, z Satellite Coordinate in Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System

222 ZzYyXx

- X, Y, Z User Coordinate in Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System

Squaring both sides gives

The User to Satellite Range is given by

ZzYyXxzyxZYX

ZzYyXx

r

222222222

2222

2

The four unknown are X, Y, Z, Crr. Satellite position (x,y,z) is calculated from received Satellite Ephemeris Data.Since we have four unknowns we need data from at least four Satellites.

ZzYyXxCrrrzyxr 22222222

where r = Earth RadiusThis is true if (x,y,z) and (X,Y,Z) are measured at the same time. The GPS Satellites clocks are more accurate then the Receiver clock. Let assume that Crr is the range-square bias due to time bias between Receiver GPS and Satellites clocks. Therefore instead of the real Range ρ the Receiver GPS measures the Pseudo-range ρr..


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Navigation


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Navigation

Using data from four Satellites we obtain

444444

224

24

24

24

33333322

32

32

32

3

22222222

22

22

22

2

11111122

12

12

12

1

222

222

222

222

ZzYyXxCrrrzyx

ZzYyXxCrrrzyx

ZzYyXxCrrrzyx

ZzYyXxCrrrzyx

r

r

r

r

or

14

1444

224

24

24

24

223

23

23

23

222

22

22

22

221

21

21

21

444

333

222

111

1222

1222

1222

1222

xxx R

r

r

r

r

PM

rzyx

rzyx

rzyx

rzyx

Crr

Z

Y

X

zyx

zyx

zyx

zyx

141

4414 xxx RM

Crr

Z

Y

X

P


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Navigation


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Navigation


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Navigation

GPS Satellite

GPS ControlStation


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Navigation

The key to the system accuracy is the fact that all signal components are controlled by Atomic Clocks.• Block II Satellites have four on-board clocks: two rubidium and two cesium clocks. The long term frequency stability of these clocks reaches a few part in 10-13 and 10-14 over one day.• Block III will use hydrogen masers with stability of 10-14 to 10-15 over one day.

The Fundamental L-Band Frequency of 10.23 MHz is produced from those Clocks.Coherently derived from the Fundamental Frequency are three signals(with in-phase (cos), and quadrature-phase (sin) components): - L1 = 154 x 10.23 MHz = 1575.42 MHz - L2 = 120 x 10.23 MHz = 1227.60 MHz - L3 = 115 x 10.23 MHz = 1176.45 MHz

The in-phase components of L1 signal, is bi-phase modulated by a 50-bps data stream and a pseudorandom code called C/A-code (Coarse Civilian) consisting of a 1023-chip sequence, that has a period of 1 ms and a chipping rate of 1.023 MHz:

signalL

codeompseudorand

ACulation

bpspowercarrier

I ttctdPts

1/

mod50

cos2


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Navigation

The quadrature-phase components of L1, L2 and L3 signals, are bi-phase modulated by the 50-bps data stream but a different pseudorandom code called P-code (Precision-code) or Precision Positioning Service (PPS) for US Military use, , that has a period of 1 week and a chipping rate of 10.23 MHz:

signalsLLL

codeompseudorand

Pulation

bpspowercarrier

Q ttptdPts

3,2,1

mod50

sin2


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Navigation

GPS Signal Spectrum

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Navigation


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Navigation

GPS User Segment(GPS Receiver)


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Navigation

GPS User Segment(GPS Receiver)

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NavigationDifferential GPS Augmented Systems

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NavigationDifferential GPS Augmented Systems

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Navigation

GNSS Aviation Operational Performance Requirements

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Navigation

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LORAN - C

A LORAN receiver measures the Time Difference of arrival between pulses from pairs of stations. This time difference measurement places the Receiver somewhere along a Hyperbolic Line of Position (LOP). The intersection of two or more Hyperbolic LOPs, provided by two or more Time Difference measurement, defines the Receiver’s Position. Accuracies of 150 to 300 m are typical.

LOP from Transmitter Stations (1&2 and 1&3)

LORAN – C (LOng RAnge Navigation) is a Time Difference Of Arrival (TDOA), Low-Frequency Navigation and Timing System originally designed for Ship and Aircraft Navigation.

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eLORAN

eLORAN receiver employ Time of Arrival (TOA) position techniques, similar to those used in Satellite Navigation Systems. They track the signals of many LORAN Stations at the same time and use them to make accurate and reliable Position and Timing measurements. It is now possible to obtain absolut accuracies of 8 – 20 m and recover time to 50 ns with new low-cost receivers in areas served by eLORAN.

The Differential eLORAN Concept

Enhanced LORAN , or eLORAN, is an International initiative underway to upgrade the traditional LORAN – C System for modern applications. The infrastructure is being installed in the US, and a variation of eLORAN is already operational in northwest Europe.

A Combined GPS/eLORAN Receiver and Antenna from

Reelektronika

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Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Aircraft DME Range Determination System

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Stations for Aircraft Navigation were developed in the late 1950’s and are still in world-wide use as primary Navigation Aid. The DME Ground Station receive a signal from the User ant transmits it back. The User’s Receiving Equipment measures the total round trip time for the interrogation/replay sequence, which is then halved and converted into a Slant Range between the User’s Aircraft and the DME Station

There are no plans to improve the DME Network, through it is forecast to remain in service for many years. Over time the system will be relegated to a secondary role as a backup to GNSS-based navigation,

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Angle (Bearing Determination)

Determining Bearing to a VOR Station

VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) System

The VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) System is comp[rised of a serie of Ground-Based Beacons operating in the VHF Band (108 to 118 MHz).A VOR Station transmits a reference carrierFrequency Modulated (FM) with:30 Hz signal from the main antenna.An Amplitude Modulated (AM) carrierelectrically swept around several smallerAntennas surrounding the main Antenna. This rotating patterncreates a 30 Hz Doppler effect onthe Receiver. The Phase Differenceof the two 30 Hz signals gives theUser’s Azimuth with respect to the Northfrom the VOR Site. The Bearing measurementaccuracy of a VOR System is typically on the order of 2 degrees, with a range that extends from 25 to 130 miles.

Private Pilot Airplane - Navigation – ASA, Movie

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G195b5BaN2s

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TACAN is the MilitaryEnhancement of

VOR/DME

VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) System

TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) is an enhanced VOR/DME System designed forMilitary applications. The VOR component of TACAN, which operates in the UHF spectrum, make use of two-frequency principle, enabling higher bearing accuracies.The DME Component of TACAN operates with the same specifications as civil DME.

The accuracy of the azimuth component is about ±1 degree, while the accuracy of the DME position is ± 0.1 nautical miles. For Military usage a primary drawback is the lack of radio silence caused by Aircraft DME Transmission.

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NavigationData Base Matching

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NavigationTerrain Referenced Navigation (TRN)

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NavigationTerrain Referenced Navigation (TRN)

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74

Aircraft Avionics

NavigationInstrument Landing System (ILS)

SOLO

75

Navigation

Navigation Multi-Sensor Integration

Navigation Data

76

Aircraft SensorsSOLO

Introduction

Classification of Sensors by the type of energy they use for sensing:

We deal with sensors used for target detection, identification, acquisition and tracking, seekers for missile guidance.

• Electromagnetic Effect that are distinct by EM frequency: - Micro-Wave Electro-Optical: * Visible

* IR* Laser

- Millimeter Wave Radars• Acoustic Systems

Classification of Sensors by the source of energy they use for sensing:• Passive where the source of energy is in the objects that are sensed Example: Visible, IR, Acoustic Systems• Semi – Active where the source of energy is actively produced externally to the Sensor and sent toward the target that reflected it back to the sensor Example: Radars, Laser, Acoustic Systems• Active where the source of energy is actively produced by the Sensor and sent toward the target that reflected it back to the sensor Example: Radars, Laser, Acoustic Systems

Sensor DataProcessing and Measurement

Formation

Observation -to - Track

Association

InputData Track

Maintenance) Initialization,Confirmationand Deletion(

Filtering andPrediction

GatingComputations

Samuel S . Blackman , " Multiple-Target Tracking with Radar Applications ", Artech House , 1986

Samuel S . Blackman , Robert Popoli , " Design and Analysis of Modern Tracking Systems", Artech House , 1999

77

SOLO

Introduction

Classification of Sensors by the Measurements Type:

• Range and Direction to the Target (Active Sensors) • Direction to the Target only (Passive and Semi-Active Sensors)

• Imaging of the Object• Non-Imaging

See “Sensors.ppt” fora detailed description

Aircraft Sensors

I

0Ex

0Ey

Iz

Northx

EastyDownz

Bx

By

Bz

Iy

Ixt

tLong

Lat

0Ez

Ex

Ey

Ez

AV

Target (T)(object)

Platform(B)

(sensor)

SOLO

To perform this task a common coordinate system is used.Example: In a Earth neigh borough the Local Level Local North coordinate system(Latitude, Longitude, Height above Sea Level) can be used to specify the positionand direction of motion of all objects.

The information is gathered by sensorsthat are carried by platforms (B) that can be static or moving (earth vehicles, aircraft, missiles, satellites,…) relative to thepredefined coordinate system. It is assumedthat the platforms positions and velocities, including their errors, are known and can be used for this task:

SensorDownSensorEastSensorNordSensorDownSensorEastSensorNord

SensorLevelSeaSensorSensorSensorLevelSeaSensorSensor

VVVVVV

HLongLatHLongLat

,,,,,

,,,,,

The objects (T) positions and velocities are obtained by combining the information ofobjects-to-sensors relative position and velocities and their errors to the informationof sensors (B) positions and velocities and their errors.

See “Tracking Systems” PDF for a detailed presentation.

General Problem of a Tracking System in the Earth Environment

Provide information of the position and direction of movement (including estimatederrors) of uncooperative objects, to different located users.

78

B

x

Lx

Bz

Ly

Lz

By

TV

PV

R

Az

El

Bx

SOLO

Assume that the platform with the sensor measure continuously and without errorin the platform coordinates the object (Target – T) and platform positions and velocities .

The relative position vector is definedby three independent parameters. A possiblechoice of those parameters is:

R

ElR

ElAzR

ElAzRR

ElEl

ElEl

AzAz

AzAz

Rz

Ry

Rx

R

B

B

B

B

sin

cossin

coscos

0

0

cos0sin

010

sin0cos

100

0cossin

0sincos

R - Range from platform to objectAz - Sensor Azimuth angle relative to platformEl - Sensor Elevation angle relative to platform

Rotation Matrix from LLLN to B (Euler Angles):

cccssscsscsc

csccssssccss

ssccc

C BL 321

- azimuth angle - pitch angle - roll angle


79

SOLO

Assume that the platform with the sensor measure continuously and without errorin the platform coordinates the object (Target – T) and platform (B) positions and velocities .

I

0Ex

0Ey

Iz

Northx

EastyDownz

Bx

By

Bz

Iy

Ixt

tLong

Lat

0Ez

Ex

Ey

Ez

AV

Target (T)(object)

Platform(B)

(sensor)

The origin of the LLLN coordinate system is located atthe projection of the center of gravity CG of the platformon the Earth surface, with zDown axis pointed down, xNorth, yEast plan parallel to the local level, with xNorth pointed to the local North and yEast pointed to the local East. The platform is located at: Latitude = Lat, Longitude = Long, Height = H

Rotation Matrix from E to L

100

0cossin

0sincos

sin0cos

010

cos0sin

2/ 32 LongLong

LongLong

LatLat

LatLat

LongLatC LE

LatLongLatLongLat

LongLong

LatLongLatLongLat

sinsincoscoscos

0cossin

cossinsincossin

The earth radius is 26.298/1&10378135.6sin1 6

0

2

0 emRLateRRpB

The position of the platform in E coordinates is

LongLat

Long

LongLat

HRR BpB

E

B

coscos

sin

cossin


80

TT

T

TT

TpT

zET

yET

xET

E

T

LongLat

Long

LongLat

HR

R

R

R

R

coscos

sin

cossin

I

0Ex

0Ey

Iz

Northx

EastyDownz

Bx

By

Bz

Iy

Ixt

tLong

Lat

0Ez

Ex

Ey

Ez

AV

Target (T)(object)

Platform(B)

(sensor)

SOLO

The position of the platform (B) in E coordinates is

LongLat

Long

LongLat

HRR Bp

E

B

coscos

sin

cossin

The position of the target (T) relative to platform (B) in E coordinates is

BTB

L

TL

E

BL

B

E

L

E RCCRCCR

The position of the target (T) in E coordinates is

EE

B

zET

yET

xET

E

T RR

R

R

R

R

Since the relation to target latitude LatT, longitude LongT and height HT is given by:

we have

TpTyETT

pTzETyETxETTTpT

zETxETT

HRRLong

RRRRHLateRR

RRLat

/sin

&sin1

/tan

1

2/12222

0

1

B

x

Lx

Bz

Ly

Lz

By

TV

PV

R

Az

El

Bx


81

B

x

Lx

Bz

Ly

Lz

By

TV

PV

R

Az

El

Bx

SOLO

Assume that the platform with the sensor measure continuously and without errorin the platform coordinates the object (Target – T) and platform positions and velocities .

Therefore the velocity vector of the object (T)relative to the platform (B) can be obtained bydirect differentiation of the relative range R

BTIB

B

BT VVRtd

RdV

.

or

BIB

BI

TT VR

td

Rd

td

RdV

TV

PV

2tR

Az

El

BxBx

Bx

1tR

3tR


82

kkx |ˆ

kx

1|1 kkP

1| kkP

1|1ˆ kkx

1kx

kkP |

kkP |1 kkx |1ˆ

kt 1kt

Real Trajectory 2kt

1|2 kkP

1|2ˆ kkx 2|2 kkP

2|2ˆ kkx

3kt

Measurement Events

Predicted Errors

Updated Errors

SOLO

The platform with the sensors measure at discrete time and with measurement error.It may happen that no data (no target detection) is obtained for each measurement.

Therefore it is necessary to estimate thetarget trajectory parameters and their errors from the measurements events, and to predict them between measurements events.

tk - time of measurements

- sensor measurements ktz

- parameters of the real trajectory at time t. tx

- predicted parameters of the trajectory at time t. tx

- predicted parameters errors at time t (tk < t < tk+1). kttP /

- updated parameters errors at measurement time tk. kk ttP /

txz , Filter(Estimator/Predictor)

ktxz ,kt

tx

kttP /

TV

PV

2tR

Az

El

Bx

Bx

Bx

1tR

3tR

1

1

1


83

SOLO

The problem is more complicated when they are Multiple Targets. In this case we mustdeterminate which measurement is associated to which target. This is done beforefiltering.

TV

PV

2tR

Az

El

Bx

B

1tR

3tR

B

Bx

1

2

3

32

1

B

Bx

1

3

2

1

ktxz ,11

ktxz ,22

ktxz ,33

kk ttP /11

kk ttP /12

kk ttP /13

ktx3

ktx2

ktx1

kk ttP /1

kk ttP /2

kk ttP /3

Filter(Estimator/Predictor)

Target # 1

tx1

kttP /1

Filter(Estimator/Predictor)

Target # N

txN

kN ttP /

txz , ktxz ,

kt

DataAssociation

tz1

tzN


Return to Table of Content

84

85

General ProblemSOLO

If more Sensors are involved using Sensor Data Fusion we can improve.In this case we have a Multi-Sensor Multi-Target situation

1

ktxz ,11

ktxz ,22

ktxz ,33

11

1 | kk ttS

11

2 | kk ttS

13 | kk ttS

13 |ˆ kk ttz

12 |ˆ kk ttz

11 |ˆ kk ttz

kk ttS |23

1st Sensor

1

ktxz ,11

ktxz ,22

ktxz ,33

13 |ˆ kk ttz

12 |ˆ kk ttz

11 |ˆ kk ttz 12

1 | kk ttS

12

2 | kk ttS

kk ttS |23

2nd Sensor

1

ktxz ,11

ktxz ,22

ktxz ,33

11

1 | kk ttS

11

2 | kk ttS

13 | kk ttS

13 |ˆ kk ttz

12 |ˆ kk ttz

11 |ˆ kk ttz

kk ttS |1

kk ttS |2

kk ttS |13

12

1 | kk ttS

12

2 | kk ttS

kk ttS |23

Fused Data

Transducer 1

Feature Extraction,Target Classification,

Identification,and Tracking

Sensor 1Fusion Processor- Associate- Correlate- Track- Estimate- Classify- Cue

Cue

TargetReport

Cue

TargetReport

Sensor – level Fusion

Transducer 2

Feature Extraction,Target Classification,

Identification,and Tracking

Sensor 2

1

TV

PV

21 tR

Az

El

Bx

11 tR

31 tR

Bx

2

3

32

1

B

1

3

2

1st Sensor

1

TV

PV

Bx

Bx

2

3

32

1

B

1

3

2

GroundRadar

DataLink

12 tR

22 tR 3

2 tR

2nd Sensor

1

TV

PV

21 tR

Az

El

Bx

11 tR

31 tR

Bx

2

3

32

1

B

1

3

2

GroundRadar

DataLink

12 tR

22 tR 3

2 tR

To perform this task we must perform Alignment of the Sensors Datain Time (synchronization) and in Space (example GPS that provides accurate time & position)

Run This

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ConstellationGPS.gif

86

General ProblemSOLO


Sensor DataProcessing and Measurement

Formation

Observation -to - Track

Association

InputData Track

Maintenance(Initialization,Confirmationand Deletion)

Filtering andPrediction

GatingComputations

Samuel S . Blackman , " Multiple-Target Tracking with Radar Applications ", Artech House , 1986

Samuel S . Blackman , Robert Popoli , " Design and Analysis of Modern Tracking Systems", Artech House , 1999

Functional Diagram of a Tracking System

A Tracking System performs the following functions:

• Sensors Data Processing and Measurement Formation that provides Targets Data

• Observation-to-Track Association that relates Target Detected Data to Existing Track Files.

• Track Maintenance (Initialization, Confirmation and deletion) of the Targets Detected by the Sensors.

• Filtering and Prediction , for each Track processes the Data Associated to the Track, Filter the Target State (Position, and may be Velocity and Acceleration) from Noise, and Predict the Target State and Errors (Covariance Matrix) at the next Sensors Measurement.• Gating Computations that, using the Predicted Target State, provides the Gating to enabling distinguishing between the Measurement from the Target of the specific Track File to other Targets Detected by the Sensors.

87

Flow of Air Data to Key Avionics Sub-systems

Aircraft AvionicsAirborne Radars

AirDataSystem



NavigationSystem


FlightControlSystem

AutopilotSystem

WeaponSystem

HUD HMD

AVIONICS DATA BUS


RadarSelf-Defense

System

See “Airborne Radars” PDF for a detailed presentation.

SOLO Airborne Radars

Second Generation Fighters Radars

Airborne Radars Ranging in Boresight Only used for Gunsight Computation , for Semi Active Missiles, and for A/G Weapon Release Computations. They where equipped also with Rear Warning Radar (RWR) Systems. Cutaway view of the Mirage III

Thomson CSF Cyranodual mode Air / Ground r Radar

88


Third Generation Fighters Radars

A/A and A/G Modes.A/A Mode:Support Lead Computing Gunsight, in Gun Mode.Gimbaled Antenna capable to Track one Air Targetand provide Illumination for Semi-Active A/A Missiles.Provide data for Pilot Steering Commands for A/A Missiles, and data for computation of A/A Missiles Launch Envelopes.A/G ModeProvide data for Dumb Bomb ReleaseProvide data for HARM MissilesProvide Data for TV Missiles

F4 Phantom Westinghouse AN/APQ120 Radar

89


90


91

92

SOLOExample: Airborne Electronic Scan Antenna

SENSORS


Missions

• Air-to-Air Missions

Air combat makes extensive use of multi-mode radar capabilities

Performed by a single pilot that has to fly the aircraft in the same time, or by aa second pilot (Navigator – in a two seats fighter aircraft). In all cases the sameRadar is installed in a single seat as in a two seats fighter aircraft. For this reasonthe Radar System is operated with minimum pilot interference (semi-automatic modes)

• Velocity Search Mode

This is the longest range search mode in most multi-mode airborne radars.It is look-down and High-PRF. It looks to targets which are flowing towardthe aircraft radar. It is primarily a Doppler mode and range is often not measured.Search is in both azimuth and elevation.

• Range-while-search Mode

This is a medium range look-down search mode to find target range as well asDoppler. It can be High-PRF and use Modulated Pulse Doppler wave, orMedium PRF.


93


Spick M., “The Great Book of Modern Warplanes”, Salamander, 2003

Velocity Search

Range-while-search

Track-while-scan

Raid assesment

APG-65 air-to-air modes

F-18 AN/APG-65Scan Modes

94



A Downlook Searchin air-to-air mode inMedium PRF, of F-16AN/APG-66 radar.

F-16 Falcon

95


Four-bar scan

Two -bar scan

One -bar scan

20x20deg air-combat scan

10x40deg air-combat scan

F-16 AN/APG-66Scan Modes

Spick M., “The Great Book ofModern Warplanes”, Salamander,2003

96


Missions (continue – 1)

• Air-to-Air Missions (continue – 1)

• Track-while-scan (TWS)

This Medium or High-PRF mode is similar to range-while-search, except thaton a limited number of targets track-files are initiated and maintained in theRadar processor. These files are used to identify threats, control weapons, andto initiate single-target tracks.

• Track

This is a mode when a single target is tracked (STT) or a high priority target(HPT) is tracked at a higher rate, while other targets are tracked-while-scan.

• Range for Aircraft Gun

This is a short range single target track (STT). In this mode the radar controlscockpit display which tells the pilot how to point the aircraft so that a gun ispointed to the predicted bullet impact points with the target.

97

SOLO Lead Computing Gunsight

AAA VV 1

BSTmm VV 1

L = Kinematic Lead Angle

ProjectilePath

Target Position at Projectile

Shoot

Target Predicted Flight

Path

Projectile-TargetIntercept

Point

fTTV

α - Angle of Attack

Line of Sight through

Reticle Image

SD 12/2

fTTV

2/1 2fZTg

In the Lead Mode, the Pilot maneuvers the Aircraft to keep the Pipper (Optical Sight)On the Target for at least half a second and then he pushes the Gun Trigger to fire aVolley of Projectiles. The Gunsight computes the Lead of Aircraft Boresight (Gun Direction) such that some of the Volley Projectiles will Hit the Target.

98



• Air-to-Surface Missions

The following Modes are implemented:

• Terrain Avoidance (TA)

• Real Beam Map (RBM)

Used at low altitude above ground flight situations.

• Beacon Direction Tracking (BCN)

Used for navigation purposes, when the radar receives the return fromknown Beacons to determine aircraft position relative to Beacons.

99



• Air-to-Surface Missions (continue – 1)

• Air-to-Ground Ranging (AGR)

Used to provide the range to a designed ground target to the Weapon Delivery System, in order to compute the best automatic release time.

100


Air-to-Surface Missions (continue – 2)

Stimson, G.W., “Introduction to Airborne Radar”, 1st Ed., Hughes Aircraft Company, 2nd ed., Scitech Publishing, 1998

101

SOLO

• Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

Used to provide Radar Imaging of areas on the ground.


Airborne Radars State of the art high resolution imaging Synthetic Aperture Radars can produce spot maps of areas hundreds of metres to kilometres in size at tens of NMI of range, with resolutions at this time as fine as one foot. In the simplest of terms, you can use such radars to produce geometrically accurate surface maps in which the smallest feature size is a foot. Therefore buildings, roads, structures, vehicles, parked aircraft, ships, fences, radio masts, radar antennas and any other features of interest can be detected, identified and accurately located in relation to the surrounding terrain.

102



• Ground Moving Target Indicator (GMTI)

Used to detect moving vehicles on the ground.

State of the art Ground Moving Target Indicator radars can detect slowly moving surface vehicles, taxiing aircraft, and hovering helicopters. In many instances, these radars can also exploit fine Doppler modulations in the radar return to identify the vehicle class or type, and even rotating radar antennas.

A radar which combines GMTI and SAR technologies can accurately detect, locate and identify virtually any surface target, from a standoff range at a very shallow slant angle, under any weather conditions. Combined with GPS guided bombs, this is a revolutionary capability, because it extends the existing around the clock bombing capability to an all weather standoff bombing capability. The established thermal imaging/laser guided bombing technology requires that direct line of sight exists to the target, that the cloudbase is above the bombing aircraft, and that the humidity and precipitation situation is not severe. Many bombing sorties were aborted during the Gulf War as these conditions were not satisfied. Moreover getting close enough to the target to use a thermal imager exposes the aircraft to air defences.

103



http://www.secretprojects.co.uk/ebooks/APG-68.pdf

APG-68, F-16’s Falcon Radar, in Doppler Beam Sharpening Mode

104

SOLO Airborne Radars• Air-to-Surface Missions (continue – 7)

Doppler Beam SharpeningOcean City, MarylandAPG -68 F-16’s Radar


105


Airborne Radar Modes

SingleTargetTrack(STT)

Range While Scan

(RWS)

Air CombatMode

(ACM)

HighPriorityTrack(HPT)

Air-to-Air Air-to-Surface

Boresight(BST)

Track While Scan

(RWS)

SeaSurfaceSearch(SEA)

RealBeamMap

(RBM)

DopplerBeam

Sharpening(DBSM)

GroundTargetMoving

Indication(GMTI)

SyntheticAperture

Radar(SAR)

TerrainAvoidance

(TA)

Beacon(BCN)

Air-to-GroundRanging(AGR)


106


Missions• Air-to-Air Missions

WaveformTypeTypical FunctionRemarks

Velocity Search (VS)HPRFPulsed DopplerLong range detectionHigh duty factor, Fine Doppler resolution; target clutter-free region; best for head-on geometries

Range-While-Search (RWS)HPRF + LFMPulsed DopplerLong range detection with coarse range estimate

Linear FM over dwell

Range Gated HPRF (RGHPRF)

HPRFPulsed DopplerLong range detectionProvides ambiguous range measurement

MPRF SearchMPRFPulsed DopplerAll-aspect detectionImproved detection for tail-chase; good range and Doppler resolution

Single Target Track (STT)MPRF/ HPRFPulsed DopplerFire controlMPRF and HPRF may be interleaved

Track-While-Scan (TWS)MPRFPulsed DopplerMultiple target trackingTrack updated provided during normal search revisits

Multiple Target Track (MTT)MPRF/ HPRFPulsed DopplerMultiple target trackingTrack updated scheduled independent of search scan (achievable through ESA)

Low PRF Doppler SearchLPRFPulsed DopplerAirborne target detectionUsed by some radars; much less effective than MPRF and HPRF modes

Low PRF Doppler TrackLPRFPulsed DopplerAirborne target trackingUsed by some radars; much less effective than MPRF and HPRF modes

Air-to-Air RangingLPRFNoncoherentShort range weaponNo clutter at ranges closer than target

Radar Mode

107


Missions• Air-to-Ground Missions

WaveformTypeTypical FunctionRemarks

Terrain AvoidanceLPRFNon-coherentCovert NavigationFlight path selected to fly between hills and mountains

Terrain FollowingLPRFNon-coherentCovert NavigationConstant Low altitude maintained

Air-to-Ground RangingLPRFNon-coherentBomb DeliveryDetermine range to target area

Ground MapLPRFNon-coherentNavigationAzimuth resolution limitted by real beam

Ground Beam sharpening (DBS)

LPRFCoherentNavigationImproved azimuth resolution

Synthetic Aperture (SAR)

- Stip Map

LPRFCoherentIntelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance

Moderate resolution imagery of stationary targets and clutter

Synthetic Aperture (SAR)

- Spotlight

LPRFCoherentIntelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance

High resolution imagery of stationary targets and clutter

Ground Moving Target Indicator (GMTI)

LPRFCoherentDetection of Moving Vehicles

Must detect small differences in velocity between targets and clutter

Maritime Target Track (MTT)

LPRFCoherentDetection of Sea ShipsMust detect small differences in velocity between ships and sea

Radar Mode

108

SOLO Airborne RadarsAN/APG SeriesAN/APG-1, S band interception radar for P-61 AN/APG-2, S band interception radar for P-61B AN/APG-3, General Electric tail gun aiming radar for B-29 and B-36B AN/APG-4, L band low altitude torpedo release / aiming radar for TBM, with nicknamed Sniffer. AN/APG-5, S band ranging / gun aiming radar for B-17, B-24 and F-86A AN/APG-6, L band low altitude bombing radar nickednamed Super Sniffer. Improved AN/APG-4. AN/APG-7, Bombing radar to control glide bombs AN/APG-8, S band turret gun aiming radar for B-29B AN/APG-9, L band low altitude bombing radar. Improved AN/APG-6 AN/APG-11, L band bombing radar AN/APG-12, L band low altitude bombing radar. Improved AN/APG-9 AN/APG-13, General Electric 75 mm nose gun aiming radar for B-25H. AN/APG-14, S band gun aiming radar for B-29 AN/APG-15, S band tail gun aiming radar for B-29B and PB4Y Privateer AN/APG-16, improved AN/APG-2 gun aiming radar for B-32. AN/APG-17, improved AN/APG-4 L band low altitude torpedo release / aiming radar and bombing radar AN/APG-18, X band gun aiming radar by Glenn L. Martin Company for turret guns,

improved AN/APG-5 AN/APG-19, X band gun aiming radar by Glenn L. Martin Company, improved AN/APG-8

and AN/APG-18. AN/APG-20, L band low altitude bombing radar. Improved AN/APG-12 AN/APG-21, ranging radar for ground attack AN/APG-22, X band gun aiming radar by Raytheon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radars#AN.2FAPY_Series109

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-61_Black_Widow

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-61_Black_Widow

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair_B-36

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TBF_Avenger

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-86_Sabre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-29_Superfortress

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-25_Mitchell


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-29_Superfortress

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PB4Y_Privateer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-32_Dominator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_L._Martin_Company

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_L._Martin_Company

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raytheon

SOLO Airborne RadarsAN/APG Series (continuous 1)AN/APG-23, Fire control radar for B-36A AN/APG-24, Fire control radar for B-36B AN/APG-25, X band gun aiming radar for F-100 AN/APG-26, Westinghouse Electric (1886) fire control radar for F3D Skyknight AN/APG-27, Gun aiming radar for tail guns of Convair XB-46 and Martin XB-48 AN/APG-28, Interception radar for F-82 Twin Mustang AN/APG-30, Sperry Corporation X band fire control radar for B-45, B-47, F-86E/F, F-100,

F-84E, F-8A, F-4E & others AN/APG-31, Raytheon gun aiming radar for B-57 AN/APG-32, General Electric X band tail gun aiming radar for B-36D/F and B-47E AN/APG-33, Hughes Aircraft X band fire control radar for F-89A, F-94A/B AN/APG-34, gun aiming radar for F-104C AN/APG-35, fire control radar for F3D Skyknight AN/APG-36, fire control radar for F2H-2N and F-86D AN/APG-37, Hughes Aircraft fire control radar for F2H-4 and F-86D/K/L AN/APG-39, gun aiming radar for B-47E AN/APG-40, Hughes Aircraft fire control radar for F-89D, F-94C AN/APG-41, General Electric tail gun aiming radar for B-36H AN/APG-43, Raytheon continuous wave interception radar AN/APG-45, General Electric miniaturized AN/APG-30 for maritime patrol aircraft AN/APG-46, original fire control radar of A-6A. AN/APG-50, F-4 Phantom II fire control radar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radars#AN.2FAPY_Series110



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-100_Super_Sabre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F3D_Skyknight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair_XB-46

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_XB-48

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-82_Twin_Mustang

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-45_Tornado



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-100_Super_Sabre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-57_Canberra


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-47_Stratojet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-89_Scorpion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-94_Starfire

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F3D_Skyknight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F2H_Banshee


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F2H_Banshee


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-47_Stratojet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-89_Scorpion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-94_Starfire


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-6_Intruder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-4_Phantom_II

SOLO Airborne RadarsAN/APG Series (continuous 2)AN/APG-51, Hughes Aircraft interception radar for F3H-2, F3D Skyknight AN/APG-53, Stewart-Warner fire control radar for A-4 Skyhawk AN/APG-55, Westinghouse Electric (1886) pulse Doppler interception radar AN/APG-56, improved AN/APG-30 for F-86 AN/APG-57, Gould Electronics fire control radar AN/APG-59, Westinghouse Electric (1886) pulse-Doppler radar for F-4J, part of AN/AWG-10 AN/APG-60, Doppler radar that is part of AN/AWG-11 for F-4K AN/APG-61, fire control radar for F-4M, part of AN/AWG-12 AN/APG-63 and AN/APG-70, for the F-15 Eagle AN/APG-64, development of AN/APG-63, never went into production AN/APG-65 and AN/APG-73, for the F/A-18 Hornet AN/APG-66 and [AN/APG-68], for the F-16 Falcon AN/APG-67 General Electric X band multimode pulse-Doppler radar for

F-20 Tigershark and AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo AN/APG-69, improved AN/APQ-159 fire control radar by Emerson Electric Company for

Northrop F-5 upgrade AN/APG-71, for the F-14D Tomcat AN/APG-74, Norden Systems pod-mounted airborne radar AN/APG-76, Norden Systems multimode Ku band pulse-Doppler radar for F-4 Phantom II upgrade AN/APG-77, for the F-22 Raptor AN/APG-78 millimetre wave Long Bow fire control radar for AH-64D Longbow Apache AN/APG-79, for the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet AN/APG-80, for the F-16E/F Block 60 Desert Falcon AN/APG-81, for the F-35 Lightning II

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radars#AN.2FAPY_Series

111


112

SOLO


113

SOLO Airborne Radars F-16 Display

114


http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Fighter-Cockpits.html115


http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Fighter-Cockpits.html

The identical Master Monitor Display and Multi-Function Display are completely Interchangeable as regards the information they show. At the left is a typical Radar Display.At the right is a typical Weapon-delivery Management Display.

F/A-18 Displays

116



117

F/A-18E/F APG-79 AESA RADAR

118

AN/APG-79 is another AESA radar which was developed in US by Raytheon for F/A-18E/F starting from 2000. The first fly tests were started in 2003. The first serial radar was transferred to Boeing for installation on F/A-18E/F board only in Jan. 2005. The initial operational readiness was achieved in 2007. EA-18G 'growler' EW aircraft came with this radar too. This radar is including IDECM inbuilt EW system. Its mass is about 300 kg.

http://igorrgroup.blogspot.co.il/2009/08/aesa-radars-for-fighters-brief-review.html

119

Su-34 Pilot, Co-Pilot Side-by-Side Cockpit

121

122Comparison of Fighters Radar Ranges

Airborne Radars

And their maximal effective detection range to the fighters in the world should be:

* F-15C & Su-27 (RCS = 10~15m2): 450 ~ 600 km* Tornado (RCS = 8 m2): 420 ~ 500 km* MIG-29 (RCS = 5 m2): 370 ~ 450 km* F/A-18C (RCS = 3 m2)): 330 ~ 395 km* F-16C (RCS = 1.2 m2)): 260 ~ 310 km* JAS39 (RCS = 0.5 m2)): 210 ~ 250 km* Su-47 (RCS = 0.3 m2)): 185 ~ 220 km* Rafale (RCS = 0.1~0.2 m2)): 140 ~ 200 km* F-18E (RCS = 0.1 m2)): 140 ~ 170 km* MIG-42 (RCS = 0.1 m2)): 140 ~ 170 km* EF2K (RCS = 0.05~0.1 m2)): 120 ~ 170 km* F-35A (RCS = 0.0015 m2)): 50 ~ 60 km* F/A-22 (RCS < or = 0.0002~0.0005 m2)): < or = 30 ~ 45 km

Source: http://www.defence.pk/forums/air-warfare/20908-rcs-different-fighters.html#ixzz2DySHji2H

RCS OF Different Fighters

Airborne RadarsSOLO

123

http://www.defence.pk/forums/air-warfare/20908-rcs-different-fighters.html#ixzz2DySHji2H

http://www.defence.pk/forums/air-warfare/20908-rcs-different-fighters.html#ixzz2DySHji2H

APG-67 V4 (T-50)

For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 3~4 km+For RCS 0.001 m2 class target: 5~6 km+For RCS 0.1 m2 class target: 17~20 km+For RCS 1.0 m2 class target: 30~36 km+For RCS 5.0 m2 class target: 45~53 km+For RCS 10.0 m2 class target: 53~63 km+

APG-67 V4 (T-50)


APG-68 V5 (F-16 C/D)


RDY (M2000-5)


APG-68 V9 (F-16 C/D/I and RDY-2 iM2000-5MK2 and -9)


PS-05A (JAS-39 A/B/C/D)


APG-73 (F/A-18E/F, Block1)

For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 5~6 km+For RCS 0.001 m2 class target: 10~11 km+For RCS 0.1 m2 class target: 32~36 km+For RCS 1.0 m2 class target: 56~64 km+For RCS 5.0 m2 class target: 84~96 km+For RCS 10.0 m2 class target:100~114km+dfC

RBE-2 PESA (Rafale F1/F2/F3)


APG-63 (F-15C)

For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 9 km+For RCS 0.001 m2 class target: 16 km+For RCS 0.1 m2 class target: 51 km+For RCS 1.0 m2 class target: 90 km+For RCS 5.0 m2 class target: 135 km+For RCS 10.0 m2 class target: 160 km+t

Detection Ranges of Different Fighters -Radars


124

http://www.defence.pk/forums/air-warfare/20908-rcs-different-fighters.html#ixzz2DyWOjEZC

http://www.defence.pk/forums/air-warfare/20908-rcs-different-fighters.html#ixzz2DyXTFeSt

Detection Ranges of Different Fighters -Radars


NOAR AESA (JAS-39 C/D PLUS, post-2013)


APG-80 AESA (F-16E)

For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 11 km+For RCS 0.001 m2 class target: 20 km+For RCS 0.1 m2 class target: 62 km+For RCS 1.0 m2 class target: 110 km+For RCS 5.0 m2 class target: 165 km+For RCS 10.0 m2 class target: 195 km+

RBE-2 AESA (Rafale F4, post-2012)


CAPTOR (EF-2000 Tranch 1 and 2)


APG-79 AESA (F/A-18E/F and EA-18G, Block 2 and 3)


APG-81 AESA (F-35A/B/C)


APG-63 V2/V3/V4 AESA (F-15C/E/SG)


CAESAR AESA (EF-2000 Tranch3, post-2015 with 1,500 T/Rs)


APG-77 AESA (F-22A)

For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 20 km+For RCS 0.001 m2 class target: 35 km+For RCS 0.1 m2 class target: 112 km+For RCS 1.0 m2 class target: 200 km+For RCS 5.0 m2 class target: 300 km+For RCS 10.0 m2 class target: 355 km+125

126

Infrared/Optical Systems

AirDataSystem



NavigationSystem


FlightControlSystem

AutopilotSystem

WeaponSystem

HUD HMD

AVIONICS DATA BUS


RadarSelf-Defense

System

See “E-O and IR Systems Pyloads” PDF for a detailed presentation.

127

Target Identification System, Electro-Optical (TISEO) F-4 (V) Phantom

E-O and IR Systems Payloads

F-14. Close-up of the TVSU camera. This sensor is equivalent to the Target Identification System Electro-Optic (TISEO) sensor on the F-4E Phantom. The fairing under the camera is the ARN-100 antenna. The red item is the forward anti-collision light

Northrop AN/AXX-1 Television Camera System (TCS). TCS represents the TISEO/TCS family of stabilised TV telescopes, used by the USAF and USN on air defence and air superiority fighters. TCS provides sharp close-up images of hostile aircraft outside of visual range. Typical identification ranges quoted are. DC-10 at 85 miles, F-111 at 40 miles, C-130 at 35 miles and F-5 at 10 miles. TCS could be fitted to the F-18, though currently only the F-14A is equipped. Below installation on F-14D with IRST (Northrop images).

Northrop AN/AXX-1 Television Camera System (TCS). TCS represents the TISEO/TCS family of stabilised TV telescopes, used by the USAF and USN on air defence and air superiority fighters. TCS provides sharp close-up images of hostile aircraft outside of visual range. Typical identification ranges quoted are. DC-10 at 85 miles, F-111 at 40 miles, C-130 at 35 miles and F-5 at 10 miles. TCS could be fitted to the F-18, though currently only the F-14A is equipped. Below installation on F-14D with IRST (Northrop images).

128


MiG-29 nose showing radome and IRST

IRST

Su-35S demonstrator with exposed Irbis-E phased array and 90 degree off boresight steerable OLS-35 IRST turret. The now well established trend in Russian sensors for BVR combat is increasing range performance and countermeasures resistance. The 20 kiloWatt peak power N035 Irbis E radar is the most powerful in its class. (KnAAPO)

Forward Looking Infrared(FLIR) - Infrared Search and Track System (IRST)

IRST sensor on the Su-27

Su-27: The OLS-27 Infrared Search and Track (IRST)

129


Su-35S Electro-Optical System turret (© 2009 Vitaliy V. Kuzmin)

Su-35S Electro-Optical System turret (© 2009 Vitaliy V. Kuzmin)

Thales Damocles electro-optical targeting pod (Wikipedia image).Thales Damocles electro-optical targeting pod (Wikipedia image).

The UOMZ Sapsan E Electro-Optical Targeting System pod is likely to be offered as an alternative to the licenced French Thales Damocles targeting pod (© 2009 Vitaliy V. Kuzmin

The UOMZ Sapsan E Electro-Optical Targeting System pod is likely to be offered as an alternative to the licenced French Thales Damocles targeting pod (© 2009 Vitaliy V. Kuzmin

SOLO

RAFAEL LITENINGMulti-Sensor, Multi-Mission Targeting & Navigation Pod


130

SOLO

RAFAEL RECCELITEReal-Time Tactical Reconnaissance System


131

SOLOE-O and IR Systems Payloads

132


LANTIRN (Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night)

Primary function:Low altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night flying

Contractor:Lockheed Martin, Inc.

Length:AN/AAQ-13Navigation pod

AN/AAQ-14targeting pod

Length:78.2 inches (1.99 meters)

98.5 inches (2.51 meters)

Diameter:12 inches (.31 meters)

15 inches (.38 meters)

Weight:470 pounds (211.5 kilograms)

524 pounds (235.8 kilograms)

Sensors:Infrared andterrain following radar

Infraredlaser designator and ranging

Unit Cost:Navigation pod, $1.38 million

targeting pod, $3.2 million

Aircraft:F-15E, F-16C/D, F-14

Introduction Date:March 1987

133


Sniper XR Specifications

Length:239 cmDiameter: 300 mm

Total weight:440 lb (181 kg)

Operational altitude:+40,000

Sensor:640x480 FPA

Daylight sensor: CCDTVWide Field of view:4x4Narrow field of view: 1x1Field of regard:+35 / -155Roll:continuous

Laser:

Diode pumped laser designator

To meet the requirements to have a Sniper pod of several components. The most important part is a high-resolution FLIRSensor, which in the mid-infrared spectrum (engl. mid infrared) Works and CCDBased work. This sensor allows the detection of enemy targets at night or under adverse conditions. The range is located around the three-to five-fold over that of a LANTIRN-Pods of the first generation. For use in daylight and a CCD-TV camera can be used. Both sensors are fully stabilized and equipped with softwareAlgorithms for digital processing of images. A Datalink to transfer the acquired images to allied forces as well as a data storage can always be upgraded. For tracking and marking of targets serve two separate laser systems. Both offer a so-called (engl.) Eye-safe Mode to prevent eye damage in densely populated areas or in training. The air cell causes less drag than previous models and has limited Stealth Features.

LOCKHEED Sniper XR (Pantera) Targeting Pod

134


NORTHROP AN/AAQ-37Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS)

AN/AAQ-37 Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System that equips the F-35 Lightening 2.

The suit of six electro-optical sensors that comprise the system will enhance the F-35's survivability and operational effectiveness by warning the pilot of incoming aircraft and missile threats, providing day/night vision and supporting the navigation function of the F-35's forward-looking infrared sensor.

The DAS provides:

* Missile detection and tracking* Launch point detection* Situational awareness IRST & cueing* Weapons support* Day/night navigation

At the designated AN/AAQ-37, also known as DAS (Distributed Aperture System), is a infrarotgestütztes Sensor system. It consists of six separate IR cameras, which are arranged on the airframe that the entire sky can be monitored[29]. It is primarily a Raketenwarngerät conceived, but also has other functions. How can firing SAM- And FlakPositions are detected automatically and available on-board weapons (JDAM, for example) should fight[29]While appropriate countermeasures (Flares, Chaff and ECM) Are well-spent. Also from any direction approaching bombers can be captured and subsequently with Fire and ForgetWeapons (to be attacked like AIM-9X or AIM-120) without the F-35 put through maneuvers in firing position must During a Air melee identified with a number of parties own and enemy aircraft, and is pursuing the AAQ-37, all planes, so that the pilot even with similar looking machines can always distinguish between friend and foe

During night missions, the system serves as a substitute for conventional Night Vision Goggles. In combination with the HMDS helmet may use the pilot in any direction on a night vision image quality, with the sharpness in some of the human Eye equal. This is a significant advance over the usual, on the helmet-mounted night vision devices, since they can cover, by their construction and the cockpit pulpit only a relatively small field of view. Combined with the onboard computer also vehicles on the ground can be safely pursued

135

Key attribute of the DAS are:Dual-Band MWIR (3-5 μm) and LWIR (8-10 μm) using a 640 – 512 FPA. Each measures ~ 7x5x4 in, weighs ~ 9 lb And consumes less than 20 W. Sensor are devices with Megapixel Capability (1000x1000).


NORTHROP AN/AAQ-37Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS)

AN/AAQ-37 Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System that equips the F-35 Lightening 2.

136

F35 EO Sensor Vertical Coverage and EOTS Installation

F35 Horizontal CoverageUsing DAS Sensors

SOLOElectronic Warfare (EW)

137Typical Batelfield Scenario


138Radio-Frequency Spectrum


139Electronic Warfare Elements


140

Functional Layout of the Radar Warning Receiver (RWR)

Defensive Aids Subsystems (DASS)

• Radar Warning Receiver (RWR)• Missile Warning Receiver• Laser Warning Receiver• Countermeasure Dispensers (CMD) – Chaff or Flares• Towed Decoys


141


Typical Laser Warning System(SAAB Avitron)

Example of Flare Dispensing

Example of Towed Decoy


142


AN/ALQ-214 Concept of Operation


143Simplified Overview of F/A 18E/F Countermeasures Suite

SOLO

144

Fighter Aircraft Weapon System

The Weapons System of a Fighter has the following tasks:

- Keep Inventory Status of all Weapons- Provide Safety to Personal (Ground, Pilots) during all Life Phases of Operation (on Ground and in Flight)- Help the Pilot to Activate the Weapons to perform their missions.

Attack and Defense Missions:

- Air-to-Ground Attack- Air-to-Air Attack-- Defense against incoming treats

The type of Weapons on a Fighter :

- Guns (Air-to-Air/ Air-to-Ground)- Missiles (Air-to-Air/ Air-to-Ground)-Bombs (Air-to-Ground)- Dispensers (Chaff, Flares)- ECCM Pods

Continue toFighter Aircraft Avionics

Part IV

SOLO

145


References

SOLO

146

PHAK Chapter 1 - 17http://www.gov/library/manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/

George M. Siouris, “Aerospace Avionics Systems, A Modern Synthesis”, Academic Press, Inc., 1993

R.P.G. Collinson, “Introduction to Avionics”, Chapman & Hall, Inc., 1996, 1997, 1998

Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, “Aircraft Systems, Mechanical, Electrical and AvionicsSubsystem Integration”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 3th Ed., 2008


Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, “Military Avionics Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, LTD., 2006

References (continue – 1)

SOLO

147


S. Hermelin, “Air Vehicle in Spherical Earth Atmosphere”

S. Hermelin, “Airborne Radar”, Part1, Part2, Example1, Example2

S. Hermelin, “Tracking Systems”

S. Hermelin, “Navigation Systems”

S. Hermelin, “Earth Atmosphere”

S. Hermelin, “Earth Gravitation”

S. Hermelin, “Aircraft Flight Instruments”

S. Hermelin, “Computing Gunsight, HUD and HMS”

S. Hermelin, “Aircraft Flight Performance”

S. Hermelin, “Sensors Systems: Surveillance, Ground Mapping, Target Tracking”

S. Hermelin, “Air-to-Air Combat”

References (continue – 2)

SOLO

148


S. Hermelin, “Spherical Trigonometry”

S. Hermelin, “Modern Aircraft Cutaway”

149

SOLO

TechnionIsraeli Institute of Technology

1964 – 1968 BSc EE1968 – 1971 MSc EE

Israeli Air Force1970 – 1974

RAFAELIsraeli Armament Development Authority

1974 – 2013

Stanford University1983 – 1986 PhD AA

150

SOUND WAVESSOLO

SupersonicV > a

SubsonicV < a

a t a t

V tV t

M

1sin 1

Soundwaves

Machwaves

Disturbances propagate by molecular collision, at the sped of sound a,along a spherical surface centered at the disturbances source position.

The source of disturbances moves with the velocity V.

- when the source moves at subsonic velocity V < a, it will stay inside the family of spherical sound waves.

-when the source moves at supersonic velocity V > a, it will stay outside the family of spherical sound waves. These wave fronts form a disturbance

envelope given by two lines tangent to the family of spherical sound waves. Those lines are called Mach waves, and form an angle μ with the disturbance

source velocity:a

VM

M

&

1sin 1

151

SOUND WAVESSOLO

Sound Wave Definition: p

p

p p

p1

2 1

1

1

2 1

2 1

2 1

p p p

h h h

For weak shocks

up

1

2

11

11

1

11

11

2

12

1

1uuuuuu

)C.M.(

ppuuupuupu

11

111122111

211

)C.L.M.(

21

au 1

1p

1

1T

1e

112 uuu

112 ppp

112

112 TTT

112 eee

SOUND

WAVE

Since the changes within the sound wave are small, the flow gradients are small.Therefore the dissipative effects of friction and thermal conduction are negligibleand since no heat is added the sound wave is isotropic. Since

au 1

s

pa

2valid for all gases

152

SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBERSOLO

21

au 1

1p

1

1T

1e

112 uuu

112 ppp

112

112 TTT

112 eee

SOUNDWAVE

Speed of Sound is given by

0

ds

pa

RTp

C

C

T

dT

R

C

pT

dT

R

C

d

dp

dR

T

dTCds

p

dpR

T

dTCds

v

p

v

p

dsv

p

00

0

but for an ideal, calorically perfect gas

pRTa

TChPerfectyCaloricall

RTpIdeal

p

The Mach Number is defined asRT

u

a

uM

1

2

1

1

111

a

a

T

T

p

pThe Isentropic Chain:

a

ad

T

Tdd

p

pdsd

1

2

10

153

NORMAL SHOCK WAVESSOLO

Normal Shock Wave ( Adiabatic), Perfect Gas

G Q 0 0,

Mach Number Relations (1)

122

22

1

21

22

222

21

221

22

2

222

1

1

21

1222

2

11

1

22221

211

2211

2

1

2

12

1

2

1

*12

1

2

1

12

1

14..

...

..

uuu

a

u

a

uaa

uaaau

h

au

h

aEC

uuu

p

u

p

pupuMLC

uuMCp

a

Field Equations:

1222

2

11

2

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

1uuu

u

au

u

a

u u a1 22

u

a

u

aM M1 2

1 21 1

Prandtl’s Relation

u

p

T

e

u

p

T

e

11

q

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

1 2

2

1

2

11

2

1

2

1

2

1

21

2

12122

21

12

uu

auuuua

uu

uu

Ludwig Prandtl(1875-1953)

154



G Q 0 0,


M

MM

M

M

M

M

MM

22

22

1

12

12

12

12

12

21

1

2

1 1

2

11

1 21

2 1 2

1 1 1 1 1

12

or

M

M

M

M

MH H

A A

2

12

12

12

121 2

1 21

1

21

2

2

1

11

2

12

11

2

1

1

2

12

1 2

12

2 12 1

2

12

1 2 1

1 2

A A u

u

u

u u

u

aM

M

M

u

p

T

e

u

p

T

e

11

q

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

1 2

155



G Q 0 0,


p

p

up

u

u

u

a

MM

MM

M M

M

2

1

12

1

1

2

1

12

12

1

2

12 1

2

12 1

2 12

12

12

1 1 1 1

1 11 2

11

1 1 2

1

or

(C.L.M.)

p

pM2

1121

2

11

h

h

T

T

p

pM

M

M

a

a

h C T p R Tp2

1

2

1

2

1

1

212 1

2

12

2

1

12

11

1 2

1

s s

R

T

T

p

pM

M

M2 1 2

1

12

1

1

12

1

112

12

1

12

11

1 2

1

ln ln

s s

RM M

M2 1

1 1

2 12 3

2

2 12 41

2 2

3 11

2

11

Shapiro p.125

u

p

T

e

u

p

T

e

11

q

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

1 2

156

STEADY QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWSOLO

STAGNATION CONDITIONS

)C.E.( constuhuh 222

211 2

1

2

1

The stagnation condition 0 is attained by reaching u = 0

2

/

21202020

2

11

12

12

122

12

MTR

u

Tc

u

T

T

c

uTTuhh

TRa

auM

Rc

pp

Tch pp

Using the Isentropic Chain relation, we obtain:

2

10102000

2

11 M

p

p

a

a

h

h

T

T

Steady , Adiabatic + Inviscid = Reversible, , q Q 0 0, ~ ~ 0

G 0 t

0

SOLO

157

Civilian Aircraft AvionicsFlight Cockpit

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE

Cirrus Perspective Avionics Demo, Youtube Cirrus SR22 Tampa Landing in Heavy Rain

SOLO

158

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE

Civilian Aircraft Avionics

SOLO

159

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


SOLO

160

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


SOLO

161

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


SOLO

162

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


SOLO

163

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


SOLO

164

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


SOLO

165

Flight Displays

CIRRUS PERSPECTIVE


10 fighter aircraft avionics - part iii

Science

maneuverable aircraft

heavier aircraft

fighter pilot

generation avionics

solo hermelin

basic fighter maneuvers

kinetic energy speed

energy states