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Work in the 21st CenturyChapter 10

Stress & Worker Well-Being

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Module 10.1: The Problem of Stress

• Studying workplace stress

• 3 important factors: 1. Work stressors

– Task & role stressors

2. Moderators of the stress process– Individual differences & social support

3. Consequences of stress– Burnout & heart disease

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Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)

• Selye – “Father of Stress”– Defined stress as “the non-specific response of

the human body to any demand made on it”

– Eustress (good) vs. distress (bad)

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)• Alarm reaction Resistance Exhaustion

• Response to chronic stress

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Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)

• Recent studies– In addition to physiological reaction to stress, there is

also a cognitive appraisal of situation & of resources available to handle stressors

• 2 coping styles– Problem-focused coping

• Managing or altering the problem causing the stress

– Emotion-focused coping• Reducing the emotional response to the problem

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Framework for Study of Stress (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992)

Figure 10.1Theoretical Framework for the Study of Stress in OrganizationsSOURCE: Kahn & Byosiere (1992)

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What is a Stressor?

• Stressors– Physical or psychological demands to which an

individual responds

• Strains– Reaction or response to stressors

Heat, cold, noise

Emotional labor

Perceived control

Situational constraints

Work scheduleWork pace, time pressure

Workload

Role stressorsInterpersonal conflict

Common Stressors in the Workplace

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Common Stressors at Work

• Physical/Task stressors– Effect of multiple

stressors can be cumulative

– e.g., Noise, demands of a given job

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Psychological Stressors

• Perceived lack of control/predictability

– Individual’s perception of control or predictability determines his/her response to the situation

• Perceptions of control are related to Autonomy, which is the extent to which employees can control how and when they perform the tasks of their job

Psychological Stressors (cont’d)

• Interpersonal conflict– Negative interactions w/co-workers,

supervisors, clients

– Can occur when resources are scarce, employees have incompatible interests, or employees feel they are not being treated fairly

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Psychological Stressors (cont’d)

• Role stressors: Result from multiple task requirements or roles of employees

• Role ambiguity– Employees lack clear knowledge of expected behavior

• Role conflict– Demands from different sources are incompatible

• Role overload– An employee is expected to fill to many roles at once

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Psychological Stressors (cont’d)

• Work-family conflict– When workers experience conflict between roles

they fulfill at work & roles they fulfill in their personal lives

– Flexible time schedules & child care becoming increasingly important

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Psychological Stressors (cont’d)

• Emotional labor: Regulation of one’s emotions to meet job or organizational demands (2 strategies):– Surface acting

– Consists of managing or faking one’s expressions or emotions

– Deep acting– Consists of managing one’s feelings, including emotions

required by the job

Consequences of Stress

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Behavioral Consequences of Stress

• Information processing• Chronic stress has negative effects on memory,

reaction time, accuracy, & task performance

• Performance• Hypothesis: Performance & stress have an inverted U relationship (Figure 10.2)

– As arousal increases, performance increases, but only up to a certain point, & then performance begins to decline

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Stress & Performance:Inverted U Relationship

Figure 10.2SOURCE: Jex (1998).

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Psychological Consequences of Stress

• Burnout• Extreme state of psychological strain resulting from

prolonged response to chronic job stressors that exceed an individual’s resources to cope with them

• Measured with Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)

• 3 components– Emotional exhaustion– Depersonalization– Low personal accomplishment

Examples of Burnout Items

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Physiological Consequences of Stress

• Stressful situations cause overactivation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS), producing several kinds of stress hormones

– Initially, these changes can improve decision making & physical performance

– Chronic activation of SNS leads to “wear & tear” on coronary arteries & heart

Work Schedules

• 3 different scheduling formats– Shift work

– Fixed shift

– Rotating shift

• Scheduling variations– Flextime

– Compressed workweek

– Telecommuting

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Module 10.2: Theories of Stress

• Demand-Control Model– 2 factors prominent in producing job stress

• Job demands– Workload or intellectual requirements

• Control (decision latitude)– Autonomy & discretion for using different skills

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Demand-Control Model (cont’d)

Figure 10.3Demand-Control ModelSource: Adapted from Karasek (1979)

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Demand-Control Model (cont’d)

• Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ)

– Role overload & role conflict (demands)– Skill utilization & job decision (control)– Depression, job dissatisfaction, & sleep

problems (health consequences)

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Person-Environment Fit Model

• Hypothesis: Fit between person & environment determines amount of stress that person perceives

• Considers external influences like social support from family & work sources

• Person-job fit vs. person-organization fit

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Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress

• Moderators of stressor-strain relationship– Locus of control (LOC)

• Belief of individuals that what happens to them is under their control

– Hardiness• Set of personality characteristics that provide

resistance to stress– Self-esteem

• Positive self-worth that is considered to be an important resource for coping

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Example of Moderator

Figure 10.4Example of a Moderator of the Stressor-Strain Relationship.

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Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)

• Moderator of stressor-strain relationship

• Individuals displaying TABP characterized by ambitiousness, impatience, easily aroused hostility, & time urgency– Type A’s seem to thrive on “life in the fast lane”

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Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)

• Compared to Type Bs, Type As more punctual, work at faster rates, & higher achievers in college & in professional careers– However, global TABP does not predict outcomes as well

as specific TABP subcomponents

• Hostility is primary TABP subcomponent associated with increased risk of heart disease & other long-term, harmful health outcomes

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TABP Subcomponents

• Achievement strivings (AS)– Tendency to be active & work hard in achieving one’s goals– Positively correlated with academic performance, sales

performance, & job satisfaction

• Impatience/Irritability (II)– Intolerance, frustration that results from being slowed down– Associated with health problems like insomnia, headaches,

poor digestion, & respiratory difficulties

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TABP Subcomponent

Time urgency

• Refers to feeling of being pressured by inadequate time

• Dimensions include eating behavior, nervous energy, list making, scheduling, speech patterns, & deadline control

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Module 10.3:Reducing & Managing Stress

• Occupational health psychology (OHP)– Application of psychology to improving the quality of work life,

and to protecting and promoting the safety, health, and well-being of workers

– Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology• Comprehensive source for OHP issues (i.e., work-family balance, work

design, and stress management interventions)

– Occupational health psychologists often divide approaches into 3 major categories

• Primary, secondary, and tertiary

Primary Prevention Strategies

• Primary prevention strategies– Concerned with modifying or eliminating

stressors in work environment– Most proactive & preventative

approaches to stress management– Examples:

• Work & job design• Cognitive restructuring

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Secondary Prevention Strategies

• Involve modifying responses to inevitable demands or stressors

• Role is often one of damage control

• Strategies that require no special training include lifestyle choices such as physical fitness, healthy eating, & weight control

• Can be proactive or reactive

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Secondary Prevention Strategies

• Stress management training– Useful for helping employees deal with

workplace stressors that are difficult to change

– Cognitive-behavioral skills training• Stress inoculation

– Relaxation & biofeedback techniques• Progressive muscle relaxation & deep breathing

– Social support: Instrumental, emotional, informational, & appraisal support

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Tertiary Prevention Strategies

• Focused on healing negative effects of stressors

• Employee assistance programs (EAPs)– Counseling provided by an organization to deal

with workplace stress, alcohol/drug difficulties, & problems stemming from outside the job

A Framework for Stress Management Interventions

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Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies

• Combining various stress management interventions is more effective than using any single approach

• Successful stress management interventions must accurately identify stressors causing strain & actively determine ways to reduce those stressors

• Primary stress intervention strategies generally preferred over other interventions

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Future Work Trends & Challenges to Stress & Stress Management

• Workforce is becoming more culturally & ethnically diverse– Important for I-O psychologists to determine whether

factors that predict health problems in White males are same as in other populations

• Influences in the new millennium predicted to be stressful– Technological change, global competition, downsizing,

elder & child care, & increased teamwork

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Module 10.4: Violence at Work

Violent actions carried out by a non-employee against an employee

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Violence perpetrated by employees & directed toward fellow employees

• Many hypotheses for why workplace has become more violent since the early 1990s

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Incidents or Behaviors Associated with the 3 Levels of Violence

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Experiential Sequence of Violence Perpetrators

Figure 10.5 Routine Experiential Sequence of ViolencePerpetratorsSource: Based on Kinney(1995).

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“Typical” Violent Worker

• Most cases of workplace violence involve some feeling of being treated unfairly, & perpetrator has some real or imaginary grievance against organization or a person in the organization

• Characteristics of a violent worker– May include: Abuses alcohol, has a history of violence,

has difficult accepting authority, is a white male 25-30 years of age

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Theories of Workplace Violence

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis– Argues that frustration leads to aggression– Ultimately found to be too broad

• Not all frustrated individuals act aggressively & not all aggressive acts are a result of frustration

– Modern view: Frustration leads to stress reaction & individual expends energy to relieve this stress

– High self-esteem is associated with violence

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Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration & Employee Control

Figure 10.6 Constructive and Destructive Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration and Employee ControlSOURCE: Spector (2000)

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Theories of Workplace Violence (cont’d)

• “Justice” hypothesis– Proposes that some violent acts can be

understood as reactions by an employee against perceived injustice

– Relevance to the 3 types of justice• Layoffs & firings• Performance appraisals

Actions to Prevent Workplace Violence

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Special Type of Violence: Bullying

• Bullying - Harassing, offending, socially excluding, or assigning humiliating tasks to subordinate repeatedly & over long period of time

– 4 steps in escalation• A critical incident

• Bullying & stigmatizing

• Organizational intervention

• Expulsion of the victim

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Conclusions AboutWorkplace Violence

• Employees need avenues for communicating concerns about the fairness of organizational decisions that affect them

• Managers need to be sensitive to signs of potential trouble in form of individual worker behaviors