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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY

(7th Ed)

Chapter 8

Learning

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

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Learning: p. 308 Learning: relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experienceShapes thoughts language motivations attitudes Personalities emotions Even the simplest of

species learn by associating 2 things

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Association We learn by association

Association: how our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

How we associate 1 thing with another thing that happens AFTER it

Aristotle 2000 years ago & John Locke & David Hume 200 years ago knew about learning from association…

Associative Learning learning that two events occur together…

expecting 2nd thing to happen if the 1st happens two stimuli = a response & its consequences 1) Lightening 2) BOOOM!!! = fear

(Response)

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Association: Can be automatic OR by choice

Learning to associate 2 events

Snail: just water, will habituate

If shock added, response is stronger & continues…

Get automatic response

Seals: chooses to do something to gain something

b/c associates reward w/ some activity

(SL 46... eyes!)

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

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Classical or Pavlovian (associative) Conditioning

Learning to associate 2 stimuli (flash + BOOM)

Conditioning: process of learning associations

3 types:1. Classical

conditioning (involuntary)

2. Operant conditioning

3. Observational learning if voluntary

(2 & 3 = voluntary)

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Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response & its consequence

If we do something, we cause something else to happen

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Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian

physician/ neurophysiologist

Nobel Prize in 1904

Studied digestive secretions (salivating reflex) in animals… especially using dogs

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Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

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Classical Conditioning: Basic Terms

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS…aka…US) stimulus that unconditionally--automatically

and naturally--triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR…aka…UR)

unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

salivation when food is in the mouth Neutral stimulus (NS): originally irrelevant

stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes the conditioned stimulus

CONDITIONED Stimulus (CS) & triggers a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

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Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: UCS, UCR; NS; CS, CR (note: NS not in yr bk but does show up)

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)

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Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two stimuli a neutral stimulus (NS) that signals an

unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

UCS = UCR (naturally occurring) NS = no response at 1st

UCS + NS = UCR then CS = CR

For Pavlov’s dog & salivation on the board: ID the following:

UCS = UCR NS = bellFood saliva

UCS + (NS) = UCR then CS = CR

Food bell saliva bell saliva

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Behaviorism: Look at observable behaviors ONLY John B. Watson: Watson was

1 of very 1st behaviorists Developed the with the

terms “behaviorism” & “behaviorist” relating to this type of study Viewed psychology as

objective science Psychologists still agree w/

this today recommended study of

behavior w/o reference to unobservable mental processes

This is Not still accepted by all psych schools of thought today (cognition? emotion?)

Neat little trick!

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Classical Conditioning Acquisition: You acquire (gain) an association Initial (1st) stage in classical

conditioning Phase associating a neutral stimulus

(NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that the NS begins to elicit (bring on) a conditioned response (CR)

It is how you paired UCS + NS to get CS

In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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Acquisition of sexual response to onion breath!!

UCS(passionate kiss)

UCR(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath)

CR(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss)

UCR(sexualarousal)

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Conditioning

Extinction

Getting rid (diminishing) of a CR in classical conditioning, when a

UCS does not follow a CS…may be 1 time…or more…lessens then stops

EX: Dog hears footsteps (bell, etc…..) but does NOT get the conditioning stimulus…like the food

in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

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Classical Conditioning

Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest period, of an

extinguished (or extincted) CR Generalization

tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses

Discrimination: only responding to a specific stimulus

- “can tell the difference between…” in classical conditioning, the learned

ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS

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Classical Conditioning

Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR

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Generalization

Drops of salivain 30 seconds

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Hindpaw

Pelvis Shoulder Frontpaw

Thigh Trunk Foreleg

Part of body stimulated

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Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients: Taste Aversion comes from associating last food ingested (or a situation) b4 throwing up… learns to avoid that food…or situation

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

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Classical conditioning in Cancer patients:How our brain makes a biological

connection: Taste Aversion

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Pavlov’s legacy: Why it’s still important today:

1) classical conditioning: 1 way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environments

2) showed how a mental process such as learning can be studied objectively, & this provided a scientific model of isolating elementary building blocks of complex behaviors & studying them w/ objective lab procedures

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Real EX’s: of Classical conditioning: *Baby w/ intense nausea *“Our song!” *Anabuse (w/ alcohol) *good food + flu =

ugh!

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Biological Predispositions: Certain animals are affected more quickly & strongly by certain things that help them to learn to adapt to their environments

-Rats: taste aversion -Birds: sight aversion

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Practice: ID in each given situations UCS UCR NS CS CR :1. Little Albert

2. Ms. Uptight yells at Mary. Now when M. comes to class, she gets nervous, feels nauseated, & her palms get sweaty

3. Tom & Ernie think it would be funny to train their brother’s horse to jump and buck when he hears “Whoa!”

HOW would they do this??? And ID each of the 5 above…

?: What is the MAJOR way in which Classical & Operant Conditioning vary? (V?)

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Scaring the birds!“Copying” poisonous or dangerous animals ...

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Operant Conditioning behavior strengthened if followed by

reinforcement OR diminished (lessened) if followed by punishment

Person makes a choice to do something in order to get something or to avoid something

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle: rewarded

behaviors are more likely to recur. Then Skinner developed “behavior

technology,” that outlined principles of behavior control

Thorndike came up with a way to show this…Thorndike’s Puzzle Box (See DMA: 8)

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Operant Behavior: operates (acts) on environment to produce consequences

Respondent Behavior (like Pavlov) occurs as an automatic response to

stimulus behavior learned through classical

conditioning is respondent Which is which? Ask: Voluntary

response or an involuntary response? O or R?

EX’s: -Be quiet for 30 min.? -Shriek at a loud sound? -Get nauseated smelling a food that made you sick once? -Study harder to pull up a grade?

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Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-

1990): most famous of behaviorists elaborated Thorndike’s

Law of Effect developed behavioral

technology (equipment) EX: the operant

chamber (Skinner box) to study responses of animals

Wrote Walden Two: perfect society using operant principles…also wrote Beyond Freedom & Dignity

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Operant Chamber Skinner Box: Operant chamber chamber with a bar

or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices (bar, light, button, etc.) to record responses & counter to keep a record of responses

frequently used w/ rats & pigeons

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Operant Conditioning

Reinforcer: an event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping: operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

-little by little, step by step, w/ small rewards (reinforcers) along the way until you get the behavior you want

Chaining: putting together, in a series, different tasks that have been shaped, to form a longer task…

*P. 324: Read & find 2 EX’s on that page of shaping (See DMA: # 9)

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Operant Conditioning (p. 325..note a few differences)

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Punishment: NOT negative reinforcement! aversive event that decreases the behavior that it

follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior (p. 328)

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Principles of Reinforcement: A “Contingency of Reinforcement”

Primary Reinforcer: innately (?) reinforcing stimulus….i.e., satisfies a biological need

Conditioned Reinforcer (a.k.a. secondary reinforcer) stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through

its association with primary reinforcerSchedules of ReinforcementContinuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each time it

occurs Do 1, get 1

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition (takes longer) But…greater resistance to extinction (stays

stronger!)

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Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR)

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding EX: piecework pay: make 3 dresses, get $5; buy

5 get 1 free

Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an unpredictable

number of responses average ratios EX: gambling; or …. maybe…fishing (casts)? very hard to extinguish because of

unpredictability: …we tend to keep on trying to get it again

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a specified

time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the

anticipated time for reward draws near EX: paycheck Variable Interval (VI)• reinforces a response at unpredictable time

intervals• produces slow steady responding• EX: pop quiz…or fishing (time sitting)?

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Skinner’s 4 Schedules of Reinforcement: Each black “tic” = a reinforcer RATIO = gets higher # responses than Interval…. And VARIABLE (unpredictable) = higher than Fixed

Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

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A Question Answered from AP Psy Listserv: Is a kid’s “time-out” negative reinforcement OR negative punishment”… What do YOU think??

Some students might consider "time out" a negative reinforcement technique, but traditional time out is not actually a negative reinforcement technique. Sitting a child in a chair in the corner for a period of time is really omission training--depriving that child of something he or she wants in order to teach them not to do the undesired behavior.

Omission training is a form of punishment--not reinforcement.

If getting out of time out were tied to a behavior, then it would qualify as negative reinforcement. EX: if kids can get out of time out if they agree to comply with parental requests, then they would be negatively reinforced to be compliant.

If time out were used as a negative reinforcement technique, then it would be a more powerful behavior modification technique. (See p.231) 41

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What does each pic have to do w/ operant conditioning?Training LionsTraining RatsTraining Men…

Learned Helplessness

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Learned helplessness was discovered accidentally by psychologists Martin Seligman and Steven F. Maier

They initially observed helpless behavior in dogs classically conditioned to expect an electrical shock after hearing a tone. Later, the dogs were placed in a shuttlebox with 2 chambers separated by a low barrier. Floor was electrified on one side, but not on the other.Dogs previously subjected to the classical conditioning made no attempts to escape, even though they could avoid shock simply by jumping over the low barrier. In People: EX: child who performs poorly on math tests & assignments quickly begins to feel nothing he does will have an effect on his math performance. Later when faced with math-related tasks, he may experience a sense of helplessness.

Learned Helplessness: WHY even TRY???

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Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for its own

sake Comes from something inside of us

driving us Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior due to some possible rewards …or punishments

Comes from something outside (ex-) driving us

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Biological Predispositions (p. 331): like Classical Conditioning, the ability to be trained a certain way has limits…

….Ya’ can’t teach pigs to fly… Hamsters: Why is it easier to get it to

dig or stand on hind legs than to wash its face even though it does all naturally?

What are the biological predisposition of the following?

Rats? Cats? Pigs?See: Problem w/ pigs & instinctive

drift?

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Skinner’s legacy: Critics: He dehumanized ppl by saying we could

“train” them to behave however we wanted using reinforcements…

Also in Beyond Freedom & Dignity -- he didn’t accept concept of “free-will”…our choices

He completely rejected cognitive psychology as any form of science…believed it was a newer form of Wilhelm Wundt’s (“father of psych:” 1st psych lab ,1879:

“birthday of psy”) ideas of introspection, which had been totally discounted

1) At school: said using computers to teach lets each kid work at his own pace & reinforces automatically (“Good job! Go to the next problem!” “Try that one again...”)

2) Techniques at work?3) At home?

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Operant vs Classical Conditioning p.335 Note: is Table 8.3 , not 8.2 KNOW this!

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Observational Learning

aka “Social Learning” learning by observing others

Modeling process of observing and imitating a

specific behavior (Role models) Albert Bandura (t-337) (DMA # 11 -Bobo

doll)

Pro-social Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior

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Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons Frontal lobe neurons that fire when we

perform certain actions… BUT these also fire when observing

another performing the actions Monkey see, monkey do? May enable imitation, language

learning, and empathy

Remember the BoBo Doll ... DMA

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….An individual is likely to act in the same ways that others act. …Is seen…. benefit for sports training

….watching experts perform.

MIRROR Neurons:

Babies will copy adults…

Also…remember the video of one baby starting to cry…

then another… & another… & another… until

all crying?What were they

showing?(“E-word???”)

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Over-justification Effect:

Effect of promising a reward for doing what we enjoy

doing, such as volunteering

…or a hobbyIt then becomes anextrinsic reward (you now expect a reward), not the intrinsic reward (b/c I enjoy it/makes me feel

good) interest, as motivation

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Cognition & Operant Cond.

Skinner resisted idea of cognitive learning , (figuring out stuff, using past experience & making new connections…EX: McGyver?)

Cognitive Map: E.C. Tolman: cogn. learning mental representation of the layout of our

environment (DMA velephants 10A video)

Ex: after rats exploring a maze, then seem to have developed a cognitive map (DMA 10B video)

Latent Learning: Learning occurs, but we don’t realize it until

there is incentive to demonstrate it (“I just picked it up”)

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Latent Learning: cuts # of errors

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Cognitive learning(aka Insight) & Latent learning

Cognitive maps (E.C. Tolman) EX: Using map & figuring new route if obstacles block your usual way”Eureka!/AHA!” moments...“McGyver” learning: Taking previous info &

thru trial/error, learning new behaviors that work better

This is a newer aspect—and it ties operant (previous learning) + observational +

thinkingb/c it requires previous learning in order to

occur.

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Which kind of Conditioning is this below? Explain your answer!

Darken the room as much as possible if you have outside windows.  Divide into pairs.  Watch partner's pupils as you turn out the lights in the room. 

Ask them what’s expect to be seen.  MOST ppl likely to say , "Nothing, because it will be dark." 

To condition pupils to expand before the lights go out:

• Say "Ready“• Pause a few seconds, then shut off the lights.  • After 7 or 8 repetitions, should see partner's pupils

enlarge before the lights go out.