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LEARNINGLEARNING

John H. Hummel, Ph.D.

Dept. of Psychology, Counseling & Guidance, VSU

2 LearningLearning

Teachers have to know the principles governing learning in order to design lessons and the class structure to MAXIMIZE students’ achievement. Humans learn all the time. The teacher wants to insure that (a) the right stuff gets learned, and (b) that it’s learned efficiently.

3 LearningLearning

Three TYPES of learning– CLASSICAL/RESPONDENT

» EMOTIONS/AFFECT; PAVLOV

– OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL» “VOLUNTARY “BEHAVIOR”

– SOCIAL LEARNING» OPERANT? MONKEY SEE, MONKEY DO

4 Learning-CLASSICALLearning-CLASSICAL

Basic model:

US-->UR

US + NS-->UR

NS-->CS

CS-->CR

Synonyms: UR=CR; CS=NS

5 Learning-CLASSICALLearning-CLASSICAL

While education is concerned with the affect domain, we are primarily concerned with the COGNITIVE domain because it is most directly related to achievement.

When ever classical learning is occurring, so is operant. Therefore, if we employ operant correctly the affective component will be “covered” too.

6 Learning-OPERANTLearning-OPERANT The principles of operant learning account for

virtually all that humans do! These principles operate at all times whenever one is interacting with the environment (includes other people).

Thus, one cannot “CHOOSE” to use or not use operant processes; one’s “CHOICE” is, instead, limited to using the principles SYSTEMATICALLY or nonsystematically.

7 Learning-OPERANTLearning-OPERANT

Operant Model:

S--> R--> S OR R-->S

That is, an antecedent stimulus may/may not influence whether an R occurs. If the R occurs, IT triggers some type of consequence-a change in the environment that will affect the P of the R occurring again.

8 Learning-OPERANTLearning-OPERANT

Antecedents. If an antecedent does affect the P of an R, it

is called a DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS. There are 2 types of dis. stimuli: SD and S². The SD is a signal to do a specific R (the R, in the past, has been rewarded when it occurred in the presence of the SD)

9 Operant-antecedentsOperant-antecedents

The S² is also a signal but it “tells” one NOT to do a R because in the past, the R in the presence of the S² has produced a “negative” consequence.

To be an effective member of a complex society requires that people “learn” to be sensitive to and react appropriately to antecedents. EXAMPLES

10 Operant LearningOperant Learning

The R in operant learning symbolizes a voluntary response--something one can stop once it starts.

When a R occurs, it is the consequence (i.e., the change in the environment) it produces that is critical to learning.

11 Operant-ConsequencesOperant-Consequences

There are several “rules” one should follow for consequences to work effectively:

Contingency & Consistency (if-then; & reliable)

Power (strong enough and is a “reinforcer” for that person)

Immediacy (time between R & consequence)

12 Operant-ConsequencesOperant-Consequences An operant CONSEQUENCE involves (a)

presenting/removing of (b) a reinforcer.

REINFORCERS

Positive Negative

(+) (-)

(+) strengthen Rs they follow (weaken those leading to their removal). (-) weaken Rs they follow, strengthen those leading to their removal.

13 Operant-ConsequencesOperant-Consequences

Not all stimuli used as consequences functions as reinforcers for everyone.– Need for CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS

Reinforcers are “manipulated.” When R occurs it triggers: (a) adding or (b) subtracting of the consequence, or (c) no change in the environment (extinction

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THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA HAS A WONDERFUL TUTORIAL THAT WILL HELP YOU LEARN HOW TO ANALYZE EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE REINFORECEMENT. GO INTO NETSCAPE, CLICK ON THE OPEN BUTTON AND TYPE IN:

http://server.bmod.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm

On-line Tutorial on Positive Reinforcement

15 Diagraming ConsequencesDiagraming Consequences

Diagrams Use the Multiplicative Rules Each diagram specifies the occurrence of a Response:

R After the response you indicate whether a consequences

was added or subtracted by using either a + or - sign. Then you indicate which type of reinforcer was added or

subtracted: (+) or (-) Multiplying the 2 signs after the R “tells” you the effect

the procedure has on the R. Write the outcome [+ or -] to the right of the equals sign.

16 Basic Operant ProcessesBasic Operant Processes

There are 5 basic operant processes Extinction

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Punishment Response Cost

17 Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Extinction: No longer reinforcing a previously reinforced response that results in the weakening of the response.

Rs not periodically rewarded stop occurring!

R--> 0 (0) = 0

18 Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Positive Reinforcement. Reinforcement ALWAYS strengthens a response.

After a response, add a positive reinforcer and the behavior is more likely to reoccur.

R--> + (+) = +

19 Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Negative Reinforcement: Reinforcement always strengthens a response.

After the response remove a negative reinforcer and the response is more likely to reoccur.

R--> - (-) = +

20 Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Punishment: After a response, add a negative reinforcer and the response is less likely to reoccur.

R--> + (-) = -

21 Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Basic Processes: Diagrams & Definitions

Response Cost: Literally, one’s response “costs” the person something of value.

After a response remove a positive reinforcer and the response is less likely to reoccur.

R--> - (+) = -

22 SCHEDULES: When do Rs Trigger Consequences

SCHEDULES: When do Rs Trigger Consequences

Schedules specify WHEN an occurrence of a response will produce, normally, reinforcement.

SCHEDULES

CRF INTERMITTENT EXTINCTION

FR1 Other FRs No Consequence

VR

FI

VI

23 SCHEDULESSCHEDULES

THE CRF SCHEDULE SPECIFIES THAT EACH OCCURRENCE OF THE R TRIGGERS REINFORCEMENT. WHENEVER THE R OCCURS, SO DOES THE CONSEQUENCE. (CRF IS USED TO TEACH NEW Rs AND WHEN ONE IS DECREASING AN EXISTING R.)

24 SchedulesSchedules

Intermittent schedules, as a group, specify that some occurrences of the R produce reinforcement, but not all. Two Classes:

Time-based: the INTERVAL SCHEDULES

Response-based: the RATION Schedules

25 SchedulesSchedules

Both Interval and Ratio schedules are subdivided according to whether the time (or number of Rs) is Fixed or Variable.

Fixed Ratio: A set # of Rs must occur before reinforcement. The # is constant.

Variable Ratio: A set # of Rs must occur before reinforcement but the # required changes after each reinforcement.

26 SchedulesSchedules

Fixed Interval: A set amount of time must pass then the first occurrence of the R triggers reinforcement. The amount of time is constant.

Variable Interval: A set amount of time must pass then the 1st occurrence of the R triggers reinforcement; the amount of time required changes after each reinforcement.

27 Summary Points-LearningSummary Points-Learning Teachers must know the processes associated with

the various types of conditioning in order to effectively transmit information. The laws and principles of learning are intimately interrelated with other topics we’ll be discussing including memory, motivation, classroom management, effective instruction, etc.

A. to arrange situations so students are motivated to study and more easily/rapidly learn academically and socially relevant skills.

28 Summary Points-LearningSummary Points-Learning Too much PASSIVE learning goes on in schools. The

principles of learning tell us, dramatically, that in order for students to learn they must overtly respond frequently. This is incredibly important. It is associated with fluency, affects memory, and is related to how easily content is connected to other learned material.

A. Teachers must use have students make more responses (i.e., do particular behaviors/activities) than they do currently. To do this, teachers need to use the various types of reinforcement more effectively (CIP)

29 Summary Pt.’s-LearningSummary Pt.’s-Learning

Much of the misbehavior in classes results from negative reinforcement produced by instruction that is boring, ineffective, or inappropriate to the students’ background knowledge.

30 Summary Pt.’s-LearningSummary Pt.’s-Learning Some teachers incorrectly believe that they can

teach (and that students can learn) without utilizing conditioning principles. This is simply not true. You cannot not use conditioning processes! The choice educators do have is to utilize conditioning principles in systematic ways or chaotically. All teachers of all subjects across all grade levels can reach more students be systematically incorporating conditioning laws into their instruction.

31 Summary Pt.’s-LearningSummary Pt.’s-LearningThere are too many educators who erroneously believe

that reinforcing student responses (e.g., doing assignments, asking/answering questions, working with others, etc.) once they have acquired/learned the response is wrong. Nothing could be further from the truth. Overt responses that are not rewarded (reinforced) every now and then will extinguish--the student will stop doing them. When this occurs, teachers often, unconsciously, change the tone of the class to a negative one by using aversive procedures to get students to do necessary work.

32 Summary Points-LearningSummary Points-Learning The emphasis should be on positively

reinforcing students responses that are appropriate. Reinforcement that is correctly used is never inappropriate; it is never bribery; it never hurts students in any way. Not reinforcing their appropriate responses (and arranging appropriate contingencies for their inappropriate responses) does harm students.

33 Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

Managing a classroom involves (a) a high level of ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY, (b) contingencies, & (c) insuring students know what the “rules-and-consequences” for deportment and academics are. The emphasis is on POSITIVES.

34 Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

BM programs involve the systematic application of learning principles to change students’ behavior. A BM program can be established to: Teach new skills, increase or maintain existing levels of a behavior, or decrease a behavior.

35 Steps in a BM ProgramSteps in a BM Program

1. First, operationally define the behavior

2. Collect baseline data– (A) Insures that the R warrants intervention– (B) Used as a standard of comparison to evaluate

intervention’s effectiveness

3. Identify & apply intervention. If intervention involves pun., RC, or Ext., you should always have a positive component

36 Steps in a BM ProgramSteps in a BM Program

4. Continue collecting data during intervention. Evaluate effectiveness of program and modify if needed.

5. Once program goals are reached, FADE program so normally occurring contingencies in the class maintain the behavior.

37 Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

Monkey see, Monkey do! In Bandura and Walter’s Theory, the

assumption is that much social (and academic but to a lesser degree) is learned via observing others; other students, significant adults, t.v., etc.

Systematic observational learning has 4 phases.

38 Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

4 Phases of Social Learning: AReRepMo

1. Attention of learner

2. Retention: Model behavior have learner practice covertly or overtly

3. Reproduction: Have learner overtly practice in absence of model.

4. Motivation: Reward performance.