1View of the Universe 500 Years AgoView of the Universe 500 Years Ago

The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution

What was the Scientific Revolution?What was the Scientific Revolution?

The Scientific Revolution began in the middle decades of the The Scientific Revolution began in the middle decades of the sixteenth century and continued through the early part of the sixteenth century and continued through the early part of the eighteenth century. It involved gradual developments in eighteenth century. It involved gradual developments in astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology. astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology.

It was part of a great It was part of a great intellectual transformation intellectual transformation that brought that brought about the early modern period in European history. about the early modern period in European history.

It was concurrent with other major eventsIt was concurrent with other major events Copernicus was making discoveries at the same time that Copernicus was making discoveries at the same time that

the religious wars were breaking out in Europe.the religious wars were breaking out in Europe. By the end of the Scientific Revolution, Europe was about to By the end of the Scientific Revolution, Europe was about to

embark on the Enlightenment, a cultural movement that embark on the Enlightenment, a cultural movement that largely rejected religion. largely rejected religion.

Background of the Scientific Revolution1. Medieval Universities

2. Renaissance• patronage

• a change in perspective on human nature and the relationship between God and man

• increased secularism

• Corpus Hermeticum

3. Age of Exploration• solutions to technical problems required observation and measurement

4. Printing Press• dissemination of ideas

5. Advanced Mathematics• a natural order in the universe that could be explained through

mathematics

What was the medieval view of the world?

cosmology- the study of the universe

Scientific thought in the Middle Ages Aristotle (c.384-322 B.C.)

dominated the European view of how the world operated world at rest, motion caused by external force (Prime Mover)

Ptolemy (c.100-168 A.D.) developed astronomy based on Aristotle

5View of the Universe 500 Years Ago

6Aristotle’s Prime Mover

Earth is at the center

of the Universe

All motion in the

heavens is uniform circular motion

Celestial objects are made from

perfect material and

cannot change their properties (e.g., their

brightness).

Three Guiding

Principles

Ptolemy’s Geocentric System

Ptolemy (c.100-168 A.D.) Used the ideas of Used the ideas of Aristotle in Aristotle in combination with his combination with his own observations to own observations to construct a model of construct a model of the universe- the universe- Ptolemaic systemPtolemaic system (Earth-centered or (Earth-centered or geocentric)geocentric)

8The Ptolemaic Universe : Ideas about uniform circular motion and epicycles were catalogued by Ptolemy in 150 A.D. in his book the Almagest.

Ptolemy

9

Medieval Representation of Ptolemaic Universe

STABILITY Earth was at center. Mankind

important in God’s plan

COMFORTIndividual could

locate God. Soul’s destination would be above or below.

REASSURANCEDivine power would

triumph over corruption and

decay of earthly things and lift the soul to an afterlife

in heaven

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Aristotle’s Prime Mover became the

God of Christian theology.

The outermost sphere became

the Christian heaven.

Earth at center represented the Christian God’s

concern for mankind.

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Religious DogmaReligious Dogma

The Main Scientists of the Scientific Revolution

Astronomers: Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo Scientific Method: Bacon, Descartes Synthesis: Newton

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

introduced a new cosmology observations without instruments consulted ancient documents On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres

(1543) dedicated to Pope Paul III used mathematics and logic to show that the

earth and planets travel around the sun

Copernican Theory (heliocentric) Critics? 1616, the Catholic Church declared the

heliocentric theory to be heresy

16Contemporary Representation of Copernicus’ Solar SystemContemporary Representation of Copernicus’ Solar System

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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Danish nobleman and Danish nobleman and astronomerastronomer

important contributions: important contributions: an astronomical observatory, an astronomical observatory, precise instruments, extensive precise instruments, extensive data on Mars (Kepler used to data on Mars (Kepler used to prove that the orbit of Mars prove that the orbit of Mars was not a circle but an ellipse)was not a circle but an ellipse)

Did not accept Copernicus’ Did not accept Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the heliocentric model of the universeuniverse

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Revised Copernicus’ ideas Kepler’s theories on planetary

motion1. orbits of planets are elliptical

2. planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits

3. The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun (the closer the planet is to the sun, the faster its orbit)

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Since the orbits of the planets are not circles but ellipses, Copernicus could not explain all the details of planetary motion without epicycles

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

mathematician, physicist, and philosopher

observations used the telescope planets? sunspots moons around Jupiter applied mathematical formulas to

his findings

Dialogue on the Two Great Systems of the World (1632)

Galileo was threatened with heresy in 1642

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) proved the Copernican theory with his telescope, challenged Aristotle's universe and its theological-philosophical worldview, and laid the foundations for dynamics (how objects move on the earth) and gravity.

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Galileo used his telescope to show that Venus went through a complete set of phases, just like the Moon. This observation confirmed the Copernican system and proved that the Ptolemaic system was incorrect.

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Sunspots

Galileo observed sunspots that moved, indicating that the Sun was rotating on an axis and that it was not made from a perfect, unchanging substance.

He observed four points of light that changed their positions around the planet Jupiter and concluded that they were moons circling the planet as it moved around its orbit.

.

24Galileo's challenge of the Church's authority got him into trouble with the Inquisition. Late in his life, he was forced to recant his Copernican views publicly.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

English mathematician Principia Mathematica,1687

synthesized Galileo’s discoveries about motion on Earth and Kepler’s discoveries concerning the heavens

developed calculus to explain his ideas defined the physical laws of the universe-

the law of universal gravitation and the laws of motion

Age of Reason (The Enlightenment)

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) empirical method Novum Organum, 1620 Proposed the process of inductive

reasoning make observations, then generalize

the rules of nature; this process provided the foundation for scientific observation

promoted the modern idea of progress (Bacon believed that the application of science could benefit society)

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

mathematician and philosopher Discourse on Method, 1637, 1637 deductive reasoning

Consequences of the Scientific Revolution:1. A new worldview emerged, replacing the old

view that was bound in the traditions of the medieval church

2. Europeans were more willing to question the status quo

3. New methods of acquiring knowledge were beginning to take form

4. Scientific communities began to emerge

5. European technology improved

6. The new science widened the intellectual gap

Superstition and Witchcraft The belief in magic still widespread The belief in magic still widespread

in the seventeenth centuryin the seventeenth century educated educated people and magicpeople and magic Magic was viewed as being either Magic was viewed as being either

good (tied to the church) or bad good (tied to the church) or bad (the devil).(the devil). The alternative was natural magic.The alternative was natural magic.

astrologyastrology alchemyalchemy

An Assembly of Witches, Hans Baldung

The Middle Ages and Witches Major witch hunts occurred during from

1560 to 1660 (waned subsequently) Crossed the Atlantic to Salem,

Massachusetts, in 1692 Witch hunts emerged in areas

experiencing religious conflict occurred in both Protestant and Catholic

areas Between 1400-1700

approximately 100,000 accused witches went to trial

approximately 60,000 were executed

Women comprised 80% of those executed older, unmarried women midwives

Causes for the witch hunts? What brought about an end to the

which hunts?

*Read Witchcraft documents.

Seventeenth-century depictions of witches.

Departing for the Sabbath, Hans Baldung

Society and the Ancien Régime

1600s and 1700s

Seventeenth-Century European Social Hierarchy (France)

Relics of Feudalism taille

gabelle

corvée

banalités

sacraments

Society in the 1700s (common folk) Family, marriage, and children before

1750 nuclear families (west) and extended

families (east) older marriages, inheritance, and dowries legal marriage restrictions law rate of illegitimate births children

Family, marriage and children after 1750 marriage age decreased explosion in birth rate, many illegitimate impact of early urbanization?

Attitudes Toward Children (1700s)

Infanticide and Founding Hospitals “overlaying” abandoned children

Raising Children strict discipline less emotional attachment high infant and child mortality

Young People and Work family work and job searching boys and girls

Education roots of public education Christian schools Prussia, 1717- universal

compulsory education Christians- Bible service to the state

Literacy in Britain1600- 25%

1800- over 50%

Men and Women

Agriculture and the Agricultural Revolution (1600s and 1700s)

European Agrarianism before

1700

Open Field System

Feudal Common Field System

Key features of Agricultural Revolution1. increased production of food, as a result of

2. new methods of cultivation and

3. selective breeding

Science and Technology in Agriculture The Netherlands (Dutch Republic), mid-1600s Growing population=increased demand for food Regional Specialization Changes in Agriculture

land enclosure crop rotation diversified planting manure for fertilizer conversion of marshland

Cornelius Vermuyden

Free-trade in the Netherlands vs. Mercantilism in France and England

Land Conversion (Drainage)

Dutch Levee

England and the Agricultural Revolution

Between 1700 and 1870 crop production triple in England with only a 14% in people working the land!

Charles Townshend (1674-1738)

1st Field 2nd Field 3rd Field 4th Field

wheat *cash crop

barley*horse and peasantfeed

turnips*livestock & fertilizer(plowed)

beansclover*replenish soil

‘Turnip Townshend’ Imported agricultural ideas from the Netherlands to England Introduced a four-field crop production system (convertible

husbandry) in which he proposed the use of turnips in crop rotation

***significance for livestock and the availability of meat

Jethro Tull

Jethro Tull

Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

empiricism and agriculture seed drill, systematic planting Use of horses for plowing Horse-hoeing Husbandry: An Essay on the

Principles of Vegetation and Tillage Designed to Introduce a New Method of Culture (1731)

Selective Breeding

Robert Bakewell (1725-1795) Selectively bred livestock to

produce fatter and healthier animals

Increased the production of meat, wool, leather, soap, manure

The introduction of food items from the Americas: especially potatoes and maize (corn)

Yield Ratio for Grain Crops(1400-1800)

Agricultural production in England increased significantly from 1710 1795:

Cattle 375 lbs. 800 lbs Calves 50 lbs. 150 lbs Sheep 28 lbs. 80 lbs Lambs 18 lbs. 50 lbs Milk production increased 300% Grain production increased from 4-6

bushels/acre 24 bushels/acre

The Enclosure Movement

The Enclosure Movement (England)

Enclosure began in the 1500s- sheep/wool Intensified in the 1700s- crop production Landowners invested in more land and technology Number of large farms increased Landowning nobles/gentry

dominated Parliament What happened to the peasants? Corn Laws (1815-1846)

protective tariff on imported grain England’s poor suffered

Impact of the Enclosure Movement on the Peasantry facilitated urbanization fueled the cottage industry women? a new hierarchy emerged in England

a few great landowners dominated the economy and politics a large number peasants became wage earners on farms or in the

cottage industry

Game Laws (1800s)

Overall Impact of the Agricultural Revolution1. Population Explosion in the 18th century

2. Enclosure Movement altered rural society

3. Cottage industry emerged as supplemental income for rural families

4. Increased food supply=lower prices= money for consumer goods

Eighteenth-Century Population Growth Rate

Population Density: 18c Europe

The Proto-Industrial Revolution England in the 1700s

A period of transition:

Agriculture Industry Handmade Items Items Made by Machine Individual Production Mass Production Artisan/Family Workers Skilled/Low-Skilled Workers Rural Urban Home Factory Energy: Hydro, Wind, Animal Fossil Fuels Expensive High Quality Goods Less Expensive

Standardized Goods Individual Sales Retailers Localized Trade Trade Abroad

Supplemental Income Cottage Industries: “Putting-Out” System

The Cottage Industry (1600s)(Putting-Out System or Domestic System)

Investor (Entrepreneur) w/capital purchased the raw material

Individuals in the rural cottages were hired to produce goods from the raw materials using their own tools (paid for quantity produced)

The investor then sold the goods to retailers to distribute

The “Putting-Out” System

Advantages of the Putting-Out System

1. Peasants could supplement their agricultural incomes.

taking advantage of winter months when farming was impossible

2. Merchants could avoid the higher wages and often demanding regulations of urban labor.

easier to reduce the number of workers when the economy was bad

3. Merchants could acquire capital, which would later play a part in funding industrialization itself.

Peasants acquired skills that later benefited industrialization

4. Young people could start separate households earlier, thus contributing to population growth.

Disadvantage of the Putting-Out System

When demand rose [which it did in the 18th century] this system proved inefficient. Merchant-capitalists found it difficult to induce peasant-workers to increase their output.

\This dilemma eventually led to the factory system. All the workers were concentrated in one place under the supervision of a manager. Water or steam power could easily be applied there.

New Inventions-Cottage Industry to Factory System

New mechanical inventions transformed the cottage industry: flying shuttle spinning jenny water-powered loom steam engine

The Flying Shuttle (1733)

Developed by John Kay in 1733

Increased the production of cloth and thus created a greater demand for yarn/thread.

The Spinning Jenny (1764)

John Hargreaves is credited with inventing the spinning jenny (1764), which increased the production of thread by working multiple spools.

The Water Frame (1769)

Richard Arkwright developed the Water Frame, which mechanized the spinning of thread using the water wheel.

The Power Loom (1785)

Invented by Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) in 1785, the power loom used the water wheel (later the steam engine) as a power source for weaving cloth.

Steam Engine (1712)

Along with his partner Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) invented the steam engine. Problems?

Steam Engine (1775) James Watt (1736-1819) made

improvements to the steam engine that enabled it to drive machinery

The steam engine was applied to the production of textiles

The Factory System and Industrialization, 1780s

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain (England) late 1700s. Why?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

British Raw Materials

Eighteenth-Century Foreign Trade (England)

Eighteenth-Century English Port

European Urbanization: 1500-1800

Industry & Population: 18c Europe

Eighteenth-Century English “Nouveau Riche”:The Capitalist Entrepreneur

“Gin Lane”

William Hogarth

1751

“Beer Street”

William Hogarth

1751

Social Impact of Industrialization

1. Growth of Cities- The Urban Game

2. Change in Family Structure (Textbook)

The Urban Game

Essay- England and Industrialization

Manchester DBQ or Identify and discuss the key factors behind the

development of industrialization in Great Britain and explain how the subsequent growth of industry impacted nineteenth-century European society.