1. title, names and addresses of authors - | rr- · pdf file1. title, names and addresses of...
TRANSCRIPT
1
1. Title, names and addresses of authors
Foot and mouth disease control strategies in North Africa and the Middle East – the current
situation
G. Yehia(1) , P. Primot(1)
(1) OIE Regional Representation for the Middle East PO Box 6220/268 Hazmieh Kfarshima -
Lebanon
2. Keywords
Foot and Mouth Disease – Middle East – North Africa – control – surveillance – sampling -
vaccination – strategy
3. Text
3.1. Introduction
Even if the situation in the Middle East and in North Africa is not strictly the same according
to each epidemiological specificities of both regions, FMD still one of the main constraints
affecting livestock production in this part of the world, remaining a significant drain on the
budgets of the national veterinary services of each country and on the livelihoods of livestock
owners across the region (1).
FMD is mostly endemic in all the Middle East and North Africa region (MENA) and despite
using modern and effective vaccines, periodic devastating epidemics occur, usually
originating from neighbouring regions - West Asia, East and West Africa (Sub Sahara area) -
and spreading rapidly across national and regional borders (1, 2, 3, 4).
The purpose of this paper is to draw up the present situation of the disease in the MENA,
underlining critical gaps in strategies adopted by regional countries for the control of the
disease and proposing actions to be implemented in order to improve this control, taking into
account sub regional areas and particularities of the region.
3.2. Particularities of the region
In almost MENA countries, large ruminant livestock resources are bred, providing livelihood
and employment to a high proportion of the population (1, 7). Geographically, this region is
characterised by extensive land border and much of the region is arid or semi arid, which
2
drastically limits the potential availability of natural pasture (5, 6). Therefore transhumance
and animal movement, both for grazing or trade, between neighbouring countries are
important, notably in order to satisfy people needs during Muslim special events (Hajj and
Ramadan) (6, 7). Such fluidity has significant consequences for the spread of animal
diseases, FMD notably (6).
3.3. The current situation of FMD in the MENA
3.3.1. The current situation in the Middle East (3, 4)
FMD is endemic in all the Middle East and periodic devastating epidemics usually occur,
spreading rapidly across national and regional borders in the past few years.
The A Iran 05 topotype, belonging to the Asia topotype, is the predominant serotype A
lineage circulating in the Middle East. It has two different paths of evolution (S and NS
genome regions): the A22 sub-lineage as starting point and A/IRN/105, A-Iran-96, A-Iran-99
as evolutionary intermediates. In Turkey, in 2007, the new sub-lineages A-Iran-05ARD-07 and
A-Iran-05EZM-07 were observed and were predominant in this country. This strain is now
presented in most of the Middle Eastern countries and has reached since the beginning of
2009 Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon and Libya (Figure 1). The new epidemic sub-lineage
reported in the above countries and circulating recently in West Eurasia has been named as
A-Iran-05BAR-08
The A Egypt 06 has more than 90% identity with A/KEN/98, A/ETH/92 and A/KEN/05, and all
topotypes are closely related. Its introduction in Egypt from East Africa was probably made
through the trade in live cattle from Ethiopia (via sea-route). The A Egypt 09 identified
recently in Egypt is close related to A/EGY/06 (95.5% identity). This confirms the persistence
of African type A virus in Egypt, spread in 2006 and evolved until 2009.
The O PanAsia II, belonging to the ME-SA topotype, was first recorded in 2003 in India and
is now widely spread in all the Middle East (Figure 2). All viruses are closely related to each
other (with maximum 5% difference) and distinct from the earlier PanAsia lineage. Over the
period 2008-09, it has been reported in Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Bahrain, and
Pakistan.
3
3.3.2. The current situation in North Africa(2)
In the North Africa region, FMD occurrence is more sporadic and cyclic, usually originating
from exogenous sources. This sub region is threatened by FMD strains circulating in Sub
Sahara and West Africa. Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia experienced their last outbreaks in
1999, with the occurrence of the O Maghreb, belonging to the topotype O WA. Serotype A
was also introduced in 2006 in Mauritania and serotype SAT 2 in Libya in 2003. The
occurrence of A Iran 05 recently in Libya is a critical event, threatening all of the west part of
the North Africa region.
3.4. Current strategies adopted to control the disease
All information reported in this paragraph were compiled from specific country
questionnaires set up in order to well prepare last FMD Round Tables, organized
respectively by the OIE – FAO Regional Animal Health from Tunis and Beirut, in North Africa
and in the Middle East (2, 4).
3.4.1. Laboratory and Sampling
All countries have a national official laboratory which performs FMD analyses, essentially
serological analyses using ELISA tests. Some laboratories in the region are able to work also
with live virus: Iran, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, Egypt and Morocco.
The OIE - FAO World Reference Laboratory (Pirbright) is the main reference laboratory
where sample from the region are sent. Sampling is rarely conducted by Middle Eastern
countries in order to perform virus isolation and strain characterisation (Figure 3).
3.4.2. Serosurveillance
Serosurveillance programmes are generally conducted on a non regular basis in most of
countries of the region, based on punctual serosurveys in order to assess FMD
seroprevalence in the concerned country.
Nevertheless, regular continuous serosurveillance programmes are implemented in some
countries, such as North African countries, Turkey and Iran, both with the support of
international agencies or institutions.
3.4.3. Vaccination
4
FMD vaccination is conducted in most of MENA countries, either compulsory or on a
voluntary basis and generally free of charge. In North Africa, Morocco is an exception, having
stopped the vaccination in 2007. Different vaccines and suppliers are used in the MENA
region, principally from Europe, India and Russia. But some countries are also vaccine
producers (Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Turkey and Morocco, which produced vaccines from
imported concentrated antigen).
Vaccination strategies and vaccines strains used in this region are very heterogeneous
(Table 1, 2 and 3) and not usually matching the current circulating strains.
The vaccination is principally implemented on the cattle population, but in some countries
also on sheep and goats (Table 2).
The vaccination coverage is not satisfactory in most of the countries either vaccination is
implemented on a compulsory basis or on a voluntary one (Figures 4 and 5).
The control of vaccination efficacy is rarely implemented, only in North African countries and
in Egypt.
3.4.4. Emergency response
FMD is a mandatory notifiable disease in all countries, but only few ones have a National
Emergency Fund available for FMD emergency response. In the North Africa region zoning
could be implemented to restrict animal movement in case of emergency.
None country has an emergency antigen bank and an emergency stock of vaccine is
available only in very few countries. But, punctual agreement could be signed for vaccine
supplying in emergency situations.
3.4.5. Awareness programmes
All countries have awareness programmes on FMD, mainly focused on farmers by
implementing meetings, sometimes on a regular frequency, and training in some countries.
Awareness programmes mostly depends on current FMD country situation, activating
principally when the disease occur or may occur. Media awareness programmes are used
also in some countries.
5
3.5. What could be done to control the disease? - Summary of the frame developed for
the Middle East – 5th FMD Round Table Beirut
During the 5th FMD Round Table held in Beirut Lebanon in April 2009, participants
discussed and adopted the outlines for a relevant programme in support of the OIE/ FAO
strategy for the global control of FMD (4).
The main objective of this programme is to increase and harmonise the level of FMD
surveillance and control in the Middle East region, including:
• Assessing current country strategies to manage the disease;
• Harmonisation between countries surveillance strategies, vaccine programs, vaccine
monitoring, animals and animal products movement control;
• Training technical staff to conduct appropriate prevention and control measures
against the disease;
• Implementing appropriate measures and methodologies in collaboration with
Reference Laboratories, to identify FMD strains circulating in the region and potential
introduction of others.
3.6. Conclusions
FMD is a main constraint of animal production in the MENA region. To control the disease in
the region, vaccination in large ruminants, sometimes also in small ruminants, is the common
strategy adopted. These vaccination programs are not harmonized between countries with
regularly a poor vaccine matching.
The lack of relevant and harmonized surveillance programmes with well trained staff, the lack
of early warning and rapid response systems in most countries of the region and the poor
level of transparency and collaboration between countries are important factors hampering
the well control of the disease.
The extensive land border in the region and the importance of transhumance and animal
movement between neighbouring countries, notably in order to satisfy people needs during
Muslim special events (Hajj and Ramadan) make the disease control even more difficult.
6
Furthermore, some countries are not able to secure funding within their budgets for FMD
surveillance and control programs.
The MENA region is much more complex than other regions, regarding its geographical
location, at the crossing of three continents, and shall be recognized as a high risk area for
the spread of FMD virus to neighbouring regions, especially Europe.
The implementation of a harmonized and coordinated programmes to control the disease
according to each sub regional specificities, shall be a priority, position regularly wished by
Chief Veterinary Officers from this region.
The newly created OIE – FAO Regional Animal Health Centres, in Beirut and Tunis, under
the umbrella of Regional Steering Committees of the GF-TADs shall be the relevant
structures to carry such program in the frame of a global strategy.
4. Acknowledgements (if applicable)
The authors would like to thank staffs from the OIE – FAO Regional Animal Health Centre for
North Africa in Tunis and from the OIE – FAO Regional Animal Health Centre for the Middle
East in Beirut, for their assistance and support.
5. References
1. Aidaros H.A. (2002), Regional status and approaches for control and eradication of FMD
in the Middle East and North Africa - Rev.Sci.Tech.Off.Int.Epi; 21 (3) 451- 458. Available at:
http://www.rr-middleeast.oie.int/download/pdf/1.2%2520Aidaros%5B1%5D.pdf
2. Anonymous. FAO (2007), Report of the 4th FMD Round Table for the control of the
disease in North Africa, Rabat, October 2007. Available at:
http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/commissions/en/eufmd/event/2007/Rabat_BTOR.pdf
3. Anonymous. OIE-FAO (2007), Report of the 4th FMD Round Table for the control of the
disease in the Middle East, Amman, September 2007. Available at: http://www.rr-
middleeast.oie.int/download/pdf/4th%20round.pdf
4. Anonymous. OIE – FAO (2009), Report of the 5th FMD Round Table for the control of the
disease in the Middle East, Beirut, April 2009. Available at: http://www.rr-
middleeast.oie.int/viewpage.asp?id=492
7
5. Bourn D. (2003), Livestock Dynamics in the Arabian Peninsula. A Regional Review of
National Livestock Resources and International Livestock Trade, FAO Report, Roma.
Available at: http://ergodd.zoo.ox.ac.uk/download/index.htm
6. Slingenbergh J. (2003), Clarifying diseases spread in the Eurasian Ruminant Street,
Report of the 35th Session of EUFMD, Rome, App.10. Available at
http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/commissions/en/documents/sess35/App10.pdf
7. Wint W. (2003) Ruminants, seasons and grazing in the Middle East. William Wint,
Environmental Research Group Oxford, United Kingdom, consultant, mars 2003, Rome.
Available at : http://ergodd.zoo.ox.ac.uk/download/index.htm
8
6. Tables
FMD Vaccine Type Country Annual Frequency
Quadrivalent vaccine (O, A, SAT1 and SAT2) Sudan (2006) Once
Tetravalent vaccines (O, A, Asia 1 and SAT 2)
Kuwait 3 times
Qatar Once or twice
UAE Twice a year
Trivalent vaccines (O India 53/73, A Iran 96, Asia 1)
Syria Twice
Trivalent (O, A 22, Asia 1)
Bahrain Twice
Iran 3 times
Iraq Once
Lebanon Twice
Oman Once
PAT Twice
Turkey Twice
Bivalent vaccines (A and O Manisa)
Egypt Twice (fattening herds) or 3 times
(dairy cattle)
Jordan 3 times
Turkey Twice
Yemen Twice
Table 1: FMD vaccine used in the Middle East for cattle protection (type and annual
frequency) (4)
9
FMD Vaccine Type – Sheep and Goats Country Annual Frequency
Tetravalent vaccines (O, A, Asia 1 and SAT 2) Qatar Once - twice
UAE Twice
Trivalent vaccines (O India 53/73, A Iran 96, Asia 1)
Syria Once
Trivalent (O, A 22, Asia 1)
Bahrain Twice
Iran Once
Oman Once
Bivalent (A and O Manisa) Turkey Once
Monovalent (O Manisa)
Iraq Once
Jordan Twice – 3 times
PAT Once - Twice
Table 2: FMD vaccine used in the Middle East for sheep and goats protection (type and
annual frequency) (4)
10
Country Strategy Type of FMD
vaccine Annual
Frequency Vaccinated population
Morocco Stopped in 2007
Before Mandatory and free
Monovalent O North Africa
Once between Sept
to Dec
90
Tunisia Mandatory and free
Tetravalent O Manisa, O
Maghreb, A22, SAT 2
Once between Sept
to Dec
75
Algeria Mandatory and free Bivalent O
Manisa, A 22 once 70
Libya Depends on FMD situation
Around outbreaks
Tetravalent A, O, C, SAT 2
Table 3: FMD vaccines used in North Africa for cattle protection (2)
11
7. Figures
Figure 1: Dispersion of A Iran 05 in the Middle East and North Africa (Copyright: A. Di Nardo
(WRL Pirbright – 5th FMD Regional Round Table for the Middle East – Beirut Lebanon – 7,8
April 2009) (4)
LLaattee
22000055
22000044
22000077
EEaarrllyy
22000066
LLaattee
22000066
LLaattee 22000088
&& 22000099
MMaarr
22000099
LLaattee
22000055--0099
22000033--0099
JJaann
22000099
22000077
SSuummmmeerr
22000077
12
Figure 2: Dispersion of O PanAsia II strain in the Middle East (Copyright: A. Di Nardo (WRL
Pirbright – 5th FMD Regional Round Table for the Middle East – Beirut Lebanon – 7,8 April
2009) (4)
JJaann
22000077--0099
SSuummmmeerr
22000077 SSuummmmeerr
22000077 &&
22000088
JJaann
22000088
JJaann
22000077 &&
22000088
SSuummmmeerr
22000077 &&
22000088
LLaattee 22000066
EEaarrllyy--mmiidd 22000077
EEaarrllyy--mmiidd 22000066
&& 22000077,, 22000099
JJaann
22000077
13
Figure 3: samples sent by Middle Eastern countries to the OIE – FAO Reference Laboratory
for virus isolation (2006 – 2007 – 2009) (4)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Bah
rain
Egy
ptIra
nIra
q
Jord
an
Kuw
ait
Leba
non
Om
anPAT
Qat
ar
Sud
an
Syr
ia
Turke
y
UAE
Yem
en
2006
2007
2008
14
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Bahrain Iran Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Turkey
2006
2007
2008
Figure 4: Vaccination coverage on the cattle population from Middle Eastern countries where
FMD vaccination is compulsory (4)