1 vt. 2 ontology barry smith 3 aristotle author of the categories aristotle
TRANSCRIPT
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VT
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Ontology
Barry Smith
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Aristotle
author of The Categories
Aristotle
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From Species to Genera
canary
animal
bird
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Species Genera as Tree
canary
animal
bird fish
ostrich
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Species-genusgenus trees can be represented also as map-like partitions
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From Species to Genera
canary
animal
bird
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From Species to Genera
animal
bird
canarycanary
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Species Genera as Tree
canary
animal
bird fish
ostrich
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Species-Genera as Map/Partition
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
canary
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If Aristotelian realism is right,
then such partitions are transparent to the reality beyond
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Tree and Map/Partition
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Alberti’s Grid
c.1450
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Coarse-grained Partition
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Fine-Grained Partition
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Scientific theories
comprehend in their underlying category systems veridical partitions of reality
often there are many veridical partitions of reality,
cross-cutting each other,
differing only in nuances)
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What is a gene?
GDB: a gene is a DNA fragment that can be transcribed and translated into a protein
Genbank: a gene is a DNA region of biological interest with a name and that carries a genetic trait or phenotype
(from Schulze-Kremer)
GO does not tell us which of these is correct, or indeed whether either is correct, and it does not tell us how to integrate data from the corresponding sources
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Question:
what other sorts of partitions have this feature of transparency?
the partitions of common sense (folk biology, folk physics, folk psychology ...)
Answer:
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Aristotle
the ontologist of common-sense reality
Aristotle
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The world we grasp in natural language
= the world as apprehended via that conceptualization we call common sense
= the normal environment (the niche) shared by children and adults in everyday perceiving and acting
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The world of mothers, milk, and mice ...
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The Empty Mask (Magritte)
mama
mouse
milk
Mount Washington
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our common-sense partition of the world of common sense is transparent
(common sense, like science, is [mostly*] true)
mothers exist ...
* “mostly” because of the problem of vagueness
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Problem of vagueness solved
by recognizing that our categories apply to reality in such a way as to respect an opposition
... between standard or focal or prototypical instances
... and non-standard or ‘fringe’ instances
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birds
ostrich
Natural categories have borderline cases
sparrow
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... they have a kernel/penumbra structure
kernel of focal
instances
penumbra of borderline cases
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animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
every cell in every common-sense partition is subject to this same kernel-penumbra structure:
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What is common-sense reality?
the mesoscopic space of everyday human action and perception
– a space centered on objects organized into hierarchies of species and genera
... and subject to prototypicality
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but more:
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in addition to objects (substances),
which pertain to what a thing is at all times at which it exists:
cow man rock planet
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the common-sense world contains also accidents
which pertain to how a thing is at some time at which it exists:
red hot suntanned spinning
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An accident
= what holds of a substance per accidens
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quid? substance quantum? quantity quale? qualityad quid? relationubi? placequando? timein quo situ? status/contextin quo habitu? habitusquid agit? actionquid patitur? passion
Nine Accidental Categories
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= relations of inherence(one-sided existential dependence)
John
hunger
Substances are the bearers of accidents
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Both substances and accidents
instantiate universals at higher and lower levels of generality
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siamese
mammal
cat
organism
substancespecies, genera
animal
instances
frog
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Common nouns
pekinese
mammal
cat
organism
substance
animal
common nouns
proper names
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siamese
mammal
cat
organism
substancetypes
animal
tokens
frog
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Our clarification
accidents to be divided into
two large and essential distinct families of
QUALITIES
and
PROCESSES
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There are universals
both among substances (man, mammal)
and among qualities (hot, red)
and among processes (run, movement)
There are universals also among spatial regions (triangle, room, cockpit)
and among spatio-temporal regions (orbit)
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Substance universals
pertain to what a thing is at all times at which it exists:
cow man rock planetVW Golf
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Quality universals
pertain to how a thing is at some time at which it exists:
red hot suntanned spinningClintophobic Eurosceptic
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Process universals
reflect invariants in the spatiotemporal world taken as an atemporal whole
football match
course of disease
exercise of function
(course of) therapy
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Processes and qualities, too, instantiate genera and species
Thus process and quality universals form trees
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Accidents: Species and instances
quality
color
red
scarlet
R232, G54, B24
this individual accident of redness (this token redness – here, now)
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substance
one substantial categoryJohn, man
nine accidental categorieshunger, your hunger, being hungryyour sun-tanyour being taller than Mary
accidents
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substance
place (in the Lyceum)
time (yesterday)
position (is sitting)
possession (has shoes on)
action (cuts)
passion (is cut)
quantity (two feet long)
quality (white)
relation (taller than)
John
accidents
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substance
Substances are the bearers of accidents
accidentsBearers
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substance
Substances are the bearers of accidents
accidents
John = relations of inherence(one-sided existential dependence)
Bearers
hunger
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s
substance
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Substance + Accident = State of Affairs
setting into relief
States of Affair
s
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instances
Prototypicality among instances too
albino frogalbino frog
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Aristotle 1.0
an ontology recognizing:substance tokensaccident tokenssubstance typesaccident types
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Is everything in common-sense reality either a substance or an accident?
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well, what about artefacts ?
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Standard Aristotelian theory of artefacts:
artefacts are mereological sums of substances
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Positive and negative parts
positivepart
negativepartor hole
(made of matter)
(not made of matter)
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quid? substance quantum? quantity quale? qualityad quid? relationubi? placequando? timein quo situ? status/contextin quo habitu? habitusquid agit? actionquid patitur? passion
Nine Accidental Categories
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Places
For Aristotle the place of a substance is the interior boundary of the surrounding body
(for example the interior boundary of the surrounding water where it meets a fish’s skin)
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What is missing from Aristotle?
Gibson: affordancesniches
Barker: behavior settings
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Places are holes
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niches, environments are holes
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The metaphysics of holes
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Aristotle 1.5
an ontology ofsubstances + accidents+ holes (and other entities not made of matter)+ fiat and bona fide boundaries+ artefacts and environments
is true
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folk biology
Aristotelian folk biology, folk physics, folk psychology, etc., are true of the common-sense world as it currently exists
(they have nothing to offer regarding its pre-history, its long term evolution, its position in the cosmos)
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reference vs. theory
They have not much to offer, either, by way of good explanatory theories of the entities in their respective domains,
but they are transparent to those domainsnonetheless
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reference realism vs. theory realism
this distinction applied not only to science (against T. S. Kuhn et al.) but also to common sense (against sceptics of various stripes)
the sun exists, and has existed for a long time – the very same object
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Both scientific partitions and common-sense partitions
are based on reference-systems which have survived rigorous empirical tests
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The $64000 Question
How do those parts and dimensions of reality which we call the common-sense world
... relate to those parts and dimensions of reality which are studied by science?
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Aristotle 2000
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Universe/Periodic Table
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fishfolk biology
partition of DNA space
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Universe/Periodic Table
animal
bird
canary
ostrich
fish
both are transparent partitions of one and the same reality
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many transparent partitions
at different levels of granularity
will operate with species-genus hierarchies
and with an ontology of substances (objects) and accidents (attributes, processes)
along the lines described by Aristotle
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relative hylomorphism
substances and accidents reappear in the microscopic and macroscopic worlds of e.g. molecular biology and astronomy
(Aristotelian ontological zooming)
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we do not assert
that every level of granularity is structured in substance-accident form -- perhaps there are pure process levels, perhaps there are levels structured as fields
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Perspectivalism
PerspectivalismDifferent partitions may represent cuts through the same reality which are skew to each other
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An organism is a totality of molecules
An organism is a totality of cells
An organism is a single unitary substance
... all of these express veridical partitions
An organism is a totality of atoms
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all express partitions which are transparent,
at different levels of granularity,
to the same reality beyond
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Coarse-grained Partition
what happens when a fringe instance arises ?
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Coarse-grained Partition
what happens when a fringe instance arises ?
Aristotle 1.0: you shrug your shoulders
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Aristotle 2000:you go out to find a finer grained partition which will recognize the phenomenon in question as prototypical
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The advance of science
is not an advance away from Aristotle towards something better.
Provided Aristotle is interpreted aright, it is a rigorous demonstration of the correctness of his ontological approach
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IFOMIS
Institute for Formal Ontology and Medical Information Science
Faculty of Medicine
University of Leipzig
http://ifomis.de
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The Idea
Computational medical research
will transform the discipline of medicine
… but only if communication problems can be solved
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Medicine
desperately needs to find a way
to enable the huge amounts of data
resulting from trials by different groups
to be (f)used together
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How resolve incompatibilities?
Ganze Industrie von ‘Ontologien’ in der heutigen Informationswissenschaft
“ONTOLOGY” = the solution of first resort (compare: kicking a television set)
But what does ‘ontology’ mean?Current most popular answer: a hierarchy of concepts (a thesaurus, a list of terms)
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First ontology
(from Porphyry’s Commentary on Aristotle’s Categories)
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Linnaean Ontology
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Medical Diagnostic Ontology
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Example: The Gene Ontology (GO)
hormone ; GO:0005179
%digestive hormone ; GO:0046659 %peptide hormone ; GO:0005180 %adrenocorticotropin ; GO:0017043 %glycopeptide hormone ; GO:0005181 %follicle-stimulating hormone ; GO:0016913
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as tree
hormone
digestive hormone peptide hormone
adrenocorticotropin glycopeptide hormone
follicle-stimulating hormone
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Gene Ontology
Cellular Component Ontology: subcellular structures, locations, and macromolecular complexes;examples: nucleus, telomere
Molecular Function Ontology: tasks performed by individual gene products; examples: transcription factor, DNA helicase
Biological Process Ontology: broad biological goals accomplished by ordered assemblies of molecular functions; examples: mitosis, purine metabolism
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Problem: There exist multiple databases
genomic cellular
structural phenotypic
… and even for each specific type of information, e.g. DNA sequence data, there exist several databases of different scope and organisation
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What is a gene?
GDB: a gene is a DNA fragment that can be transcribed and translated into a protein
Genbank: a gene is a DNA region of biological interest with a name and that carries a genetic trait or phenotype
GO does not tell us which of these is correct, or indeed whether either is correct, and it does not tell us how to integrate data from the corresponding sources
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Reference Ontology
An ontology is a theory of a domain of entities in the world
Ontology is outside the computer
seeks maximal expressiveness and adequacy to reality
and sacrifices computational tractability for the sake of representational adequacy
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Methodology
Get ontology right first
(realism; descriptive adequacy; rather powerful logic);
solve tractability problems later
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The Reference Ontology Community
IFOMIS (Leipzig) Laboratories for Applied Ontology (Trento/Rome,
Turin)Foundational Ontology Project (Leeds)Ontology Works (Baltimore)BORO Program (London)Ontek Corporation (Buffalo/Leeds)LandC (Belgium/Philadelphia)
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Recall:
GDB: a gene is a DNA fragment that can be transcribed and translated into a protein
Genbank: a gene is a DNA region of biological interest with a name and that carries a genetic trait or phenotype
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Ontology
Note that terms like ‘fragment’, ‘region’, ‘name’, ‘carry’, ‘trait’, ‘type’
… along with terms like ‘part’, ‘whole’, ‘function’, ‘substance’, ‘inhere’ …
are ontological terms in the sense of traditional (philosophical) ontology
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Three types of reference ontology
1. formal ontology = framework for definition of the highly general concepts – such as object, event, part – employed in every domain
2. domain ontology, a top-level theory with a few highly general concepts from a particular domain, such as genetics or medicine
3. terminology-based ontology, a very large theory embracing many concepts and inter-concept relations
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MedO
including sub-ontologies:
cell ontology
drug ontology
protein ontology
gene ontology
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and sub-ontologies:
anatomical ontology
epidemiological ontology
disease ontology
therapy ontology
pathology ontology
the whole designed to give structure to the medical domain
(currently medical education comparable to stamp-collecting)
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If sub-domains like these
cell ontology
drug ontology
protein ontology
gene ontology
are to be knitted together within a single theory,
then we need also a theory of granularity