Week 2: Phonetics VS PhonologySWU LI 711 Meagan Louie August 23rd, 2016

1 Introduction

• Q: What’s the difference between phonetics and phonology?. Both are systematic investigations into speech sounds...

• A: They investigate different aspects of speech sounds

phonetics investigates the physical aspect of speech sounds, eg.,

– the physical actions used to produce speech sounds(articulatory phonetics)

– the physical, measurable properties of speech sounds(acoustic phonetics), and

– how these things relate to how we perceive speech sounds(perceptual phonetics)

phonology investigates the mental aspect of speech sounds. and how they pattern, eg.,

– how we divide the speech signal into distinct mental cate-gories/units of sound, and

– how we systematically organize and manipulate these units

• One traditional aspect of the phonetics/phonology divide is the distinctionbetween gradient/continuous and categorical phenomena 1

• But what does that mean?1Contemporary research in phonology investigates gradient/non-categorical aspects of

phonology - but it’s important to understand the traditional view.

1.1 Categorical Phenomena: Discreteness

• Review: Stops can differ in terms of aspiration. i.e., whether the stop is followed by a puff of air

– Acoustically, we can measure aspiration with voice onset time (VOT)(length of time between the noise burst and vowel onset)

Waveform from Ladefoged 2001

Language ph p b

Cantonese 77 ms 9 ms n/aHungarian n/a 2 ms -90 msEnglish V1 58 ms n/a -101 msEnglish V2 58 ms n/a 1 msThai 64 ms 6 ms -97 ms

Table 1: Average VOT for voicing/aspiration distinction

• Observation: Aspirated sounds usually have VOTs greater than 60 ms,unaspirated sounds have a VOT of ≤ 10ms

• Question: How do we perceive intermediate VOTs?. eg., VOT = 11 ms, 12 ms, 13 ms...20 ms, 25 ms, 30 ms...etc?

• We can set up an experiment to answer this question:

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Intermediate VOT Perception Experiment

Q: How do we perceive intermediate VOTs?

1. Record examples of [pa] and [pha]

2. Digitally manipulate the length of the VOTs to create a contin-uum of recordings from [pa] to [pha]

(10 ms, 11 ms, 12 ms..52 ms, 53 ms, 54 ms, 55 ms)

3. Ask participants to listen to the stimuli and identify them aseither [pa] or [pha]. (dependent variable)

• Since the stimuli are gradient...maybe we perceive them as gradient.... i.e., intermediate VOTs sound like something in between ph and p

• Hypothesis: continuous/gradient perception. We perceive intermediate VOTs along a continuum:

• Prediction: A linear relationship between VOT and identification of ph/ p

• ...but this is not what actually happens!

• What actually happens is categorical perception

• Although the intermediate VOTs change gradually along a continuum,we perceive them as falling into two distinct categories: ph or p

• We know the actual physical properties of VOT is gradient...

• ...but our mind/brain imposes a categorical (non-gradient) distinction ontothis phenomenon

• Compare this with a non-linguistic acoustic signal eg., loudness/amplitude→ when you gradually turn up the volume, you don’t automatically di-vide every increment into two categories (loud vs quiet) - you can perceiveintermediate levels

• Observation: Language systems treat speech sounds as categorical units

• phonology is the investigation of these categorical units, and how theypattern in language

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1.2 Hockett’s Design Features

• Charles F. Hockett (1916-2000) proposed several features/criteria that acommunication system must have in order to count as a language

• The observation that language uses discrete/categorical units as buildingblocks is one of his proposed design features:

Hockett’s Design Feature: DISCRETENESS

Language as a system is made up of discrete, categorical units; theseunits are perceived categorically, and not continuously.

2 The Key Notion of Contrast

2.1 The Key Notion of a Contrastive PHONEME

• Language organizes the speech signal into distinct categorical unitswe’ll call segments eg., [p] vs [ph], [g] vs [N], [b] vs [d]

• Q: What do we use these distinct sound units for?

(1) a. [sAk] “sock”

b. [sAN] “song”

(2) a. [sAk] “sock”

b. [sIk] “sick”

• A: Different segments can be used to distinguish/contrast meaning. - we call these phonemes

DEFINITION: Phoneme

A phoneme is an abstract, unanalyzeable segment of language thatare used to contrast/distinguish meaning

• Phonemes are:

1 abstract categories: Mental representations of sounds. (as opposed to physical manifestations of sounds)

2 contrastive/distinctive: its presence/absence changes meaning. (as with the minimal pair in (1) and (2))

3 unanalyzeable: No subpart can contrast meaning. (eg., unlike [Ak]; subparts [A] and [k] both contrast meaning )

• The existence of minimal pairs is one of the most important diagnosticsphonologists use to identify phonemes

DEFINITION: Minimal Pair

A minimal pair is a pair of wordsa that. i) differ minimally in form, and. ii) have different meanings

awe’ll modify this definition as the course progresses

→ If you find a pair of words that differ only in one segment (eg., whereone word has X, the other word has Y), this is evidence that X and Y aredistinct phonemes

Note: One of X/Y can be ∅ - i.e., the absence of a segment:

(3) a. [si] ‘‘sea’’

b. [sin] ‘‘scene’’

• The presence/absence of [n] affects the meaning of the word

• This minimal pair shows that [n] is a phoneme in English

• The minimal pairs in (4) show that Cantonese makes a con-trast/distinction between nasals with different places of articulation

(4) Nasal MINIMAL PAIRS in Cantonese:

a. [ma:i5] “buy” VS [na:i5] “milk” Bilabial VS Alveolar

b. [Na:4] “teeth” VS [na:4] “take” Velar VS Alveolar

c. [N5u4] “ox/cow” VS [m5u4] “scheme/plot” Velar VS Bilabial

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• The minimal pair in (5) shows that French also makes a con-trast/distinction between nasals with different places of articulation...

(5) Nasal MINIMAL PAIR in French:

a. [año] agneau “lamb” palatal nasal

b. [ano] anneau “ring” alveolar nasal

c. *[aNo] . * = not found in the language velar nasal

• ...but the PoA distinction is different

• Observation: Different languages contrast different segments:. eg., Cantonese distinguishes [n] vs [N]; French does not. eg., French distinguishes [n] vs [ñ]; Cantonese does not

• Not all segments are contrastive in a language(i.e., some pairs/sets of segments are non-contrastive)

. - they cannot be used to distinguish meaning

STUDENT QUESTIONS:

1. The following minimal set is from French. What sort of contrastis shown here? (i.e., what phonetic features are responsible for thecontrast?)

(6) a. [thu] tous “all”

b. [du] doux “sweet’

c. [nu] nous “we”

d. [su] sous “under”

e. [zu] zoo “zoo”

2. If two segments are non-contrastive, are they distinct phonemes?

• There are three ways that a language can lack certain contrasts:

1 Lack of Variation

2 Free Variation

3 Allophonic Variation

2.2 Non-Contrastive Segments: Lack of Variation

• A language can lack a contrast between two segments, X and Y, if either(or both) X or Y is not present in the language, eg.,

• French contrasts [y] and [u]

(7) French Minimal Pair

a. [vy] vue “view” High Front Round Vowel

b. [vu] vous “youPL/SG.formal’ High Back Round Vowel

• English lacks words with [y] entirely!. i.e., English lacks variation between [y] and [u]. → This means English lacks contrast between [i] and [y]

• English contrasts [T] and [f]

(8) English Minimal Pair

a. [TINk] think “to form a thought in your mind”

b. [fINk] fink “someone who informs the police about criminalactivity (negative connotation)”

• Cantonese lacks words with [T] entirely!. i.e., Cantonese lacks variation between [T] and [f]. → This means Cantonese lacks contrast between [T] and [f]

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2.3 Non-Contrastive Segments: Free Variation

• A language can also lack a contrast between two segments, X and Y, ifswapping X and Y results in no meaning change, eg.,

(9) Free Variation in Hong Kong Cantonese: [n] VS [l]

a. [nei5] ∼ [lei5] “you”

b. [n5m4] ∼ [l5m4] “think”

c. [noi6] ∼ [loi6] “endure/long time”

• Both sounds ([n], [l]) occur in the language....

• ...but swapping the sounds does not affect the meaninga

aThis is the result of a phonemic merger of /l/ and /n/

– The segments [n] and [l] are phonetic free variants of the underlyingphoneme /n/

/n/

[n][l]

(10) Free Variation in Northern Paiute:. Lenis Consonants (Thornes (2003))

a. [t1Ba] ∼ [t1ba] ∼ [t1pa] . “pine nut”

b. [kaR1] ∼ [kad1] ∼ [kat1] . “sit”

c. [n1Ga] ∼ [n1ga] ∼ [n1ka] . “dance”

• Voiced fricatives ([B, D, G] ), voiced stops ([b. d. g]) and voicelessstops ([p, t, k]) all occur in the language...

• ...but swapping the sounds does not affect the meaning

/b/

[p ][b][B ]

/d/

[t ][d][R ]

/g/

[k ][g][G ]

– {B, b, p} are phonetic free variants of the underlying phoneme /b/

– {R, d, t} are phonetic free variants of the underlying phoneme /d/

– {G, g, k} are phonetic free variants of the underlying phoneme /g/

• We can represent free variation using context-free rewrite rules:

Cantonese: /n/→ [n, l]Northern Paiute: /b/→ [B, b, p] . /d/→ [R, d, t] . /g/→ [G, g, k]

• We’ll need context-sensitive rewrite rules for allophonic variation

2.4 Non-Contrastive Segments: Allophonic Variation

• A language can also lack a contrast between X and Y, if X and Y havedistributional restrictions, where X and Y never occur in the same position

• Below is an example from North American English

(11) a. [2ñj@n] “onion”

b. [>dZuñj@ô] “junior”

c. [khæl@fOôñj@] “California”

d. [spæñj@l] “Spaniel”

(12) a. [jun@t] “unit”

b. [f@ni] “funny”

c. [ænIm@l] “animal”

d. [InIS@l] “initial”

• The alveolar nasal ([n]) and palatal nasal ([ñ]) both occur in the language...

• ...but swapping the sounds results in unnatural sounding English. -not an attested pronunciation (as with free variation), and

. -not minimal pairs (as with contrastive phonemes)

Q: Can you see a pattern in where [n] and [ñ] occur?

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• Observation:The palatal nasal [ñ] always occurs right before the palatal glide [j],and the alveolar nasal [n] never occurs in that position.

→ This sort of pattern is a complementary distribution

DEFINITION: Complementary Distribution

Two sounds, X and Y, are in complementary distribution if theyonly occur in complementary (i.e., non-overlapping) environments

/n/

[n ][ñ] j

• {ñ, n} are allophonic variants of the underlying phoneme /n/. i.e., {ñ, n} are allophones of a single underlying phoneme

DEFINITION: Allophones

Two sounds, X and Y, are allophones of a single underlyingphoneme if. (i) they are non-contrastive (i.e., there are no minimal pairs). (ii) they occur in complementary distribution

• We represent allophonic variation. using context-sensitive rewrite rules:

English:. /n/→ [ñ]/mm j. /n/→ [n] elsewhere

/mm j represents the phonological context that the rule applies in

ANALOGY: Allophones and Complementary Distribution

Are there two distinct lizards,. or just two surface variations of a single lizard?

If you encounter a minimal pair like this,. then they’re probably different lizards

But if you only ever see a red lizard in the red bowl,. and a green lizard on the green leaf.... ...they’re probably the same underlying lizard!

→ If you only ever see sound X in context A,. and sound Y in context B (where context A and B don’t overlap).... ...they’re probably the same underlying phoneme

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Section Summary

Pairs of sound segments can differ according to whether they are

1. Contrastive: Distinct Phonemes

2. Non-Contrastive: Free Variants, Allophonic Variants

A language can also lack a contrast if there is no variation at all(i.e., one or both halves of the pair doesn’t appear in the languageat all)

• What is our model of the (phonological component of) grammar?

• Components:

1. Phonemic Inventory:. The set of contrastive sound units in a language

2. Phonological Rules

(a) Context-Free X→ Y(b) Context-Sensitive X→ Y / W mmmZ

→ Phonetic Inventory: The set of sound units in a language

3 Practice Identifying Allophonic Patterns

• Question: What is the distribution of sound X (and sound Y)?

• Hypothesis: Sounds X and Y are (4 options)

(1) in a contrastive distribution (i.e., are distinct phonemes)

(2) in free variation (i.e., are free variants)

(3) in an allophonic variation (i.e., are allophones)

(4) non-contrastive due to lack of variation

• How can we differentiate between these hypotheses?. → They make different empirical predictions!

• If sounds X and Y are

(1) in a contrastive distribution (i.e., are distinct phonemes)→Prediction: We can find minimal pairs

(2) in free variation (i.e., are free variants)→ Prediction: Swapping the sounds results in the same meaning

(3) in an allophonic variation (i.e., are allophones)→ Prediction: They are in complementary distribution

(4) non-contrastive due to lack of variation→ Prediction: Either/both X and Y don’t occur in the language

3.1 Case Study: Cantonese Diphthongs

(13) a. [g2w3] ”enough”

b. [gaw3] ”teach”

c. [tS2w3] ”stinky”

d. [tSaw2] ”stir-fried”

e. [maj5] ”buy”

f. [m2j5] ”rice (uncooked)”

g. [saj3] ”excessive”

h. [s2j3] ”small”

(The numbers indicate tones, 1=high level, 2=high rising, 3=mid level, 4=low falling, 5=low rising, 6=low level)

STUDENT QUESTIONS

1. Are [aw] and [2w] separate phonemes, or allophones?

2. Are [aj] and [2j] separate phonemes, or allophones?

3. Can you describe the distribution of the pairs using context-freerewrite rules?. If so, provide the rule.. If not, explain why.

4. Can you describe the distribution of the pairs using context-sensitive rewrite rules?. If so, provide the rule.. If not, explain why.

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3.2 Case Study: Japanese Fricatives

(14) a. [sakana] ”fish”

b. [aSita] ”tomorrow”

c. [sukoSi] ”little bit”

d. [senaka] ”back”

e. [soko] ”there”

f. [asa] ”morning”

g. [Sigoto] ”work”

h. [tesuto] ”test”

i. [Siawase] ”happy”

j. [soSite] ”then”

STUDENT QUESTIONS

1. Are [s] and [S] separate phonemes, or allophones of a singlephoneme?

2. Can you describe the distribution of the sounds using context-freerewrite rules?. If so, provide the rule.. If not, explain why.

3. Can you describe the distribution of the sounds using context-sensitive rewrite rules?. If so, provide the rule.. If not, explain why.

How to Approach Allophone/Phoneme Problems:

Step 1 Look for minimal pairs (evidence of phonemes)- none in this data set.

Step 2 Try to establish complementary distribution(evidence of allophony)

2a: Make a chart of where [s] occurs vs where [S] occurs

2b: Try to generalize over the environments for each sound

Environments where [s] occurs Environments where [S] occurs# makana amita# mukoSi suko i#menaka sukomi#moko #miawaseamsa somitetemuto #migotoSiawame#moSite

3.3 Case Study: Canadian English (Canadian Raising)

(15) [aw] VS [2w]

a. [kh2wtS] ”couch”

b. [thawn] ”town”

c. [bôaw] ”brow”

d. [2wt] ”out”

e. [@lawz] ”allows”

f. [lawd] ”loud”

g. [ph2wt] ”pout”

h. [@ôawnd] ”around”

i. [h2ws] ”houseN”

j. [m2wT] ”mouthN”

(16) [aj] VS [2j]

a. [kh2jt] ”kite”

b. [thajm] ”time”

c. [baj] ”buy”

d. [b2jt] ”bite”

e. [lajz] ”lies”

f. [lajd] ”lied”

g. [ph2jp] ”pipe”

h. [ôajnd] ”rind”

i. [m2js] ”mice”

j. [m2jt] ”might”

Describe the distribution of [aw] VS [2w] and [aj] VS [2j]. - provide rewrite rules if they are appropriate.

ReferencesLadefoged, Peter. 2001. A course in phonetics. 4th edition. Orlando: Harcourt College Publishers.

Thornes, Timothy Jon. 2003. A northern paiute grammar with texts: University of Oregon dissertation.

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