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One of Our Microbial Friend

HEARTY WELCOME TO

YOU ALL BY


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BT 201 MICROBIOLOGYSyllabus

Unit 1 Origins of Microbiology 2 h

Microbiology in the 20th centuryUnit 2 Organization of microbial cells 4h

Procaryotic cell structure eg. bacteriaEucaryotic cell structure eg. Fungi

Archaebacteria

Evolutionery aspectsUnit 3 Outlines of microbial groups 6h

Eucaryotic protists (algae, fungi ,Protozoa , Myxomycetes)Viruses

Unit 4 Microbial Nutrition 3hUnit 5 Effect of physical and chemical agents on growth .. 2h


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Unit 6 Microbial growth . 2h

Unit 7 Microbial Metabolism . 4hCatabolic energy generating reactions

Anabolic energy requiring biosynthetic reactionsUnit 8 Bacterial Classification 2hUnit 9 Role of Microbes in the Environment 2hUnit 10 -do- in the Industry 2hUnit 11 -do - in Food 2hUnit 12 - do- in Health and Diseases 2h


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Assessment

Midterm Quiz = 35 marksAssignment = 15 marksEnd Sem Exam = 50 marks

Total = 100 marks


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References Professional Journals, Series books etc inMicrobiology

Annual Review of Microbiology /Biochemistry (throughProquest)

Nature Microbiology Reviews

Current Opinion in Microbiology ,Cell Biology ,Genetics ,etcTrends in Microbiology /Biotechnology

Encylopaedia of Environmental MicrobiologySpringer- Verlag Series on- Aplied Microbial Technology

-Advances in Biochem Engg &Botechnology

Mycota seriesBiotechnology by Rehm a 21 volume series in Text Book

Section


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Suggested Text Books

1. Brock Biology of Microorganismsbest !

2. Microbiology by Prescott

3. Microbiology by Schlegel

4. Microbial world by Stanier

5. Microbiology -Talaroa with a cd called Microbes in Motion

6. Microbiology by Tortora with a CD

8. Instant Notes in Microbiology by Paget and Killington

10. Microbiology by Anantharamanmore medical oriented


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1. The development of early techniques in microbiology.Year Event

1664 Robert Hookewas the first to use a microscope todescribe the fruiting structures of molds. He also coined the

term "cell" when using a microscope to look at cork, as thedead plant material in cork reminded him of a jail cell.

1673 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch tradesman and skilledlens maker, is the first to describe microbes in detail.

1872 Ferdinand Julius Cohnpublishes landmark paper onbacteria and the cycling of elements. In it is an earlyclassification scheme that uses the name Bacillus.


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1872Brefeld reports the growth of fungal colonies from singlespores on gelatin and the German botanist Shroeter growspigmented bacterial colonies on slices of potato.

1877 Robert Koch develops methods for staining bacteria,photographing and preparing permanent visual records onslides.

1881 Koch develops solid culture media and the methods forobtaining pure cultures of bacteria.

1882 Angelina Fannie and Walther Hesse in Koch's laboratory

develop the use of agar as a support medium for solid culture


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1884Hans Christian Gram develops a dye system for identifyingbacteria [the Gram stain].

1887 First report of the petri plate by Julius R. Petri.

1915 M. H. McCrady establishes a quantitative approach foranalyzing water samples using the most probable number,multiple-tube fermentation test.


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2. Important events in the spontaneous generation debate

YearEvent

1668 Francesco Redi attacks spontaneous generation anddisproves it for large organisms

1745 John Needham adds chick broth to a flask and boils it, lets itcool and waits. Microbes grow and he proposes it as anexample of spontaneous generation.

1768 Lazzaro Spallanzani repeats Needham's experiment, butremoves all the air from the flask. No growth occurs.

1859 Louis Pasteur's swan-neck flasks show that spontaneousgeneration does not occur.

1870 Thomas H. Huxley gives his "Biogenesis and Abiogenesis"

lecture. The speech offered powerful support for Pasteur'sclaim to have experimentally disproved spontaneousgeneration.

1877 John Tyndall publishes his method for fractional sterilization,showing the existence ofheat-resistant bacterial spores.


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3. Important events in the discovery of the cause of disease.

YearEvent

1840s Ignaz Semmelweisshows that hand washing betweenvisiting mothers can prevent childbirth fever.

1854 Dr. John Snow studies a cholera outbreak in the Sohoneighborhood of London and determines it was caused bycontaminated water at the Broad Street pump. Hismethods found the field of epidemiology.

1857 Louis Pasteur develops the germ theory.

1867 Joseph Listerdevelops the use of phenic acid (phenol) totreat wounds and for antiseptic surgery.


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1873 Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen discovers the leprosy bacillus(Mycobacterium leprae) and demonstrates that leprosy is acontagious disease and not inherited as was the popular

belief. In many countries leprosy is still called Hansensdisease in his honor.

1876 Robert Koch and Cohn identify a bacterium, Bacillus anthracisas the cause of anthrax and publish their research.

1882 Koch isolates the tubercule bacillus, Mycobacterium

tuberculosis.

1884 Koch puts forth his postulates, which are standards forproving that a microorganism is the cause of a disease.

1884-

present

Many diseases are seen to be associated with pathogens due

to the application of Koch's postulates.

1886 John Brown Buist is the first person to see a virus.


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1892 Dmitri Ivanowski publishes the first evidence of thefilterability of a pathogenic agent, the virus of tobacco mosaicdisease(TMV)

1899 Martinus Beijerinckrecognizes the unique nature of

Ivanowski's discovery. He coins the term contagium vivumfluidum - a contagious living fluid.

1899 Friederich Loeffler and Paul Frosch discovered that foot andmouth disease is also caused by a filterable agent.

1915-1917

Frederick Twort and Felix dHerellediscover bacterial viruses.

1918 In the fall of 1918, as World War I was ending, an influenzapandemic of unprecedented virulence swept the globe, leavingsome 40 million dead in its wake. A search for the responsibleagent began in earnest that year, leading to the first isolationof an influenza virus by 1930.

1957 D. Carleton Gajdusekproposes that a slow virus isresponsible for the wasting disease kuru. In subsequent years

several diseases are shown to be caused by slow viruses

(later renamed prions) including mad cow disease.


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4. Treatment and prevention of disease.

YearEvent

1100 Physicians in India and China realize that the liquid from thepustules of a smallpox victim, when scratched on the skin of ahealthy patient, would most often cause mild disease. Thisintentional infection, termed variolation, would also give life-longprotection against the illness.

1721 Lady Mary Wortley Montgue, wife of the ambassador to theOttoman Empire, introduces variolation to Europe.

1796 Edward Jenneruses cowpox to immunize against smallpox.

1884 Ilya Ilich Metchnikoffdemonstrates that certain body cellsmove to damaged areas of the body where they consume bacteriaand other foreign particles. He calls the process phagocytosis. Thisis the beginning of the science of immunology, the study of theimmune system.


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1885 Paul Ehrlich proposes that certain chemicals affect bacterial cells

and begins a search one that can treat syphilis.

1886 Theobald Smith and D. E. Salmon develop a treatment for hogcholera by injecting killed hog cholera microorganisms into

pigeons and demonstrate immunity to subsequentadministration of a live microbial culture of cholera.

1891 Paul Ehrlichshows that antibodies are responsible for part ofimmunity.

1897 Almwroth Wright and David Sample develop an effectivevaccine against typhoid fever using killed cells of Salmonellatyphi.

1897 Waldemar Haffkinedevelops a vaccine against the plague.

1912 l h li h h di f f


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1912 Paul Ehrlich announces the discovery of a cure forsyphilis, the first specific chemotherapeutic agent for abacterial disease.

1929 Alexander Fleming publishes the first paper describing

penicillin.

1935 Gerhard J. Domagk uses, Prontosil, a chemicallysynthesizedantimetabolite, to kill Streptococcus in mice.

1938 Max Theiler produces a vaccine against yellow fever by

passaging the virus through mice to weaken it.

1940 Howard Florey and Ernest Chain produce an extract ofpenicillin and show it can kill bacteria in animals.

1940 Ernest Chain and E.P. Abrahamdescribe a substance from E. coli

that can inactivate penicillin. This demonstrates how rapidlybacteria can become resistant to an antibiotics.

1940 Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff discoveractinomycin, the first antibiotic obtained pure from a group ofsoil organisms, the actinomycetes. In subsequent years many

antibiotics are isolated from this group including tetracyclineand streptomycin.


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1941 Charles Fletcher demonstrates that penicillin is non-toxic tohuman volunteers, by injecting a police officer suffering with a

lethal infection.

1942 Selman Waksmansuggests the word "antibiotic" to describethe class of compounds produced byone microorganism thatinhibit or kill other microorganisms.


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Significant Events in Environmental Microbiology.

Year

Event

1887 Sergei Winogradsky studies Beggiatoa and establishes theconcept of autotrophy.

1888 Martinus Beijerinckdevelops the technique of enrichment

culture.1891 Winogradsky discovers the organisms responsible for

nitrification in soil, which is of great importance inagriculture because nitrogen is a limiting nutrient in thesoil.

1904 Martinus Beijerinckobtains the first pure culture of sulfur-oxidizing bacterium, Thiobacillus denitrificans.

1904 Cornelius Johan Koning suggests that fungi are critical forthe decomposition of organic matter.

5. Significant Events in Environmental Microbiology


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1909 Sigurd Orla-Jensen proposes the use of physiological characteristicsof for the classification of bacteria. He later publishes a monographon lactic acid bacteria that establishes the criteria for assignment.

1920 The Society of American Bacteriologists presents a report on thecharacterization and classificationof Bacterial Types that becomesthe basis for Bergey's manual in 1923.

1961 Brian McCarthy and E. T. Bolton describe a method to comparegenetic material from different species using hybridization. Using

this technique it is possible to quantitatively compare therelatedness of the two species.

1965 Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling publish "Molecules asdocuments of evolutionary history" making a compelling case forthe use of molecular sequences of biological molecules to determineevolutionary relationships.

1969 Don Brenner and colleagues establish a more reliable basis for theclassification of clinical isolates among members of theEnterobacteriaceae. They use nucleic acid reassociation, where DNAof one organism is allowed to hybridize with another organism. Thistechnique is used to help define a species.


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1977 Carl Woese uses ribosomal RNA analysis to identify a third

form of life, the Archea, whose genetic makeup is distinct frombut related to both Bacteria and Eucarya.

1977 Holger Jannasch discovers abundant life at the bottom of theocean near deep sea hydrothermal vents. The entire system isdependent upon sulfur oxidizing microorganisms. Light and

photosynthesis does not drive the process.1982 Karl Stetterisolates hydrothermophilic microbes (Archaea)

that can grow at 105C. Redefining the upper temperature thatlife can exist at.

1994 Gary Olsen, Carl Woese and Ross Overbeek summarize thestate of phylogeny in prokaryotes. This causes scientists torethink the classification of life and emphasizes the importanceof microbes.


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1944 Albert Schatz, E. Bugie, and Selman Waksman discoverstreptomycin, a very effective drug against tuberculosis.

1944 W. H. Feldman and H. C. Hinshaw at the Mayo Clinicsuccessfully treat tuberculosis with streptomycin.

1957 The Soviet delegation to the World Health Organization

proposes a vaccination effort to eradicate smallpox. Theprogram finally begins in 1967.

1977 Ali Maow Maalin, age 23 of Somalia, was the last knownnatural victim of smallpox.

1979 Smallpox is declared to be eliminated. This is the onlyexample of a microbial disease that has been wiped fromthe face of the earth. (However, the recent specter ofbioterrorism and the smallpox stocks kept by severalgovernments make new epidemics of smallpox stillpossible.)


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6. Significant Events in Learning about the Molecules of Life.Year

Event

1928 FrederickGriffith discoverstransformation in bacteria andestablishes the foundation of molecular genetics.

1941 George Beadle and Edward Tatum develop the one-gene one-enzyme hypothesis.

1943 Salvador Luria and Max Delbruck demonstrate that inheritancein bacteria follows Darwinian principles.

1944 OswaldAvery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty show thatDNA is the hereditary material.

1946 Joshua Lederberg and Edward L. Tatum discover a secondmethod of gene transfer in bacteria: conjugation.

1952 Joshua Lederberg and Norton Zinder find a third method of

DNA transfer in bacteriausing bacteriophage: transduction.


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1952Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase suggest that only DNA isneeded for viral replication.

1953 Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and James Watson describe the

structure of DNA.

1954 Paul Zemecnik develops a cell-free system for translationusing rat liver

1954 Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner, and colleagues propose theexistence of RNA that helps to transfer the information in

DNA into protein (tRNA).

1956 Paul Zemecnik discovers tRNA in his cell-free system

1957 Francois Jacob and Elie Wollman show that the chromosomeof E. coli is circular.

1959 Peter Mitchell proposes the chemiosmotic theory in which amolecular process is coupled to the transport of protonsacross a biological membrane. He argues that this principleexplains ATP synthesis, solute accumulations or expulsions,and cell movement.


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1959Arthur Pardee, Francois Jacob, and Jacques Monod show thatlactose induces beta -galactosidase the catabolic enzyme beginsthe degradation of the sugar.

1960 Arthur Kornberg demonstrates DNA synthesis in cell-free bacterialextracts and later shows a specific enzyme complex catalyzes thesynthesis of DNA.

1960 Francois Jacob, David Perrin, Carmen Sanchez and Jacques Monodpropose a mechanism for the for control of bacterial geneexpression in an organization they call the operon.

1960 Paul Zemecnik and Robert Lamberg develop a bacterial cell-freesystem using E. coli

1961 Marshall Nirenberg and J.H. Matthaei observe that a syntheticpolynucleotide, composed only of a string of the base uracil,directs the synthesis of a polypeptide composed only of

phenylalanine. This begins the quest to unravel the genetic codethat translates DNA into protein.


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1961 Sydney Brenner, Francois Jacob and Matthew Meselson show that

ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and that RNA carriesmessages from the DNA to the ribosome.

1968 Lynn Margulis proposes that endosymbiosis has led to the generation ofmitochondria and chloroplasts from bacterial progenitors.

1970 Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discoverreverse transcriptase, a radically different way to alter geneticinformation in cells.

1975 Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman independently show that RNA,and not just protein, can serve directly as a reaction catalyst.

7 Events in understanding the genome


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7. Events in understanding the genome.

YearEvent

1885 Theodor Escherich isolates a microbe from the colon that is latergiven the name Escherichia coli in his honor. This microbe laterbecomes the workhorse of molecular biology.

1897 Edward Buchner helps launch the field of enzymology bydeveloping a cell extract from yeast that is able to ferment sugar

to alcohol.

1952 Salvador Luria and Mary Human, and independently Jean Weigle,describe sensitivity in bacteriophage imposed by the host onwhich it was grown. The viruses are restricted to only grow wellon specific strains of bacteria. This later leads to study of bacterial

systems of restriction and modification, and eventually thediscovery of restriction enzymes.

1959 O. Sawada and others demonstrate that antibiotic resistance canbe transferred between Shigella strains and Escherichia colistrains by plasmids


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1966

Jon Beckwith and Ethan Signer move the lac region of E. coliinto another microorganism to demonstrate genetic control. It

is quickly realized that chromosomes could be redesigned andgenes moved.

1967 Waclaw Szybalski and William Summers develop the techniqueof DNA-RNA hybridization (mixing nucleic acids together andallowing them to base pair) to investigate the bacteriophageT7. This technique finds wide use in many experiments.

1967 Thomas Brock identifies Thermus aquaticus, a bacterium thatgrows at 85 C. Heat-stable DNA polymerase is later isolatedand used in PCR. Investigation of this organism also leads tothe discovery of the domain Archaea.

1967 Werner Arber shows that bacterial cells have enzymes capableof modify DNA by adding methyl groups at cytosines andadenosines. This methylation helps the cell identify its ownDNA. Accompanying nucleases recognize these sites and cutthe DNA if it is not methylated.


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1970Hamilton Smith and Kent W. Wilcox describe the action ofrestriction enzymes, discovered by Arber, by the purification ofone of these enzymes from Haemophilus influenzae.

1972 Joan Mertz and Ronald W. Davis establish that the RI

restriction enzyme from Escherichia coli cuts at a specific siteon the DNA. They also reveal that the cleaved ends of the DNAare complementary, opening the way for cloning.

1972 Paul Berg creates the first recombinant DNA molecule fromviral and bacterial DNA.

1973 Stanley Cohen, Annie Chang, Robert Helling, and Herbert Boyerdevelop the process of gene cloning.

1975-1976

The Asilomar Conference is convened to discuss possibleproblems associated with gene cloning. A one-year moratoriumis suggested, as well as guidelines for cloning research and forgenetic engineering.

1977 Walter Gilbert and Fred Sanger independently developmethods for determining the sequence of DNA.


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1980The U. S. Supreme Court rules that microorganisms altered inthe laboratory can be patented !!!

1982 U. S. Pharmaceutical manufacturer Eli Lilly markets the first

genetically-engineered human insulin.

1983 Jeff Schell and Marc Van Montagu, Mary-Dell Chilton andcolleagues move genes into plants.

1988 Kary Mullis uses a heat-stable enzyme from Thermus aquaticusto establish PCR technology.

1992 The entire sequence of one of the sixteen chromosomes of theyeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is determined.


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1995 Craig Venter, Hamilton Smith, Claire Fraser, and colleagues at TIGRelucidate the first complete genome sequence of a microorganism,Haemophilus influenzae. In the ensuing years the Institute for GenomeResearch and collaborators have produced sequences for dozens of microbes

including many important pathogens and those of industrial or environmentalimportance.

1995 C. J. Peters, V. E. Chizhikov, S. F. Spiropoulou, S. P. Morzunov, andM. C. Monroe report the complete genome of the Hantavirus SinNobra NMH10, detected in autopsy tissue of a patient who died ofHantavius pulmonary syndrome.

2000 The human genome project begun in 1990 finished a working draftof the entire human genome.


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Unforgettable NamesRobert Hooke

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Redi Needham

Spallanzani

Louis Pasteur

Thomas Huxley

Tyndall

Jennings

Hansen

Robert Koch


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M.H.Mcrady

Paul Ehrlich

Lister

Ivanowsky

Twort and DHerelle

Gajdusek

Metchnikoff

Alexander Fleming

Florey and Chain

Waksman


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HesseHans Christian Gram

Julius Petri

Beijerinck

Winogradsky

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