Americanization and EuropeBy Line Bang Jensen, Peter Roman and Jenifer Laursen

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Contents

Introduction...............................................................................................................................3

Methodology........................................................................................................................................4

Consumer Society.....................................................................................................................7

Processed foods...................................................................................................................................9

McDonaldization...............................................................................................................................12

American Cinema and Culture.............................................................................................16

American and European Cinemas...................................................................................................16

Cultural Challenges of Americanization..........................................................................................18

Language and Americanization.............................................................................................22

Historical background.......................................................................................................................23

Americanization of Danish...............................................................................................................24

Has it transitioned to the twenty-first century/conclusion?.............................................................27

Rise of Nationalism.................................................................................................................30

Conclusion...............................................................................................................................32

Works Cited.............................................................................................................................35

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Introduction

With the growing standards of the world and the existing concepts and complexities in

political, economic and socio-cultural ideologies, the start of the twentieth century gave birth

to the idea of making the world a single community. Americanization has arguably expanded

in Europe and in the rest of the world in the twentieth century, and with all of its influences,

some historians refer to the twentieth century as to the American Century. However, many

wonder if the idea of the American Century has carried on and continued into the twenty-first

century. America’s sphere of influence can be definitely visible in many different areas, such

as consumerism, language and audio-visual products of an average European individual.

Americanization is often combined with the term globalization, as it is applied both to

“domestic and international contexts, and encompasses political, linguistic, cultural, and

economic dimensions” (Desmond). In international context, the term Americanization refers

to the influence of the United States across the globe. The term is usually used to explain a

process of change in patterns of social organizations, political structures, and consumption,

which comes as a result of contact with ideas, goods, or practices typically associated with the

United States (Desmond). The perceptions of Americanization are often accompanied by

feelings of anti-Americanism, rising in countries in an attempt to reject these ideas, goods, or

practices.

Anti-Americanism is a general set of opinions expressing criticism or hostility towards

the United States and what the country represents. Over the years, anti-Americanism has

evolved from mere cultural criticism through the fear of American hegemony in the

nineteenth and twentieth century to the global era in the twenty-first century, in which the

previous objections coexist with those resulting from international value conflicts

(Mlodzianowska). The fear of the United States’ economic, political, and also cultural

hegemony have not, however, stopped the global consumption of all things American,

including films, books, and foods.

By the middle of the nineteenth century, the United States was quickly becoming a

global consumer leader. The nation were propelled by a vast market and the lack of strong,

pre-consumer traditions, which helped spread American chain stores, American foods, and

American movies (Steams). Especially an international conglomerate like McDonald’s

generated consumer experiences across regional and cultural boundaries, also giving way to

the Americanization of how people eat.

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Methodology

The first section of this paper focuses on the historical and cultural evolution of consumerism

as a form of Americanization in the twentieth century in the European continent. It starts out

with an introduction to the topic by presenting a comparison between the contemporary

consumption in the United States of America and Europe and also the sub-question.

Following this, the focus is put on the historical evolution of consumerism and the

consumption of goods prior to the event in history known as the Industrial Revolution. In

order to make the connection between Americanization and the expansion of processed food,

the history of food preservation up until the Industrial Revolution is explained as well.

In the next paragraphs, the tin cans are finally being linked with Americanization by

explaining how this country helped improve the invention, notably because of the presence of

American Can Company, and moreover, how thanks to the two World Wars they used this

item to gain more influence in the region by being able to support the allies and de-

regionalizing this food.

In the second part the notion of McDonaldization is being discussed as another form of

Americanization. First off, before getting to McDonald’s itself, we focus on the long history

of the classic American hamburger and how it came about becoming a consumer good. Then,

the McDonald’s itself gets the attention, how it evolved from being very small to the biggest

food chain in the world right now. After presenting the corporation, we defined its meaning

and principles that constitute the event know as McDonaldization of the society. In this

section, George Ritzer’s principles of efficiency, calculability, and predictability are

presented.

Finally in the last paragraphs we contemplate about an argument against

McDonaldization, which says that the concepts that this notion presents are tweaked

according to different countries and no longer represent the same value as they had originally.

Therefore McDonaldization does not really take place.

An introduction of this section incorporates the idea that the end of the First World War

saw a change in the American thought process when it came to filmmaking. A contrast of this

is the made considering that the European market fell behind in the so-called ‘quality race’

and how this led to the rise of American dominance in the film market. Quoting Historian

Niall Ferguson, who referred to the United States as a “new Rome”, makes a contribution to

his argument. The problem formulation of this section is then presented. To what extent can it

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be argued that the idea of Americanization and the distribution of American cinema have

affected European cultures in the twentieth through to the twenty-first century?

Synchronized sound dialogue in movies is argued to be one of the factors changing the

film industry. Furthermore, the First World War saw the rise in newsreel and propaganda as

forms of influential film in Europe. Hollywood’s solution to try to solve the problem of films

in English, which would not be accepted by non-English speaking countries, is explained.

The importance of the post-war period from 1945 to 1960 is presented with the fact that

with the Second World War ending, Hollywood executives sought to resume the pre-war film

trade between America and Europe. Moreover, in addition to the economic reasoning behind

European protectionist measures in the after-war period, cultural motivation also played a part

in European countries wanting to regulate the import of American audiovisual products.

The section on cultural challenges of Americanization explains how the notion of anti-

Americanism in Europe has only grown over the years as the United States asserted it’s global

dominance, culturally, politically, and economically. However, European countries and

consumers do, nevertheless, play a part in continuing the spread of American goods and

values.

Finally, however much European governments wish to be more independent of

American audiovisual goods in order to inspire hope and success in domestic cinemas,

Hollywood and American television have become such huge parts of common European

culture.

In the last section of the paper, a section on the effect Americanization has had on

language in Europe is presented. The argumentative segment is based on a formulated thesis.

To what extent has Americanization from the twentieth through to the twenty-first century

affected the use of American English in European cultures from a historical and

anthropological approach?

The section is introduced with an overview of Americanization and its definition. A

brief statement from Vinod Sharma about Americanization is quoted. Due to a problem of

distinction between these two concepts, ‘globalization’ and ‘Americanization’ are defined

against each other. Assuming Americanization can be argued to be a natural evolution of

culture, the question of whether American culture should then be the main global culture is

stated.

As the argumentative section begins, the connection between the spread of American

English and the popularity of American television, music and films in the twentieth century is

made clear. From this, the issue of linguistic diversity is discussed.

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To set a base for the next argumentative section, a segment on the historical background

of the rise of American English in Europe is presented.

In order to give a more detailed view on the Americanization of languages in Europe, an

in-depth examination of the Danish language from the twentieth to through the twenty-first

century is made. In this section tests and investigations conducted by Danes such as Maegaard

and Ruu with their highlighting of the importance of distinguishing between British English

and American English.

After demonstrating that American English has influenced Danish language in the

twentieth century, a counter-argument is presented. The concept of ‘Pseudo-Anglicism’ is

defined as being words in languages other than English, which were borrowed from English

but are used in a way native English speakers would not readily recognize or understand

(Webster 62).

Finally a section on the transition of the Americanization of language, specifically

Danish, to the twenty-first century is given. Here it is stated that the spread of American

English is largely of very recent origin.

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Consumer Society

The consumer society that emerged in the twentieth century has spread all across the western

world. It usually comes attached with specific terms, such as Americanization, globalization,

consumerism or McDonaldization. The statistics argue, that: "The average U.S. resident, in a

year, consumes 275 pounds of meat, uses 635 pounds of paper, and uses energy equivalent to

7.8 metric tons of oil. Forty-five years ago, the average American ate 197 pounds of meat,

used 366 pounds of paper, and used energy equivalent to 5.5 metric tons of oil. In the U.S.,

there is about 1 passenger car for every two people." The comparison can be made with the

Europeans, which: "have about 1 passenger car for every 3.1 people." Moreover: "Developing

countries have, on average, about 1 passenger car for every 49 people" (Goodwin, Nelson 1).

So to what extent can it be argued that McDonaldization and the increased consumption of

processed food is in fact Americanization? In the following part, we focus on the notion of

consumption, its meaning in both American and European environments respectively, while

applying the historical and anthropological approach.

Consumption is one of the terms that usually come to our mind when we think of

Americanization.

"Consumption is the process by which goods and services are, at last,

put to final use by people. Consumption is at the end of the line of

economic activities that starts with an evaluation of available

resources and proceeds through production of goods and services and

distribution of goods and services (or the means to acquire them)

among people and groups. At last, the goods and services themselves

come to be used. The effect of this consumption, including depletion

of resources and generation of waste as well as enhancement of

human survival and flourishing, determines the resource base for the

next round of economic activity" (Goodwin 1).

It is attached to an even larger term – capitalism. The modern version of this economic

system originated in the United States and has been established in the majority of European

nations in the twentieth century. "Capitalism has not only become integrally related to the

growth of the United States into a global industrial power, but in doing so has acquired an

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iconic property as the generic expression of American ideas and experience. […] Capitalism

in the United States is an enveloping ideology which has become so synonymous with the

conditions of the New World that any triumph of capitalism is customarily portrayed as an

affirmation of the American way" (Foley).

Historically, the notion on consumption has gone through several changes through its

history. Even though we associate this term with the United States of America, consuming

traces back further than the history on this country itself. "Consumerism has emerged as part

of a historical process that has created mass markets, industrialization, and cultural attitudes

that ensure that rising incomes are used to purchase an ever-growing output" (Goodwin,

Nelson 4). Prior to the event in history known as industrialization, the social hierarchy divided

the people into, generally speaking, two groups, according to consumption. The first one was

the group of lower class people, who could not spend significant money on consumer goods at

that time.

"Before the Industrial Revolution – that is, before the late 18th century

in England, or the middle of the 19th century in the rest of Western

Europe and North America – the vast majority of each country's

population lived in rural areas and worked in agriculture. Their

clothing and household possessions were extremely limited by today's

standards and were typically made by household members or by

artisans from the same village. Fashions, technological change, and

social pressure did not drive people constantly to make new

purchases; rather, individual material goods were used, with repairs if

needed, for decades" (Goodwin 4).

The other group was the higher-class people, who could enjoy higher standards of

consumption and afford luxury products and services. Moreover, they were the ones creating

employment for a small numbers of artisans and merchants. Despite all of this, their economy

was constantly dependent on agriculture since the money they received came from taxes, rents

and other rural payments (Goodwin 5).

When it comes to modern food processing, we are talking about a process that has gone

through a long history. Ever since humans were hunter-gatherers, they were trying to develop

various techniques to preserve their food in order to facilitate their life and to bring

sustainable sources of nutrients. "Humans have been “processing” food ever since we learned

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how to cook, preserve, ferment, freeze, dry or extract. Processed food has powered the

evolution of the species, the expansion of empires, the exploration of space" (Kim 50-55).

This was due to the progressive settlement of people around houses, around which people

grew crops and domesticated animals. All of these attributes are a part of what we call

a civilization, which developed in different ways at different times according to the available

resources, as well as the means of food preservation. Among many of the examples of new

foods, we can cite roasted meat, bread, beer, tortillas, wine, cheese, olive oil, pickles, noodles

etc. (Kim 50-55).

Industrialization, which took place for the first time in the 18th century in England, with

the Industrial revolution, is a synonym of modernity and progress. It changed people’s lives

forever in many different areas.

"The development of a spinning machine by Sir Richard Artwight in

England led to a new economy of manufactured products. The iron

and textile industries, with the development of the steam engine,

played majors roles in an era that saw improved modes of

transportation, communication, and banking, and resulted in an

improved standard of living for many" (Ury 104).

After its debut in the British Isles, it started spreading all across the British Commonwealth,

France and the United States of America as manufactures were being transformed into

factories, which helped to create a bigger number and a greater diversity of products. The

evolution went even further by replacing the human power with machines and robots that

work by themselves. This rapid increase and access to the goods led to an immediate boots in

consumption in the industrialized countries. The process of industrialization is still going on

today in many areas in the world.

Processed foods

In order to establish a link between Americanization and processed food, we should look at

some of the inventions that the U. S. gave to the world that had a significant impact on the

way we eat. An important invention is the one of the tin can, which was technically not

American but French. A French chef Nicolas Appert who studied food preservation came up

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with the idea of storing food in tin cans in order to support Napoleon’s forces that fought at

many places.

"In 1803 his preserved foods (which came to include vegetables, fruit,

meat, dairy and fish) were sent out for sea trials with the French navy.

By 1804, his factory had begun to experiment with meat packed in tin

cans, which he soldered shut and then observed for months for signs

of swelling. Those that didn’t swell were deemed safe for sale and

long-term storage. […] The first metal canisters were made of tin-

plated steel or even cast iron, with heavy lids that had to chiseled open

or stabbed through with soldiers’ bayonets. […] Appert spent many

more years working to improve his method amidst the chaos of post-

Napoleonic France. His factories remained innovative but

unprofitable, and he died a poor man in 1841 and was buried in a

common grave" (Barksdale).

However, what allowed the U. S. to stand out were the improvements on the tin can that

took place in the 19th and twentieth centuries, which led to a rise of many companies on the

market. "Following the global depression of 1873, U.S. exports of canned foods boomed, led

by the Campbell, Heinz and Borden companies" (Barksdale). "In 1904, the Max Ams

Machine Company of New York patented the double-seam process used in most modern food

cans. Today a double-seam machine can safely seal more than 2,000 cans a minute—a long

way indeed from Appert’s pea-packed bottles" (Barksdale). Therefore, alongside the materials

used to make them, the production increased as well, stimulating the consumption level.

American Can Company is really an institution that changed everything in the way we

view processed food nowadays. This giant on the market was incorporated in 1901 and was a

can manufacturing plant until its closure in 1988. The American Can Company had its

headquarters in Manhattan, New York City until 1970, when it moved into a Greenwich,

Connecticut facility. It consisted of a complex of six buildings with associated facilities, such

as adjoining metal buildings, loading docks, and connecting rail lines. Constructed between

1907 and 1929, the American Can Company property is listed on the National Register of

Historic Places. The site is situated on 6.63 acres of land and is bounded by Orleans Avenue,

North Genois, Toulouse, and North Cortez streets. "Throughout the twentieth century,

the American Can Company has been making containers for everything from green beans to

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soda pop and soup." (International Directory of Company Histories) "American Can emerged

as one of the "twin giants" of the can-making industry, the other being Continental Can"

(International Directory of Company Histories).

As the Americans intervened in World War 1 and World War 2, they brought with

themselves the new technology of food preservation – canned food, which helped the British

and the French soldiers to deal with the task of feeding the soldiers. Both wars depended on

the rationing system due to the scarcity of available food. Therefore canned food became a

good option at the time because of its ability to last longer and to be stored practically.

"Starting March 1, 1943, three hundred items were rationed, including canned or bottled or

frozen fruits and vegetables, canned or bottled juices and soups, and dried fruits. Fresh fruits

and vegetables were not rationed, nor were pickles, relishes, or Jell-O" (Sundin). Because the

food was quite rare:

"Home canning was encouraged. A poll in January 1944 found that 75

percent of housewives canned, and those women canned an average of

165 jars per year. This met the family’s needs and preserved ration

points for foods they couldn’t grow. Extra canned fruits and

vegetables were often donated to the needy" (Sundin).

However, Americans were able to produce enough food for themselves and the Allies.

"In addition to meeting civilian needs, US farms also fed the military and the Allies"

(Sundin). With enough food supplies, the United States were probably trying to get more

influence in the region and to make the public to lean more towards them.

"On September 17, 1944 after a good harvest—and in preparation for

the presidential election—all processed foods except canned fruit were

removed from rationing, but were returned to rationing on January 1,

1945 due to the demands of the Battle of the Bulge. After V-J Day on

August 15, 1945, processed foods were no longer rationed" (Sundin).

McDonaldization

Alongside the tin cans, there is another American contribution in the area of processed food

that changed the way we perceive food and that is fast food restaurants, more specifically, the

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food chain McDonald’s. The world’s largest fast food chain has a long and interesting history.

The history of the food called a Hamburger, traces back to the Mongolian Empire, when

Genghis Khan and his army ate raw beef in order to survive long days sitting on their horses.

As their empire spread, they brought this dish to Europe with the Invasion of Moscow in the

13th century, the dish transformed into what is now known as a tartar steak. "In the late

eighteenth century, the largest ports in Europe were in Germany. Sailors who had visited the

ports of Hamburg, Germany and New York, brought this food and term "Hamburg Steak" into

popular usage" (Stradley). However, it is not so simple to determine, who invented the first

real hamburger with a bun. There are many different stories that ma answer this question,

such as the one by Charlie Nagreen of Seymour, Wisconsin who "at the age of 15, sold

hamburgers from his ox-drawn food stand at the Outagamie County Fair" or by the family of

Frank and Charles Menches from Arkon, Ohio who "claim the brothers invented the

hamburger while traveling in a 100-man traveling concession circuit at events (fairs, race

meetings, and farmers' picnics) in the Midwest in the early 1880s" (Stradley).

Nevertheless, the food chain of McDonald’s started out in 1940. "The business began in

1940, with a restaurant opened by brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald in San

Bernardino, California. Their introduction of the "Speedee Service System" in 1948

established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant" (Love).

"The original McDonald’s at the corner of 14th and E Streets, just a

few blocks from historic Route 66, bore little resemblance to today’s

ubiquitous “golden arches,” beginning with the menu. Hard as it may

be to believe, the future fast-food giant started out by serving up

barbecue slow-cooked for hours in a pit stocked with hickory chips

imported from Arkansas. The feature item at McDonald’s Famous

Bar-B-Q was a barbecued beef, ham or pork sandwich with French

fries for 35 cents. The eclectic 25-item menu included everything

from tamales and chili to peanut butter and jelly sandwiches to ham

and beaked beans. The 25-cent “aristocratic hamburger” sounded like

an offering better suited for Burger King" (Klein).

"The present McDonald's corporation dates its founding to the opening of a franchised

restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois, on April 15, 1955. Kroc later purchased the

McDonald brothers' equity in the company and led its worldwide expansion" (Kroc). The first

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ever case of this is in 1960 with the opening of a McDonald’s restaurant in Canada and Puerto

Rico. Nowadays, the McDonald’s Corporation on the global level, had over 32 thousand

restaurants in 117 countries, which in total employs over 1.7 million people and serves over

69 million people on a daily basis (www.mcdonalds.com.my).

The spread of McDonald’s restaurants and their principles is a process sometimes

referred to as McDonaldization. "Today it is not uncommon to see Coca-Cola franchises in

Cairo or New Delhi and interpret them to be evidence of an emerging global culture, or

globalization, a process some have even referred to as McDonaldization" (Anderson,

Peterson, Toops, Hey 68). According to Michelle H. Smirnova & George Ritzer in their book

Encyclopedia of Global Region, McDonaldization is:

"the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant and

popular consumer culture in general are coming to dominate more and

more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world,

extending even to the realm of religion."

This claim may be due to the fact, that the principles that McDonaldization applies stretch far

beyond the food chain restaurant environment, but are applicable in other areas of life. The

first one is Efficiency, which by definition is:

"the optimal way of achieving a solution to the problem at hand. With

the fast-food industry, efficiency is achieved by providing the most

direct way to make the transition from hunger to satiety. This quest for

efficiency is similarly demonstrated in other realms of society (hence

the McDonaldization of society)—online dating offers an efficient,

goal-directed means for meeting “the right one;” televised evangelical

sermons afford viewers a daily religious experience without their

having to leave the comfort of their own homes; standardized tests

enable universities to efficiently evaluate applicants by reducing them

to a series of numbers; and so on" (Smirnova, Ritzer).

Another principle is the Calculability, which means that "all value has been

standardized and can be quantified and reduced to variables such as size and price; as a

consequence, more of that standardized unit must be better" (Smirnova, Ritzer). The third

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significant aspect is predictability, which translates into the response for the consumers

demand to get the same product at any McDonald’s restaurant in the world at any time they

desire.

"In a globalized culture in which the number of choices continues to

grow exponentially, people come to need, expect, and demand such

predictability. The expectation that much the same product or service

will be delivered each time one visits any McDonald's at any time or

at any location has been extended to many different con-texts—from

clothing stores to religious sects. People develop a relationship with

the brand, product, or political party and thus come to expect

consistent experiences when dealing with them" (Smirnova, Ritzer).

With the widespread presence of McDonald’s restaurants around the world, there is no doubt

that these principles are carried along as well.

However, one of the opposing arguments to Americanization and McDonaldization can be

that the new aspects of culture or ideas do not simply enter a culture but they adapt and

change their form according to the context they find themselves into. In other words, it may

be true that Americanization has introduced its cultural aspects for the Europeans, however,

they did not wipe out completely the former ways of living, instead they were rather

transformed and tweaked to fit the country where they are. "It is important to recognize that

culture does not cease to be culture because it borrows and adapts. When the Plain Indians

adopted the horse and the rifle from Spanish conquerors, traders, and settlers, they completely

transformed their society. They did not, however, become Spaniards" (Anderson 68). This

example perfectly describes the reconstruction of a cultural idea according to the context.

McDonald’s fast food chain is a large term by itself, because even though people are

expected to get the classic meals from this restaurant, it really depends on where around the

globe you find yourself. Some of the examples may be the different climate and soil, which

directly affect the taste and the texture of the burgers. Moreover, alongside hamburgers and

French fries, the restaurant itself adapts to the cuisine of the country they reside in. "The

biggest seller in France after the Big Mac is a mustard-topped burger called Le Royal Deluxe.

Some Asian locations serve fried shrimp in a Big Mac roll, while McDonald's in India don't

serve beef at all, relying instead on burgers made from veggies, rice and beans. Brazilian

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McDonald's offer baked banana pies for dessert" (Randy). McDonald’s in France,

Netherlands, Germany and Austria serve beer, while the Greek version of McDonald’s serves

Meat with Tzatziki on a pita bread. This may be due to the fact that even though McDonald’s

presents itself as an American restaurant, it wants to show that it is not so distant from the

country where they are situated after all, and therefore attract more customers by making them

feel somewhat "safe".

This phenomenon raises the question, whether or not could this be considered

Americanization, since McDonald’s is no longer what it used to be by its composition and the

choice of meals, even though the company originated in the United States of America and its

headquarters is still located out there.

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American Cinema and Culture

With the invention of sound in movies in 1927, the American film industry grew in size and

cost whereas the European cinema lacked proper financing. The end of the First World War

saw a change in the American thought process when it came to filmmaking - the film studios

had started investing more in expensive feature films, which included scripts, directors and

actors, effectively perfecting the studio production system (Merziger 795; Feigenbaum 109).

In contrast, the European market fell behind in the so-called ‘quality race’, in parts because of

the disruption of cross-border exchange, efficiently making the gap with American studios too

wide to be closed (Merziger 795). This became a crucial part in the American dominance of

the film market, and the connection between Hollywood and Americanization has since the

interwar period been regarded as a fact of modern life (Glancy 16).

Often, the American dominance in audio-visual productions has been partially credited

with the spread of American thought and culture. Historian Niall Ferguson even referred to

the United States as a “new Rome”, in that the country, “with the classical architecture of its

capital and the republican structure of its constitution” has a great capacity for spreading its

own language and culture across the globe (qtd. in Bolton 148). In more recent years, English

scholars have looked especially at the part the distribution of American mass media have

played in spreading the American English language and American values and ideas to other

parts of the world (Bolton 125). However, many European countries have viewed and

continue to view this Americanization of their culture and language as a threat to their own

national cultures (Feigenbaum 109). As such, to what extent can it be argued that the idea of

Americanization and the distribution of American cinema have affected European cultures in

the twentieth through to the twenty-first century? This question will be answered by applying

the historical and anthropological approach to relevant sources.

American and European Cinemas

The introduction of synchronized sound dialogue in movies vastly changed the film industry.

This revolution in cinema, which would change the entire film industry, started in America

with the 1927 New York premiere of Warner Bros.’ The Jazz Singer, and then slowly spread

to the rest of the world (Nowell-Smith 207). However, where American cinema had focused

on developing and perfecting the art of feature film, European countries, during the First

World War, had found other forms of film more significant, like newsreel and propaganda

(Merziger 795). The invention of sound movies created a split in the international film

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market, as a selection of non-English speaking countries sought to ban these movies for not

being in the mother tongue and would rather produce sound movies themselves, bringing with

it the disintegration of the international film market, previously dominated by the United

States for almost a decade, into many smaller, national markets (Nowell-Smith 213). This

decision, taken particularly in Europe, came to be a major setback in growth in American

cinema. It wasn’t until 1931 that a solution to this problem came, with invention of instead

dubbing sound movies. For major language regions, the movies would be dubbed into the

mother tongue, while subtitling became the solution for smaller language regions, effectively

giving Hollywood the necessary means to try and recover from the setback (Nowell-Smith

215). Hollywood and the American film industry would, however, still suffer under European

import quotas and the Great Depression, whereas European filmmakers had lost their illusions

about dominating the market.

In the post-war period from 1945 to 1960, American cinema sought to reestablish its

roots in Europe to gain back what was lost in the 1930s. With the Second World War ending,

Hollywood executives sought to resume the pre-war film trade between America and Europe.

In their attempt to regain free access to European market, American representatives spoke

against the need to rebuild the Italian film industry at a meeting in 1944, with which the

British disagreed, stating that it was rather an attempt at Hollywood hegemony than a move to

restore democracy in the former Fascist country (Nowell-Smith 436). However, even though

the European governments were anxious to limit imports and protect the balance of payments,

the European consumers, and thereby the European exhibitors, wanted Hollywood films back

on the screens (Nowell-Smith 436). Soon enough, European countries caved, as they needed

American aid more than they needed the marginal improvement to the balance of payments,

securing only modest concessions to protect the rebirth of their industries (Nowell-Smith

436). The economic motivation led way for additional critique of Hollywood dominance on

the film market.

In addition to the economic reasoning behind European protectionist measures in the

after-war period, cultural motivation also played a part in European countries wanting to

regulate the import of American audiovisual products. It meant the rise of thinly disguised

anti-Americanism, most prominent in countries such as France and Italy, accentuated by the

presence of “the United States as (benevolent) power” in Europe (Nowell-Smith 443;

Feigenbaum 108-109). The European countries viewed the Hollywood films as the spearhead

of a generalized Americanization of culture, as though the films colonized the subconscious

of the Europeans, and more positively, that cinema was an expression of national identity,

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which lead to critique of lack of diversity in Hollywood films (Nowell-Smith 443-444).

Already in the 1950s did America’s cultural challenges in Europe set its first roots.

In 1975, Hollywood entered yet a new age of cinema with the viewing of Steven

Spielberg’s Jaws, followed two years later by George Lucas’ Star Wars, spectacularly

confirming that a single film could earn its studio a profit of millions, and turn a poor year

into a triumph (Nowell-Smith 475). From then on, Hollywood focused increasingly on high-

cost, and as a result leaving studio managers to look for regular, predictable cash flows in the

form of television series productions and, from the mid 1980s, videocassettes (Nowell-Smith

475). With this revolution came the rise of the made-for-TV movies, the introduction of cable

film channels, and particularly the home video revolution. The idea of watching movies at

home, renting the videocassette at a store, was very popular with the American people, and by

the 1990s, the VCR brought $10 billion in rentals and sales in the United States alone

(Nowell-Smith 475-476). Also in Europe did this fresh round of Hollywood films receive a

positive reception, with films like Fatal Attraction, Rain Man, and Cocktail grossing more

money overseas than in American theatres (Nowell-Smith 482).

Through cinema history, the United States has been the major player in film industry,

with perfecting the studio system, inventing sound movies, and mass-producing feature films.

Moreover, Hollywood films have faced its challenges in trying to root itself and become a

constant in European countries. However, the European cinema has struggled in creating

quality-wise good content on par with Hollywood’s great successes, leading way instead for a

sense of anti-Americanism, especially in Central and Southern European countries. So while

the Hollywood studio system had great national success, the reaction of European countries

started out with protectionist policies and further evolved to thinly disguised anti-

Americanism, which became somewhat forgotten as Hollywood revolutionized its film

production and had yet again great success overseas.

Cultural Challenges of Americanization

The notion of anti-Americanism in Europe has only grown over the years as the United States

asserted it’s global dominance, culturally, politically, and economically. It took root with the

manifestation of the term “cultural imperialism”, which had been occasionally used

beforehand, but the critique was first formulated as a coherent argument in the 1960s (Elteren

346). Later, the concept was defined as “the use of political and economic power to exalt and

spread the values of a foreign culture at the expense of a native culture” in the Harper

18

Dictionary of Modern Thought (qtd. in Elteren 346). As Elteren states (346), the process of

Americanization is much more complicated and much less unilateral than the notion of

cultural imperialism assumed it to be, making the argument of cultural imperialism less

believable to alone define the process of Americanization. In addition to Elteren’s statement,

Feigenbaum argues that people do not simply “absorb the claims and ideas of the media

wholly and uncritically, and then behave as the media’s message intends” (111).

Some feel that fear of becoming “Americanized” and the rise of anti-Americanism in

European countries is justified in manifesting. The diversity across the globe means that ideas

create opportunities across countries to have insight in other people’s cultures. In fact,

Feigenbaum argues, “just as education is enriched by including people from diverse

backgrounds, the vibrancy of an economy or a society is enhanced by the injection of new

ideas” (113). Therefore, because of the need to protect national ideas and culture, European

governments fear that the dominance of American popular culture puts the vibrancy of all

societies at risk, as the spread of American audiovisual products may be leading to greater

homogeneity across the globe (Feigenbaum 111, 114). The risk of cultural homogeneity

would alter the conditions of entrepreneurship and innovation, as people rethink their own

ideas when exposed to foreign cultures (Feigenbaum 111). Consequently, cultural

homogeneity would not only affect the countries being Americanized, but would ultimately

also have a negative effect on the United States.

However, while trying to maintain cultural diversity, it can be argued that

Americanization is not a complete takeover and erasure of non-American cultures. Rather, the

Americanization of culture is gradual and subtle, merging the already existing culture in a

country with American culture, as the American values are mediated and modified through

the lens of the receiving society (Feigenbaum 111, 114; Elteren 346-347). Moreover, it can be

reasonably assumed that the cultural references become less familiar and more open to local

interpretation as the distance between the consumers and the producers of movies and

television shows increases (Feigenbaum 112). For this reason, because of the political

similarities between America and Europe, it can be further argued that European countries are

more likely to correctly translate the American popular culture and be familiar with American

values and symbols, and thereby American culture is more prone to merging with their own

national culture.

European countries and consumers do, nevertheless, play a part in continuing the spread

of American goods and values. In the twenty-first century transnational consumer society,

consumers play a role in regulating supply and demand. According to Elteren (347-348), at

19

any given moment, consumers are given a wide selection of goods, and it is the European

people themselves, however fearful of Americanization they are, who choose the options

stemming from America. For example, in the year of 2006, on the world box-office Top 20

list, there were fourteen American movies on the list, while the remaining six were American

co-productions (Halliwell and Morley 220). More specifically, when talking on a global scale,

the American cinema clearly dominates the film market, indicating no prominent change in

discourse despite European anti-Americanism. As referred to earlier, the continued spread and

consummation of American films and television shows have also helped spread the notion of

American values and most basic culture. Another instance of how American film industry

continue to affect European audiences, is the way people become more familiar with

American folkways than with their own, resulting in, among other things, accused in French

courts addressing the judge as ‘Vôtre Honneur,” rather than the proper address, “Monsieur le

Juge”, or German law students asking professors on how to approach a jury, not knowing that

Germany has no juries (Feigenbaum 112). These examples show to the extent that American

television shows and movies playing on screens in Europe provide many of the symbols of

everyday, American speech and affecting, especially, the youth.

On the other hand, the United States do also find themselves inspired by other cultures.

The United States is, to begin with, a collection of many different cultures co-existing and

merging together spread over 319 million people. The fact that the country draws inspiration

from other cultures to mesh together with its own is visible in the case of Starbucks -- a

company with the name of the first mate of Pequod in Herman Melville’s American novel,

Moby Dick, but inside, costumers are presented with aspects of Italian coffee culture

(Feigenbaum 128). Additionally, American television has love for borrowing British shows

and re-making them, while the American cinema uses French films as inspiration for

Hollywood blockbusters (Feigenbaum 128).

While Americanization can on some levels be harmful in regards to creating cultural

homogeneity, the sharing of cultures is by no means a one-way street. Cultures impact other

cultures all across the globe, and this cultural diversity has indeed become a good source of

new ideas, many of which can be lucrative or otherwise beneficial in furthering one culture.

Still, the clear American dominance on the film market is a prominent way of insuring the

continued spread of an American set of values, with both the positive and the negative results

that follow this.

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The effect the transnational spread of American values and ideas has had and continue

to have in the day-to-day lives of Europeans is evident. From the heightened protectionist

politics of the 1930s, and the rise of anti-Americanism in the 1950s, and twenty-first century

fear of cultural homogeneity, American dominance on the film market have continuously had

an effect on European policies and societies. However much European governments wish to

be more independent of American audiovisual goods in order to inspire hope and success in

domestic cinemas, Hollywood and American television have become such huge parts of

common European culture. The Americanization of European cultures has become evident

also in how the languages have changed. European consumers of American films and

television are prone to adopting phrases, words, and symbols often expressed in those

products, as in the case of both the German law students and the accused in French

courtrooms.

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Language and Americanization

As the world becomes more globalized the need for an international, common form of

communication is enhanced. According to long-time English teacher Patricia Ryan, this can

be directly related to the concept of Americanization (Don't Insist on English!, online video).

At the turn of the twentieth century, millions of immigrants moved into the United States. At

this they encountered the challenge of integrating into the already set traditions of the country.

The Americanization Movement was then born, and sought “to change the unskilled

inefficient immigrant into the skilled worker and efficient citizen” (Luce 32) and to show

them “the spirit of America, the knowledge of America, and the love of America.” (Luce 32).

However, it is argued that this concept with time became incredibly popular, essentially

causing its migration, and expansion to other areas of the world like Europe. Furthermore, its

core purpose was misinterpreted by some (Herzstein 13). This is believed to have been the

beginning of the spread of ‘Americanization’ in the world.

Diana Ayton-Shenker, senior of Philanthropy and International Affairs at Bard College,

by quoting Vinod Sharma, describes the result of ‘Americanization’ as “an increasingly

global, multicultural world brimming with tension, confusion and conflict in the process of its

adjustment to pluralism.” (Sharma 213). She adds that “there is an understandable urge to

return to old conventions, traditional cultures, fundamental values, and the familiar,

seemingly secure, sense of one’s identity. Without a secure sense of identity amidst the

turmoil of transition, people may resort to isolationism, ethnocentrism and intolerance.”

(Sharma 214).

Globalization affects almost every human being because the process of globalization is

said to have expanded almost throughout the entire world either through culture, commerce,

or communication. Contrary to popular belief, Americanization is often confused with the

former concept. They do, however, differ on a great scale. Some people define

Americanization more as cultural imperialism, where the process of global unity is based

more on American traditions and ways of life than a general understanding of these, which is

what globalization attempts at promoting.

Considering the fact that culture constantly evolves, and outside influences, such as

Americanization, is a part of that natural change. We should ponder: is American culture a

good influence on other cultures? In a way, some would argue that Americanization is part

globalization with a focus on materialism and individualism.

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It is in recent times stated that the modern mass media, including film, television, and

the Internet have played a great role in “spreading particular languages or varieties of a

language within societies.” (Fromkin and Rodman 251). It has been evident that the fast

spread of American English worldwide in the twentieth century can be argued to be partly due

to the popularity of American television, music and films, in so many countries around the

world. In fact, according to Henry Luce “American jazz, Hollywood movies, American slang,

American machines and patented products, are in fact the only things that every community in

the world, from Zanzibar to Hamburg, recognizes in common.” (Nicholson 63). However,

many have associated specifically the expansion of American English with the issue of

linguistic diversity in the world today, as a majority of all spoken languages around the world

are naturally threatened in their continued existence. Moreover, often it is seen that primary

schools around Europe emphasize the importance of learning English today. Furthermore, the

age at which this language is initially taught becomes increasingly early, as it is believed to be

an essential skill in an internationalized world. With this in mind, to what extent can it be

argued that Americanization has from the twentieth through to the twenty-first century

affected the use of American English in European cultures from a historical and

anthropological approach? An adequate and full anthropological exploration of this issue

must include not only linguistic aspects of the question but also the relevant cultural,

historical, and social dimensions as well.

Historical background

The post cold war era led to the increasing influence of what some people these days call

quasi-governments, which may be referred to as the International Monetary Fund and the

World Bank (Appadurai 45). Therefore, these companies took on the role of the world's

economic ‘police' telling particularly poorer nations how to spend their money (Appadurai

47). In order to receive further support, these institutions demanded that countries “open up

their economies to liberalization under Structural Adjustment Programmes that encouraged

governments to fund privatization programmes, ahead of welfare and public services”

(Appadurai 48). Not only that, but the influence of multinational organizations like the United

Nations Organization were also greatly structuring global issues. This was the beginning of a

new era.

However, in the then new millennium, things took a different path. Suddenly countries

were being introduced to the rhetoric titled globalization. “Globalization is an umbrella term

23

for a complex series of economic, social, technological, and political changes seen as

increasing interdependence and interaction between people and companies in disparate

locations (Appadurai 50). Within the field of political economy, it refers to “the increasing

integration of economies around the world, particularly through trade and financial flows”

(Appadurai 50). The term sometimes also refers to the movement of people and knowledge in

the form of labor and technology across international borders. However, there are also broader

cultural, political and environmental dimensions of globalization.

U.S.A, which has had the world's biggest economy and strongest known army since the

end of the Cold War, has taken important steps in persuading the rest of the world to think

and act like them. For example, the transmission of American culture has happened through

different art forms, but the number one medium has, in recent times, clearly been the

electronic media. Television in particular has done a lot in Americanizing those who view

images especially from Hollywood. In fact, the development of the Internet and its evident

control around the world can partially be said to have been demonstrated by the heavy

influence of the United States.

However, according to Peter Trudgill “The electronic media are not very instrumental in

the diffusion of linguistic innovations, in spite of widespread popular notions to the contrary.

The point about the TV set is that people, however, much they watch and listen to it, do not

talk to it. [...] Face-to-face interaction is necessary before diffusion takes place, precisely

because it is only during face-to-face interaction that accommodation occurs.” (Trudgill 40).

Still, considering the daily exposure to the U.S. variety of English in so many homes around

the world, it would seem apparent that the media have played and continue to play a major

role in the spread of the spoken and written forms of the American English. This in turn

provides evidence of the powerful influence of media in fermenting language change, as a

linguistic process.

While it may be true, that in previous generations, due to the difference in times, the

role of media played only a secondary role in language change, the impact of electronic media

on language in the twenty-first century should not be dismissed.

Americanization of Danish

Europe has been almost dramatically influenced by Americanization in the last few centuries

and it is a well-established fact that the impact of English on the Danish language has grown

dramatically since 1945. Linguists agree that this stems primarily from American English

24

rather than British English. However, no systematic attempts have been made to document

this in any detail. This section will therefore be structured according to the following thesis: There is a connection between The United States’ growing influence in the period 1945-1975 and the

development of the Danish language. Moreover, as the American phenomenon, things, and thoughts

after world war two slowly merge into Danish culture, the amount of new words and syntactic

structures from American English registered in Danish after 1945 increases.

According to Danish linguists who have studied the English influence on the

development on the Danish language, the process is an impossible endeavor as the roads that

language travels through are far too complex to map and analyze. However, it is important to

notice that there are two main forms of English, American and British. The former being the

one investigated in this paper. Therefore, before addressing this issue, a brief distinction

between these forms will be made.

The extent of the English influence on Danish has been examined by Maegaard and Ruu

in their “Hyppige Ord I Danske Aviser, Ugeblade og Fagblade” from 1981-86. In their

analysis they in fact highlight the important of distinguishing between British English and

American English. According to them, words such as job and jobs are considered different

depending on which type of English is referred to (Maegaard and Ruus, par. 1). Furthermore,

Henning Bergenholtz talks about a similar investigation in his book “Frekvensordbog baseret

på danske romaner, ugeblade og aviser 1987-88” from 1989. His aim is to show the most

frequent words in Danish. This means that every word in the texts he analyzes is counted, and

thus, the analysis also includes English words without focusing on these as ‘replacement

words’ (Bergenholtz). Sometimes though, it is a problem that the significance of the words

that are counted is not considered in detail. For example, it occurs with the words the and The,

with 201 observations but of these, 30 copies of the word refer to the drink the, while the

remaining 171 refers to English definite article The (Bergenholtz).

Furthermore, Bergenholtz’ study only analyzes words in the printed media, which is

published within a limited timeframe. This of course happened in the interests of the large

counting work that a frequency analysis requires, but at the same time it means that the results

of the study can only say something about the frequency of the Danish words, and thereby

also English replacement words, in certain types of texts and only for a period that cannot be

generalized about the frequency of words in Danish up until today. However, with a particular

aim at examining English replacement words in Danish, Pia Jarvad made a smaller sample

with a selection of Bergenholtz’ data. Here she counted the English replacement worlds and

concluded that “a text, where 80% of the most frequent words are represented, there are 0.6%

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direct English replacement words." (Jarvad, “Nye ord. Hvorfor og hvordan?”). However,

unlike Maegaard and Ruu, Jarvad does not distinguish between British and American words

in her analysis.

According to Danish journalist Lars Brink, despite its apparent English influence, the

Danish language is in no risk of extinction, even in the long-term. In fact, it is striking that

through time you see the same English ‘replacement words’ transitioning from one generation

to the next. Furthermore, from the 1000 most frequent words in the Danish language, which

on average corresponds to 75% of a text, it is only around 10 of these which can be said to

come from English; weekend, cykel, radio, job, okay, droppe, in, out (Brink 4). Finally, in

relation to British English in comparison to American English, Brinks concludes that the

Danish language is influenced mostly by American English (Brink 5).

Further investigations have likewise been conducted by Knud Sørensen in his book

”Engelske lån i dansk” from 1973. This data is supplemented with Sørensen’s own examples

from newspapers and other texts. The period, which Sørensen’s data comes from, is the

twentieth century, primarily from after world war two where the influence has been more

noticeable. The aim of his investigation is to state a contrasting description of English and

Danish focusing on the English ‘replacement words’ and these words’ future in the Danish

language. To emphasize his findings, Sørensen attempts to describe the areas where English

apparently influences Danish. He mentions areas such as ‘politics and economics’, ‘modern

warfare’, ‘commerce and advertising’, and ‘film, music, literature’. From his findings,

Sørensen concludes that the Americanization of the Danish language can be traced back to the

era of industrialization and the whole development this has had in the aftermath (Sørensen, nr.

8).

A contradiction to the theories and findings stated by the formerly named people is the

fact that there are different types of ‘replacement words’. One of the more relevant ones in

this paper is ‘Pseudo-anglicism’. This term defines words in languages other than English,

which were borrowed from English but are used in a way native English speakers would not

readily recognize or understand (Webster 62). In this case, there are some words, which do in

fact come from English, or are essentially English words, but when used in Danish they do

not have the same meaning. An example of this is military from the sport Equestrianism.

Military is an English word, but when it is used in Danish in that context, it does not have the

same meaning as it would in English. In English speaking countries, within Equestrianism

another word is used for that meaning; cross-country riding.

26

Another important thing to notice about the subject of the Americanization of Danish is

the fact that, even though it is not known by many, a great amount of new words in Danish in

the period 1945-75 were created from Danish. Actually, it is only around 1164 of the 5000

new words registered by Jarvad, which are prevenient from, or English (Jarvad, “Nye ord i

dansk”). The majority of the new words, around 74%, are in fact created from Danish.

However, when looking particularly at different language’s influence on Danish throughout

the twentieth century, American English has by far contributed to the creation of new Danish

words.

It has in the above investigation been evaluated to what extent a cultural influence in the

period 1945-75 can be traced in the language development of Danish, understood as an

extension of Danish vocabulary through the integration to it of English words. It is a fact from

the observations made that in the period after world war two a lot of English words have been

included in the Danish language, however, it is yet to be established whether this influence is

prevenient from American English, or British English. However, generally, when considering

the different investigator’s findings, it can be stated that American English and culture has

had the most influence on Denmark and Danish in the twentieth century. Therefore, the

concept of Americanization can be fairly justified in Denmark.

Has it transitioned to the twenty-first century/conclusion?

The spread of American English is largely of very recent origin. Despite the debates on the

influence of U.S. English throughout the twentieth century, it was not until the latter part of

the twentieth century that American English gained in prestige in regions such as Europe, and

in many societies in Asia.

Looking at the Danish case of Americanization and Anti-Americanism in Europe, 1945

can definitely be considered a prominent dividing line. While the United States had not been

very vocal in political discussions and debates in the interwar years, American culture and

life-style was still highly reflected in Hollywood movies, novels, comics, and popular music

which was at the time enthusiastically embraced by many Danes, especially the young

generations in the same period (Pells 94). Furthermore, due to this, American words started

entering the Danish vocabulary. As early as in 1906, Danish readers were introduced to the

‘hot dog’ in a short story by Johannes V. Jensen, who was one of the few Danish pro-

American intellectuals (van Elteren 103). It was followed by words like “jazz”, “drink”,

“cocktail”, “hot” and “swing” from the late 1910s. In 1934, “OK” was explained in the

27

‘Arbejderens Opslags- og Fremmedordbog’ (The Working Man’s Dictionary) published by

two Social-Democratic intellectuals (Robertson 257). Other American facts were given

somewhat proper Danish names, such as chewing gum ‘tyggegummi’, which was first used in

1922. Or, the American Western movies that became known as ‘cowboyfilm’ from 1925.

However, beyond these changes, adaptions and implementations, it is still questionable

whether or not the twenty-first century can be argued to continue being, in essence, an

American Century.

In the past decade, Criticism of the Vietnam War grew rapidly and was the main form

of contradiction towards the American lifestyle from around 1968 (Herzstein 25). When

Danes celebrated the 25th anniversary of the liberation from German occupation, news

commentators and information sources paralleled the situation of Europe under Nazism with

the present dilemma of the Vietnamese people. In other words, there was an apparent call for

the rise of anti-Americanism around Europe, and Denmark was one of the supporting

countries. However, in 2014 Denmark's public schools experienced a reform. Part of this

reform stated that children should begin learning English in 1st grade instead of in later years

as it had always been. This was, according to local newspapers, because children need this

tool in order to be able to succeed in a global world (Undervisningsministeriet). Therefore, it

can be argued that Denmark is still influenced on a great scale by the globalized, American-

based era.

On another note, many argue against the assumption that the twenty-first century is

another American Century. In fact, in Europe, several uprisings against this concept were

witnessed throughout the century, essentially leading to a movement of anti-Americanism

(Cumings 271). However, this does not necessarily mean that America’s previous influence

on Europe has not been passed on to the twenty-first century, because it has most certainly,

especially with the age of information and the rise of social media.

The words that surround us every day influence the words we use. Since so much of the

written language we see is now on the screens of computers, tablets, and smartphones,

language now evolves partly through our interaction with technology. Again, people all over

Europe use American English terms on a daily-basis, but now also in written form. Examples

of this are LOL (‘laughing out loud’), Selfie, Throwback, OMG (‘oh my god’) and even the

names of social media are essentially English words like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube.

Seen from a linguistic perspective, it can be justified that the twenty-first century has

seen a rise in American English influence on languages around Europe due to technological

and communicational developments.

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29

Rise of Nationalism

As the word assumes, Americanization affects people and states all around the world, as it has

been debated to be directly linked to globalization. It characterizes a world that becomes more

and more interdependent, not only economically, but also politically and culturally as well.

From this it is important to examine the extent to which Americanization fosters and erodes

the political ideology of nationalism. Nationalism is in general terms defined as

“consciousness manifested by members of a group that they belong to a particular nation.”

(Heywood 153) It is therefore correct to state that a common heritage and culture in many

cases creates a national identity and the feeling of a community.

The rise of International Organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO)

and the European Union (EU) took away some amount of decision-making from nation-states.

This has generated negativity upon these organizations as the idea of national identities seem

to be blurred in this exact context. Naturally, the fear of a ‘United States of Europe’ similar to

the US rises. Furthermore, with the introduction of the Euro as new currency for Europe in

1999 and integrative number plates for cars within the EU, nationalist thinking is being

actively eroded by promoting a homogenous Europe.

On another side a global market can also be argued to contribute to the dismissal of

nationalist thinking in a different way. Products from other countries can be purchased and

contribute to a change in national cultures. Cooking with fruits and vegetables imported from

nations at the other end of the world or playing games on electrical entertainment devices

from Japan change a nation’s culture in the long term. However, at the extent of considering

the facts mentioned above, it can be argued that these, based on Americanization, in fact also

lead to the rise of a sense of nationalism. Tomlinson sees the fear of losing cultures as the

main concern of protestors against globalization (Natrajan 226).

The notion of a newly emerging universal culture more or less implies the potential

loss of national culture. In today’s world, the search for identity seems to be one of the greater

tasks for people. This enhances nationalist thinking, as psychologically speaking, humans

tend to turn towards things they know and understand. In relation to the Americanization of

Europe this suggests that as cultures are exposed to the idea of a universal unity, the sense of

traditional, common understandings is highlighted. In other words, contrary to a universal

culture, national cultures have a common and coherent heritage. In general, people who speak

the same language and have identical values find a common ground for relations of any kind.

30

Finally, it could seem apparent that national participation in international

organizations, the loss of parts of a state’s sovereignty over its own territory, and thereby the

international unity of different cultures may force the dismissal of nationalist ideology.

However, these same factors seem to have sparked the rise of modern nationalism in the

twenty-first century. This can, and will be considered in relation to different aspects of culture

such as language, audio-visual products and consumption.

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Conclusion

The purpose of this paper was to answer the following problem formulation: To what extent

can it be argued that aspects of ‘Americanization’ such as consumerism, audio-visual

products, and language have affected European cultures from the twentieth through to the

twenty-first century? In order to do this, the investigation was separated into three main

sections being consumerism, language, and audio-visual products. Each section aimed at

giving a more in-depth, and detailed examination of the problem formulation, essentially

providing three argumentative perspectives.

The section on consumerism was structured chronologically, by providing an

introduction to the theme along with a definition of the terms investigated, and finally a sub-

problem formulation was stated presenting the main aim of the section. “To what extent can it

be argued that McDonaldization and the increased consumption of processed food is in fact

Americanization?”

In order to make the connection between Americanization and the expansion of

processed food, the history of food preservation up until the Industrial Revolution was

explained as being a near necessity, which in turn divided society in two consumption specific

groups. As the evolution of tin cans was explained based on the aid from the United States of

America, it was argued that in that sense Americanization and consumerism could be directly

linked.

McDonaldization was defined as being another form of Americanization. This argument

was supported by the fact that McDonald’s is one of the biggest fast-food chain restaurants in

the world today. However, it was established that the concept of McDonaldization could not

be generalized to all countries and therefore to an extent loses its argumentative significance.

The section on audio-visual products was structured like the one on consumerism,

focusing mainly on chronology in order to answer the sub-problem formulation stated. “To

what extent can it be argued that the idea of Americanization and the distribution of American

cinema have affected European cultures in the twentieth through to the twenty-first century?”

It is established through a historical approach that the United States of America gained

influence within the film industry, as the world grew more aware of these technological

advances. Even though they lost popularity with the problem of language differences and

diversity in the 1920s, where non-English speaking countries sought to ban films, which were

not displayed in their mother tongue, Hollywood was fast to find a solution to this problem

with the implementation of dubbed versions of American films in 1931. Even through the

32

Great Depression and the problem of European import quotas, America was able to re-

establish its dominance on the film market.

European countries wanted to regulate the import of American audiovisual products,

and this argued for the rise of anti-Americanism movements as the European countries

viewed the Hollywood films as the spearhead of a generalized Americanization of culture.

Finally, the close implementation of Americanization in family homes in 1975 came with the

rise of the made-for-TV movies.

The last section on Americanization and language aimed at arguing both sides of the

following sub-problem formulation. To what extent has Americanization from the twentieth

through to the twenty-first century affected the use of American English in European cultures

from a historical and anthropological approach?

A historical overview of the evolution of language alongside culture, and its connection

with Americanization and introduction of a globalized world was made. After looking at the

spread of American English from an early twentieth century television, music and films point,

it is clear to see that European cultures were heavily influenced.

Denmark was the main country used as subject for this investigation. With evidence

extracted from previous investigations carried out by Danish linguists, it was possible to see a

direct correlation between American English and the natural evolution of the Danish

language. This was even possible after noticing the distinction between American English and

British English. However, according to Lars Brink, Danish is in no risk of being influenced by

English to the extent of losing its linguistic base. In that sense, the idea of the

Americanization of Danish is counter-argued.

Finally, even through the rise of anti-Americanism in Europe, Denmark implemented

the beginning of earlier lessons of English (in most cases American English) in Danish public

schools in the twenty-first century, as it is argued to have become a global tool for success.

After having given a brief overview of what themes were covered throughout the paper

in relation to Americanization and consumerism, audio-visual products and language, and

which arguments and counter-arguments were used, along with the established factual

information and argumentative evidence, a conclusion can be formulated.

Consumerism saw the rise of America through the clever usage, and revolution of tin

cans, along with the spread of McDonaldization around the world. This proves to have

contributed to the expansion and migration of American ideas, and ways-of-life around the

globe, especially in Europe. Even though McDonaldization cannot be generalized to all

countries, the impact it has had on Europe up until today has been argued to be sufficient

33

evidence in favor of Americanization. In terms of audio-visual products, the Americanization

situation in the world wars in the twentieth century were cleverly worked by the United States

of America by taking advantage of propaganda opportunities. This along with the fact that

Hollywood grew rapidly as the leading film industry in the world proves that the idea of

Americanization of cultures in Europe is evident. Finally, language is claimed to evolve

naturally through its exposure to other cultural realities. However, it has been well established

that the introduction of American English to European cultures through different mediums has

left a trace in the languages spoken around Europe in the twenty-first century. This has been

especially enhanced with the revolution of technology and social media in the past decade.

It has been argued that the apparent globalization of the world on the basis of an

American lifestyle has led to nationalist uprisings with the aim of defending and preserving

traditional cultures. While nationalism can be claimed to be the closest competitor of the idea

of a global common culture, European consumers of American products can still be seen to

have been heavily influenced by these in many ways from the twentieth century throughout

the twenty-first century. Finally, it is evident from the themes investigated in this paper that

that there is yet to be an apparent successful demonstration against this fact.

34

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