1 organisations and communication

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Organisations andCommunication


Communication as a process

message

media

sender

audience

context

noise, distortion

Organisational functioning

Human initiation, interaction, interpretation and impact

Coordination

Control

Adoption of technical devices

Organisational functioning

Human initiation, interaction, interpretation and impact

Coordination

Control

Adoption of technical devices

A process which conveys information and meaning (consensus or otherwise) between senders and recipients

A process which conveys information and meaning (consensus or otherwise) between senders and recipients


Hard and soft communications

What is being communicated?

Content and process

Functional information & coordinates Policies, procedures, programmes, targets Transaction processing - documents, data, flows,

processing, records & rules Allocations, budgets & budgeting Grape vine & rumour Mgt information, analysis & reports

Complexity, certainty, timeliness, accuracy, completeness

Vertical, lateral & networked up/down, cascade, mining, filtering

Feelings based communication

Sensitive data - confidentiality, privacy, intellectual capital

Enterprise intelligence & the K-based organisation

Oi, Hello, is there

anybody there


Information flows (manufacturing) & supply chain

Government

CompetitorsCustomers

Regulatorybodies

Legalenvironment

Suppliers

AccountingStandards Stock exchange

Shareholders

Marketing

Sales

Design

Purchasing

Inward logistics

Production planningProduction control

Quality control

Delivery

Finance

After-sales

orders

orders

Relationshipmanagement

invoices

payments

share prices

dividends

design informationmarket research data

JITdata

intelligencedata

invoices

orders

delivery notes


Perceptual, conceptual & related capacities

Perceptual - Sensing, measuring, judging Colour, sound, texture, smell. Interpreting smells, noises, signals Monitoring sounds, vibrations, data, information Frames of reference - vantage point

Conceptual - associating, abstracting, formulating, calculating, inferring Understanding processes in the abstract Hypothesising & predicting from associated, comparative information Depends on knowledge - range, depth and level Dealing with symbolic information

Relating - Ego & alter oriented: Needs for achievement, power, affiliation sensitivity & empathy, identification & association, objective-subjective,

attitudes & valuesPhysical

Storage, access, processing & transmission capacity, security, privacy


Perception

Context

Stimulus strength

Selective

Horns, halo

Expectancy & predisposition

Wishful thinking

Stereotyping & distortion


Changing Impressions


Modelling some elements of perception

Nature and content of stimulus

Sensationawareness

select & group to form precept

store

constancy rulesconstancy rules

Rules ofselectionRules ofselection

contiguity formcontiguity form

scan

previous experienceprevious experience

store

scan

match

YesRecogniseAh Ha!

YesRecogniseAh Ha!

inner needs inner needs

self-conceptself-concept

cultureculturevaluesvalues

rolerolemind setmind set

mental statemental statesituationsituationWhat a

re the pro

blems

of this ty

pe of

explanation??

What are th

e problems

of this ty

pe of

explanation??


Johari Window (Luft 1961)

What Isee inme

What Isee inme

What Idon't see in me

What Idon't see in me

What you see in meWhat you see in me What you do not see in meWhat you do not see in me

Open self open, known information & understanding

Open self open, known information & understanding

Private self Private self

Blind self Blind self

UnknownNeither has much information or insight

UnknownNeither has much information or insight

Leakage, disclosureLeakage, disclosure

Feedback, disclosureFeedback, disclosure


Communications effectiveness?

Market Research Who are we selling to?

Who else is selling to our customers

Competitively? Non-competitively?

Who are our customers selling to?

How do we sell?

How effectively?

How much?

How do our customers buy?

What do they buy from us?

When & where?

Why?

Why do we sell what we do?

Communication research How do we communicate to our customers?

What do we communicate?

How do they see us, our products, services?

Trust, reliability, mutuality

What information do they want and need that we are not giving?

How can we improve our information sharing relationships?

Diagnosis of problems, joint solutions, advisory & consultancy services

Value-added, Quality and Just-in-time

Benchmarking & competitive superiority

Mutual increases in profitability

Security and safety

Marketing information system effectiveness


Marketing Communication Model

CommunicationChannels• Promotion mix• Advertising• Personal selling• Sales promotion• PublicityOther elements• Product, sourcing of

supply, brand, package, price,

• Distribution• Hard & soft data &

information

Promotion budget,

objectives, messages

Results• sales• communication• attitudes

MarketerTx

ConsumerAudiences

Rx

Its not the productit’s the presentationIts not the productit’s the presentation


Communication and Purchase Order Processing/Buying

Data collection and evaluation to analysing requirements

Decide features, quantity and quality

Specification and tendering

Sourcing and supplier appraisal

Contracting and purchase method

Order routines and transactions

Delivery scheduling & receiving

Accounts payable processing

Auditing

Supplier collaborations

Evaluation of performance

Data flowsSources/sinksData storesProcessesEvents acting on

Data flowsSources/sinksData storesProcessesEvents acting on

Communication

between

marketing &

sales?

Communication

between

marketing &

sales? Wisdom/expertise

Knowledge

Information

Capta

Data

Wisdom/expertise

Knowledge

Information

Capta

Data

Checkland & HowellsCheckland & Howells


Communications elements

codecode

idea meaning

decodedecode

channel/mediachannel/media

methodmethod

receiverreceiversendersender


Communications elements (Shannon & Weaver)

Code

facts, opinions, emotions, intentions

evaluation of Rx

facts, opinions, emotions, intentions

evaluation of Rx

channel - method/mediumchannel - method/medium

Noise: physical, psychologicalNoise: physical, psychological

Tx RxDecode

Perception of Tx & the information, opinions,

predispositions, impressions,

capacities

Perception of Tx & the information, opinions,

predispositions, impressions,

capacities

Purposes Simplex, half-duplex, duplex Complexity of information & GIGO Situational factors Channel capacities & audience Selectivity (out/in filtering) Sequencing (good news/bad news) Feedback

Purposes Simplex, half-duplex, duplex Complexity of information & GIGO Situational factors Channel capacities & audience Selectivity (out/in filtering) Sequencing (good news/bad news) Feedback

Symbols

Rules for use

Technology

Culture

Symbols

Rules for use

Technology

Culture

Other Barriers

Richness of medium

Message overload

Message formulation

Perception

Other Barriers

Richness of medium

Message overload

Message formulation

Perception


Social interaction elements

What is said and tone of voice Eye contact Posture and body contact Proximity and positioning Physical appearance Facial movements and gestures

What is said and tone of voice Eye contact Posture and body contact Proximity and positioning Physical appearance Facial movements and gestures

FeedbackFeedback

B's social behaviour

A's social behaviour

Person Aperceptionpersonalitymotivationattitudes

Person Bperceptionpersonalitymotivationattitudes

FeedbackFeedback

Situational factors e.g. history,role requirements, norms, ideology, place, technology

Situational factors e.g. history,role requirements, norms, ideology, place, technology


Send reinforcements. We're going to advance!

Confused presentation

Differences in status

Affective relationships

Unfamiliar language

Noise - physical/environmental, psychological

Assumptions and interpretations

Overload

Interpersonal tension

Known from

experience. Is

there any

need to re

search this

further?

Known from

experience. Is

there any

need to re

search this

further?


Grapevine and rumour

Personal promotion

Safety valves, fears, anxieties & fantasies

Natural speculation and prophesy, wishful thinking

Power of being 'in the know'

Informal or underground channel (unattributed sources)

Spin doctoring & leaks

Political - shaping and positioning

Dirty tricks, misinformation, wedge-drivers

Unverified, uncertainty, emotional resilience

MustMust

ShouldShould

Nice toNice to


Channel characteristics

half-duplex channelhalf-duplex channel

one way onlyone way only

simplex channelsimplex channel

two way but not at the same timetwo way but not at the same time

Full-duplex channelFull-duplex channel

Both ways at the same timeBoth ways at the same time


Take your partners for a negotiation

Point in need of balance

Point in need of balance

ActualstanceActualstance

ActualstanceActualstance

ObjectiveObjective

ObjectiveObjective

Opening or statedstance




Suspicion & Face. NAch, NControl, NAffl

Distributive, integrative & intra-organisational bargaining

Rapid, analytical thinking; objective, neutral, self-resilient, cool, patient

empathy & tact, clarifying, targeting, confidence & trust

problem analysis, listening, questioning

Strategy, tactics.

Adjourning & reformulating. Win-win, win-lose.

Suspicion & Face. NAch, NControl, NAffl

Distributive, integrative & intra-organisational bargaining

Rapid, analytical thinking; objective, neutral, self-resilient, cool, patient

empathy & tact, clarifying, targeting, confidence & trust

problem analysis, listening, questioning

Strategy, tactics.

Adjourning & reformulating. Win-win, win-lose.


Impression management

Self-image- the way I

thinkI am

Self-image- the way I

thinkI am

Ideal Self- the way I would like

to be

Ideal Self- the way I would like

to be

Real Self- the way

I am

Real Self- the way

I am

Mirror Self- the way I think others

see me

Mirror Self- the way I think others

see me

Group membershipLife-stylesStereotypic & premature judgment

Group membershipLife-stylesStereotypic & premature judgment


Task & Maintenance Functions in Groups

Task Functions Maintenance functions

Initiating Harmonising

Opinion seeking Compromising

Opinion giving Gate-keeping (opening/closing)

Information seeking Encouraging

Information giving Diagnosing

Clarifying Standard setting

Elaborating Standard testing

Summarising

Consensus testing undermining processes?


Meetings and agendas

Advisory meeting

Command

Committee

Negotiating

Collegiate

Membership

Purposes

Interactive processes

Expectations

Information sharing & processing

Authority

Accountability

Agenda setting

Membership

Purposes

Interactive processes

Expectations

Information sharing & processing

Authority

Accountability

Agenda setting

Planning

Pre-notification

Preparation

Processing

Recording

Planning

Pre-notification

Preparation

Processing

Recording


Observing meeting processes?

Chair person

Abdicates position?

Clarifies problem or decision?

Summarises or relates topic?

Asks for, supplies information?

Guides or controls discussion?

Protects minority, low participators?

Gate opening/closing?

Balances discussion?

Reflects feelings?

Expresses own views?

Members

Encourage others, conciliating

Ask questions

Supply ideas, information

Tension release, humour

Review or summarise

Help to guide discussion

Disrupt, interjection, hold the ball, snubbing, antagonism, exasperation

Sleep, low participators

Criticise after the meeting

Members

Encourage others, conciliating

Ask questions

Supply ideas, information

Tension release, humour

Review or summarise

Help to guide discussion

Disrupt, interjection, hold the ball, snubbing, antagonism, exasperation

Sleep, low participators

Criticise after the meeting


Non-verbal communication

Body contact & proximity (acceptable, expected, taboos, cultural norms)

Posture (attitudes, orientation)

Head nods, Gutterals and grunts

Facial expressions (control? misinterpret?)

Gestures (supportive, emphatic, defensive, aggressive)

Eye contact (acknowledgement, stare)

Appearance & self-presentation

Non-verbal speech - tone, pitch, stress

Content of speech - imperatives & power words, questions

Signalling Interpretation

meaning

Synchronisation

Feedback

Attentiveness

Interpersonal reaction

Emotional states

Replacement of verbals

Signalling Interpretation

meaning

Synchronisation

Feedback

Attentiveness

Interpersonal reaction

Emotional states

Replacement of verbals

How are these

developed & nurtu

red?

How are these

developed & nurtu

red?


Communication & New Organisational Imperatives

Flat, lean organisations stripped to the core essentials

Absence of hierarchy

Stick to the knitting, non-core, support functions are outsourced

Project team culture - temporary 'structures'

Distributed groups - brought together for particular projects

Connected by ICTs and work collaboratively

Fast reaction to environmental changes

Empowered, autonomous, enthusiastic people

A Learning Organisation?


Towards the Virtual Organisation?

Discuss the following assumptions

1.All required messages can be transmitted electronically.

2.Most people are willing to use E-forms of communication.

3.An increase in e-communication links overcomes barriers to communication and improves participation.

4.E-networking enables more autonomous & flexible working.

5.Work using communication technologies support the achievement of management goals

Symon G, 2000, Information & communication technologies and the networked organisation - a critical analysis, J. of Occupational & Organisational Psychology 73 (4)

Symon G, 2000, Information & communication technologies and the networked organisation - a critical analysis, J. of Occupational & Organisational Psychology 73 (4)


Skills of Interviewing

Key skill & activity for managers

Cognition/information processing

Perception (selective)

Preparation, enactment, interpretation

Problem-analysis & decision-making (managerial behaviour)

Information generated through the interview provides data for decision-making

Proposition: training enhances performance – both as an interviewer and interviewee

More than just a conversation

"…. A specific form of two-way communication conducted for a task-related purpose."


Interview Experience

What is the best & worst experience that you have had

As an interviewer?

As an interviewee?

What made these experiences – best/worst?

What would have prevented & improved the worst experience?


Types of interview

Research/information gathering

Selection

Counselling/support

Appraisal

Development

Complaint/grievance

Disciplinary

Exit

Research/information gathering

Selection

Counselling/support

Appraisal

Development

Complaint/grievance

Disciplinary

Exit

Approaches & situations

Unstructured

Semi-structured

Structured

Fixed question

One-to-one

Group

On-line

Stress (validity?)

Private, public (e.g.press, radio, TV)

Approaches & situations

Unstructured

Semi-structured

Structured

Fixed question

One-to-one

Group

On-line

Stress (validity?)

Private, public (e.g.press, radio, TV)


Issues

Role as an actor, trigger, interpreter, decision-maker/actor

Interview objectives

Structure & content

Environment (physical & psychological)

Interviewer and interviewee – NPower, NAch, NAffiliation

Data collection & processing strategies

Communication exchange (interviewer-interviewee) – explicit, implicit, verbal & non-verbal

Objectivity-subjectivity

Social action interpretation

Story-telling


Selection Interview

Psychometric-Objective Assumptions

Eternal optimism

Smooth programmed administration

Measured, controlled, predictable, systematic search often using psychometric techniques

Match evidence of qualities to job

Compare with social process approach

Interplay between selection events

Social & ritual aspects. Audition. Power vetting

Candidate & selector feelings/responses

Intra organisational negotiation & adjustment

Candidate - given fair opportunity


The GASP Interview

Greeting

Acquiring Information

Supplying Information

Parting

Interviewer Preparation


Genuine positive regard – Move towards

Calm, neutral, no interruptions, safe.

Maintain rapport

seating voice, eye contact, warmth and body posture.....NVC

Preparation & “contract of interest & expectation”

Smooth gear change

GASP – Greeting & rapport


Listen more - talk less.

Objectivity, bias, stereotyping & premature judgement

Not adversarial.

Halo, horns and doppleganger

Taking notes

Questioning & preparation

well-structured, open questions closed probe & link direct, leading, intrusive trick and taboo questions

Mental agility

Interview flow & control

Summarising and closure

GASP - Acquiring Information

Strategies

• Frank & friendly

• Interrogation & stress

• Biographical journey

• Problem-scenario

• Individual & panel

Strategies

• Frank & friendly

• Interrogation & stress

• Biographical journey

• Problem-scenario

• Individual & panel


cutting it short (horns/halo, premature judgement)

equal opportunity to all candidates

intimation of acceptance (verbal + non-verbal)

potential for misunderstanding. No promises.

communicating a decision

hints to attractive candidates (in a competitive situation)

intra-organisational bargaining

the decision in writing

subject to references

Career advice to rejected candidates? Culture?

GASP: Supplying Information


signal closure - NVC plus

maintain concentration

clarify future steps - the selection schedule

verify

dates - holidays and availabilities

phone, post

stand up, move, parting courtesies

GASP: Parting


Anderson and Shackleton, Successful Selection Interviewing, Blackwell, 1993 pp 69

“Utilised properly; depending on its exact purpose, the interview emerges as a valid reliable tool in candidate assessment. ..... its flexibility to .... as a medium for mutual preview or as a final stage for negotiation between the parties, renders the interview more useful in selection than narrowly focused definitions of validity & reliability can convey”

Reliability?


Premature decision

tentative pre-determined views seldom altered at interview

accept/reject within 3-4 min. Evidence to confirm first impression

Weak candidates make average candidates look good

Propositions

practice alone does not improve performance

training and performance review does

The drama may not reflect the job

Panel interviews - defer to influential members

Poor correlation of views when choice is confidential

Psycho tests - strong, belief and practice (cf: evidence).

Validity and Reliability Issues


Types of interview – Appraisal

Appraisal interview

One person (usually a manager) appraises job performance of another (usually a subordinate) meeting with them to review, give feedback, evaluate and target

Approaches

Tell

Tell and listen

Tell and sell

Joint problem-solving

Mixed model interview

360 degree


The appraisal process

Establishing the agenda

Pre-interview form filling

The Interview

Action planning

Handling disagreements e.g. grand parenting

Establishing the agenda

Pre-interview form filling

The Interview

Action planning

Handling disagreements e.g. grand parenting

Manager as counsellor – skilled?

Operational vs. personal counselling

Directive Non-directive

Dependency, confusion & responsibility

Trust & genuine positive regard

Mixed strategy - unstructured component

Opening up & expressing concerns (both)

Defining "problems" & how interviewee sees them

Testing reality & assumptions

Support

Closure & follow-up


Types of Interviews – COMPLAINT/GRIEVANCE

Moan, gripe, complaint

Grievance - a formal complaint made by an employee against a colleague or the organisation

Problems of "policy and procedure"

Problem perception, information and power/status

I'm OK, You're not OK. "Now I've got you, you SOS"

Neutral processing

Rescue the managers & establish KARMA

Verifying the claim right

Importance of shared, agreed information

Procedural safeguards, formality of interview

Recognising "the person" - perception of self & acting on the problem

Equity – complainant and the "accused" – discrimination issue

Verifying the claim right

Importance of shared, agreed information

Procedural safeguards, formality of interview

Recognising "the person" - perception of self & acting on the problem

Equity – complainant and the "accused" – discrimination issue


Types of interview – DISCIPLINE - 1

Disciplinary action Formally sanctioned,

organisational action. Individual informed that work-related behaviour is not acceptable.

Rights not to be unfairly dismissed

Natural justice & reasonableness in procedure

"Fair" dismissal"Conduct, capability, redundancy, statutory rule, some other big reason

Informal, prior supervisory communication & guidance

Minor conduct counter to contract

Gross misconduct (severed root)

Importance of evidence

Defendant rights – law & natural justice

Equitable procedure

Formal, systematic interviews

Representation

Corrective versus punitive action

Interview tension, reaction & "afront"

Recording &communication

Importance of evidence

Defendant rights – law & natural justice

Equitable procedure

Formal, systematic interviews

Representation

Corrective versus punitive action

Interview tension, reaction & "afront"

Recording &communication


Dissertation Ideas

The management of sales communications

Communicating & managing redundancies

Auditing organisational communication

Counselling and mentoring

The phenomenon of email

Communicating corporate strategy - case investigation

Communication for new product research

Environmental management and public relations

Brand communication and evaluation

Training and self-improvement for interviewing

1 organisations and communication

Documents